Y2 Anat

what % of cleft lip cases are associated with cleft palate

50%

trapezius

2 large triangular muscles extending over the back of the neck and shoulders, moving the head and shoulder blade

Meat LLOAF

Median nerve supplies lateral lumbricals, opponens pollicis, adductor pollicis brevis, flexor pollicis brevis

which fascia binds the thyroid gland to the trachea?

pretracheal fascia

venae comitantes

a pair of veins (occasionally more) which closely accompany an artery in such that the pulsations of the artery aid venous return

major function of cerebellum is?

coordinating movements - more neurones there than in the rest of CNS put together

tarsus

ankle / heel / upper foot bones

which structure is found either side of the third ventricle?

diencephalon (mainly the thalamus)

otorrhoea

discharge from the external ear

which kind of cartilage covers the glenoid?

articular

when does rotation of the scapula begin during abduction?

beyond 90 degrees

GABA C receptor is insensitive to what?

bicuculline

coloboma

a hole in one of the structures of the eye, such as the iris, retina, choroid or optic disc

what forms the floor of the cubital fossa

brachialis

which muscle arises from anterior shaft of humerus to insert into the tuberosity of the ulna (coronoid process)

brachialis

deep facial vein

connects the pterygoid venous plexus to the anterior facial vein

how are the tibia and fibula held together?

proximal and distal tibiofibular joints (ant + post tibio-fibular ligaments), and interosseus membrane

which is more lateral, tibia or fibula?

fibula

which is more posterior, foramen rotundum or superior orbital fissure

foramen rotundum

orbital process of frontal bone

frontal bone projects intercranially on left and right to form upper parts of left + right orbit

which bones make up the vault of the skull

frontal, parietal, occipital, squamous temporal, flattened part of sphenoid

which bones around the nose contain air sinuses?

frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, maxilla

transverse intermuscular septum

septum between the superficial and deep muscles posterior compartment of the leg. connected to the margins of the tibia and fibula

brevis in latin means?

short

name the ligaments which join the femur to the hip bone

iliofemoral, ischiofemoral, zona orbicularis and pubofemoral

floor of femoral triangle

iliopsoas and pectineus

tensor fasciae latae insertion

iliotibial tract, below greater trochanter

gluteus medius origin

ilium - between posterior + anterior gluteal lines

gluteus maximus origin

ilium, between iliac crest + posterior gluteal line. lower sacrum, upper coccyx, and sacrotuberus ligament

3 sections of the innominate bone

ilium, ischium, pubis

ulnar paradox

injuring the ulnar nerve at elbow actually appears less deformed(less claw hand) than if injured at the wrist - despite the damage being worse.

boutonniere deformity

injury/inflammation tears central slip of extensor digitorum, such that it separates and the head of the proximal phalanx pops through the gap (like a buttonhole)

which layer of the eyeball contains the photoreceptors?

inner layer of eyeball wall; the retina

superior gemellus insertion

inner surface of greater trochanter with obturator internus + inferior gemellus

which cords of the brachial plexus are destined to supply flexors?

lateral and medial cords

name the distal continuation of the musculotaneous nerve into the forearm

lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve AKA lateral cutaneous nerve of the forearm

dorsal tubercle radius

small prominence on dorsal aspect of distal radius, lateral to the groove for the extensor pollicis longus tendon. serves as a trochlea (pulley) for the tendon

how do the flexor digitorum superficialis tendons insert?

splits into two slips at PIP, and inserts into the proximal end of each medial phalaynx

describe adduction in the hand

spreading out of the fingers

name 4 parts of temporal bone

squamous (flat, forms vault), mastoid process (felt behind ear), styloid process (needle sticking down in front of ext. aud. meatus), petrous (very hard internal skull base bone)

name the part of the occipital bone posterior to the foramen magnum

squamous part of occipital bone

name the part of the occipital bone which is behind the foramen magnum

squamous part of occipital bone

how do you check for a ruptured achilles tendon?

squeeze triceps surae (the major calf muscles which insert into the tendon). plantar flexor should occur - if not there is a rupture

what is the most important function of the coracoclavicular ligament?

stabilising AC joint - retaining the clavicle in contact with the acromion

corticospinal tract

pyramidal tract of upper motoneurons from cerebral cortex to spinal cord. most important descending motor tract; controlling contralateral muscles.

quadratus femoris insertion

quadrate tubercle on back of greater trochanter

which auditory ossicle is *not* formed by the maxillary prominence?

stapes. formed by reichert's cartilage (pharyngeal arch 2)

name the joint between the clavicle and the manubrium

sternoclavicular joint

which joint is the only true articulation between the trunk and the pectoral girdle?

sternoclavicular joint

in clavicle fractures, which muscle pulls the medial half up?

sternocleidomastoid

scissor walking

stiffness/spasticity in ankles - as if you're walking points of scissors across a table. sign of UMN lesion

transverse ligament of the atlas

strong band which arches across the ring of the atlas, and holds the odontoid process in place from behind

clavipectoral fascia

strong fascia situated deep to pec major, in the interval between pec minor and subclavius. protects the axillary vessels and nerves

fibular collateral ligament

strong fibrous band from femur to head of fibula (lateral side of knee joint)

radial collateral ligament (elbow)

strong ligament/group of ligaments on lateral aspect of elbow. stabilizes joint in many ways (annular ligament =part of this ligament)

axillary artery is a continuation of which artery?

subclavian artery

vertebral arteries are branches of?

subclavian artery

which key structures can be damaged /compressed by a cervical rib?

subclavian vessels + brachial plexus; particularly lower nerve roots (weakens small muscles of hand) together called *thoracic outlet syndrome*

neostriatum

subcortical part of forebrain; important input within the basal ganglia formed from the caudate and putamen

short saphenous vein

subcutaneous vein of the posterior/lateral lower leg

which is usually more extensive, subdural or extradural haemorrhage?

subdural

femoral triangle

subfascial space in inner thigh; appears as a triangular depression inferior to the inguinal ligament

which one eye muscle is innervated by the trochlear nerve?

superior oblique

substantia nigra

layer of deeply pigmented grey matter in midbrain, involved in metabolic disturbances associated with Parkinson's + Huntington's disease

name the 3 bony processes from the vertebral arch

left + right transverse processes, and spinal process

putamen and globus pallidus together are called what?

lentiform nucleus

thalamic syndrome

lesions causes by stroke etc most often cause an initial lack of sensation/tingling contralaterally. weeks later, this can develop into severe + chronic pain all over contralateral body, so bad as to cause suicide

insertion of psoas major

lesser trochanter

abductor pollicis longus

lies below supinator in posterior lateral forearm. abducts the thumb

bankart lesion

tear of the anterior glenoid labrum due to shoulder dislocation. forms a pocket at the front of glenoid that allows the humeral head to dislocate into it

hallux

the big toe

which two major openings for blood vessels are found medial to the temporal styloid process

the carotid canal (passing forwards) and jugular foramen (passing backwards)

what obscures the dorsal surface of the pons?

the cerebellum

what does 'buccal' mean in latin?

the cheek

which structures move in acromioclavicular joint seperation?

the clavicle in fact remans where it was - but the entire shoulder girdle drops with the weight of the arm

the floor of popliteal fossa

the knee joint capsule (covered by posterior oblique ligament and popliteus muscle) + femur

the forearm extensor muscles superficial layer all arise from where?

the lateral epicondyle

which arteries feed the internal capsule in the brain?

the lateral striate arteries

which brain ventricle(s) produce the most CSF?

the lateral ventricles

which parts of the nose and orbit does the maxilla form?

the lateral wall of the nose, and the floor of the orbit

what part of the nasal cavity is formed by the ethmoid bone?

the lateral walls and the perpendicular plate

the short head of the biceps runs medial to which tubercle?

the lesser tubercle of humerus

where does the tendon of the subscapularis insert?

the lesser tubercle of humerus

which main part of the pinna has no fibrocartilagenous support?

the lobule

which part of the malleus attaches to the interior tympanic membrane?

the long handle

which head of the biceps runs between the bicipital groove?

the long head (the short head takes the shortcut medial to lesser tubercle)

where does the teres major arise from?

the lower lateral border of the posterior surface of the scapular blade

when chewing on one side of mouth , how is bite force increased?

the mandible transfers force such that muscles on *both side of face* are used

what articulates with the medial end of the clavicle?

the manubrium

what forms the margins of the superior thoracic aperture

the manubrium, the first ribs, their costal cartilages, and the body of T1 vertebra

what does the linea aspera divide into inferiorly?

the medial and lateral supracondylar lines

the serratus anterior holds which border of the scapula against the chest wall?

the medial border

in development, what fuses to form the intermaxillary process?

the medial nasal processes

through the foramen magnum, the spinal cord is continuous with what?

the medulla

spinal meninges

the membranes that envelope + protect the CNS. consist of three layers: dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater

name the most rostral part of the brainstem

the midbrain

what is the scapula region?

the scapula and the muscles which sandwich it

what forms the base of the axilla?

the skin of the armpit

axial skeleton

the skull and spinal column and sternum and ribs

joint congruence

the surfaces of a joint are equal; their 3D shapes fit perfectly (usually allows for a stable joint but less degrees of freedom)

what is the most superficial structure *within* the popliteal fossa?

the tibial nerve

what are the lateral and medial menisci

the two c shaped fibrocartilages attached to the medial and lateral condyles of the proxial tibia

what should you be able to see when observing through an auriscope?

the tympanic membrane; the malleus (long handle), post&ant malleolar folds, flaccid part of membrane between them, and a reflected cone of light

why is claw hand more pronounced in medial 2 fingers

they have no median nerve innervation

obturator membrane

thin fibrous sheet which almost completely closes the obturator foramen

vomer

thin trapezoidal bone of the skull forming the posterior and inferior parts of the nasal septum

which superficial vessel drains the medial aspect of the foot

long saphenous vein

spinal shock

loss of sensation accompanied by motor paralysis with initial loss but gradual recovery of reflexes, following a spinal cord injury

peroneus tertius origin

lower 1/4 anterior fibula

name the two distal projections of the femur

medial and lateral condyle

which nerve innervates flexors of the forearm and thenar muscles

median

masseter

muscle that runs through the rear part of the cheek from the temporal bone to the lower jaw - raises (hence closes) lower jaw in chewing

submandibular space is below which muscle?

mylohyoid

meckel's cartilage

on each side of jaw, form hyaline cartilagenous bar of mandibular arch

what key actions do fontanelles enable?

movement of skull bones. useful in birth canal, when they can deform/squeeze smaller, and during childhood (expanding to accomodate growing brain)

function of buccinator?

moves food from check + between teeth (cleans teeth) and acts as a valve that prevents air forcing into the parotid duct, which runs through it

which ACh receptors are inhibitory?

muscarinic receptors 2 and 4

discribe hyperextension in the fingers

over extension at the joints - eg bending fingers back

does the brachial plexus pass over or under the first rib and clavicle?

over first rib and under clavicle

which disease makes the vault bones look like cotton wool?

pagets disease

pontine nuclei

part of the pons involved in motor activity - millions of nuclei. fibres from them send across to the cerebellum

quadrate ligament

part of the proximal radioulnar joint. joins to inferior border of radial notch on ulna and to neck of radius

what does the squamous temporal bone form in the medial cranial fossa?

part of the side wall (extends on into cranial vault)

how does popliteus enter the knee joint?

passes through a hole in the knee capsule

when discussing the foot, which term can be used instead of inferior?

plantar

nasion

point at the bridge of the nose where the frontal and nasal bones of the skull meet

are the rotator cuff muscles posterior or anterior to the shoulder joint?

posterior

where do you palpate the posterior tibial artery pulse?

posterior and inferior to medial malleolus

posterior axillary fold

posterior boundary of axilla consisting of latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles

which artery supplies the thalamus

posterior cerebral artery

diencephalon

posterior part of the forebrain, containing the epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and ventral thalamus and the third ventricle

flexor digitorum longus origin

posterior surface of tibia

examples of foetal alcohol syndrome facial defects

thin upper lip • rounded, indistinct philtrum • midface flat (hypoplasia). short upturned nose - flat nasal bridge • Small palpebral fissures (eyelids) • Epicanthal folds (upper eyelid) • Microcephaly (small head) • Micrognathia (small chin)

how is neurogenesis linked to depression?

things which decrease neurogenesis are known to increase depression

why do more nuclei project from the visual cortex to the lateral geniculate nucleus than the other way around?

this is unknown

flexor digitorum longus nerve supply

tibial nerve

vastus lateralis insertion

tibial tuberosity via patella

torsion

tortuous and twisted shape or position

where does herpes zoster lie latent

trigeminal and dorsal root ganglia

name the Vth cranial nerve

trigeminal nerve

describe the arteries in the hands

two 'arches' (superficial and deep) formed from anastomoses of radial and ulnar arteries. branch into palmar digital arteries

pronator teres

two-headed forearm muscle; serves to pronate the forearm

biceps brachii

two-headed upper arm muscle arising from the scapula (coracoid process/supraglenoid tubercle) and attaches to elbow (radial tuberosity/bicipital aponeurosis

lateral wall of middle ear

tympanic membrane

which bone lines most of the external auditory meatus

tympanic plate of temporal bone

volar ganglion

type of ganglion cyst located on the 'volar' (palmar) side of the wrist

mucous cyst

type of tiny ganglion cyst at distal interphalangeal joint. causes growth deformity eg nail plate depression and grooves

which nerve is the continuation of the medial cord of brachial plexus?

ulnar

what is the largest unprotected (by muscle or bone) nerve in the body?

ulnar nerve

which nerve supplies flexor carpi ulnaris?

ulnar nerve

tibialis anterior origin

upper half of lateral tibia

gracilis insertion

upper medial tibia

sartorius insertion

upper medial tibia

plantaris action

weak plantarflexor at ankle (vestigial structure

can CNS neurons regenerate into PNS grafts?

yes

do lymph vessels have valves?

yes (lots!) except none in lymph capillaries

cubital fossa

'elbow pit' containing median nerve, brachial artery, biceps tendon

5 types of glia in CNS

1.Astrocytes 2. Oligo- dendrocy tes 3. Microglia 4. Ependyma 5. NG2 cells

how many lobules are found in the cerebellum?

10 (roman numerals - 'H' prefix used to refer specifically to hemispheral part)

cerebellum forms what % of total brain volume?

10%

rectus femoris origin

Anterior *inferior* iliac spine

functions of clavicle

assists shoulder movement. transmits force from upper limb to thorax. only bony connection

soleus origin

back of head + upper 1/3 shaft of fibula. middle 1/3 medial border tibia

what type of joint connects the incus to the stapes?

ball and socket

pectineus origin

base of pubis

dorsiflexion

bending backward

where is the acromio-clavicular joint?

between the acromion process of the scapula and the clavicle

3 anterior muscles of arm

biceps brachii, brachialis, coracobrachialis

the two main supinator muscles of forearm

biceps brachii, supinator

which is the only muscle which can produce lateral rotation of the lower leg at the knee joint

biceps femoris (inserted into the fibula)

median cleft is AKA?

bifid nose, or frontonasal dysplasia

quadriceps

big 4-part muscle at the front of thigh, acts to extend the leg and flex thigh. consists of rectus femoris muscle and the three vasti muscles

subconjunctival haemorrhage

bleeding deep to the conjunctiva; appears bright red under transparent conjunctiva

navicular

boat-shaped bone in ankle between the talus and the cuneiform bones

posterior iliac spines

bony prominances at the posterior end of the iliac crest

give a non-traumatic cause of median nerve damage at the wrist

carpal tunnel syndrome

afferent nerve fibres

carry impulses into the CNS (sensory fibres)

reichert's cartilage

cartilages from pharyngeal arch 2

anterior triangle of neck

bounded by jugular notch, anterior margin of sternocleidomastoid, and inferior mandible. contains suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles

which forearm muscle has extensor origin/innervation but in fact comes round anteriorly and flexes the elbow?

brachioradialis

which muscle enables flexion of the elbow when hand is pronated?

brachioradialis

do spinal nerves emerge caudal or cranial to their corresponding vertebra?

caudal (except for C1-C7 which emerge cranial)

name the different parts of the basal ganglia

caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, putamen, subthalamic nucleus, substantia nigra

which kind of vertebrae have transverse foramina

cervical

superior orbital fissure

cleft in each orbital cavity of skull, lying between the lesser and greater wings of the sphenoid bone

bilateral cleft lip

cleft that occurs on both sides of the lip (about 10% of cleft lip cases)

unilateral cleft lip

cleft that occurs on one side of face (about 90% of cleft lip cases)

peroneus longus action

everts foot, plantarflexes ankle

sacrotuberous ligament

extends from ischial tuberosity to lateral margins of sacrum and coccyx

outer surface of tympanic membrane concave or convex?

concave

hypoglossal canal is AKA?

condylar canal

endoneurium

connective tissue layer around myelin sheath of each myelinated nerve fiber

which is most medial, trapezoid or conoid ligament?

conoid

which muscles form the lateral wall of the axilla?

coracobrachialis, short + long heads of biceps

why does upper motoneuron lesion cause positive babinski sign?

corticospinal tract

anterior sternoclavicular ligament

covers the anterior surface of the joint between the sternum and clavicle

two roots of cranial nerve

cranial accessory root (brainstem) and spinal accessory root (cervical plexus)

spinal accessory nerve

cranial nerve XI. exits skull through jugular foramen, pierces sternocleidomastoid, travels back to supply trapezius

conus elasticus is aka?

cricovocal membrane

infrapatellar fat pad

cylindrical piece of fat that is situated under and behind the patella

problems with hearing/balance + facial expression muscles indicate what?

damage to the 7th&8th cranial nerves at their close emergence between pons + medulla

mallet finger

damage/tear to the extensor digitorum tendon at the DIP joint; sufferers are unable to extend this joint

opponens pollicis

deepest thenar muscle in anterior hand which opposes the thumb

ampulla

dilated portion of a canal/duct especially of the semicircular canals of the ear

dupuytren's contracture

disease of not tendons but palmar fascia. fixed forward curvature of fingers, caused by fibrous connections between finger tendons and the skin of the palm. usually affects ulnar side more than radial

where do the deep layer of extensor forearm muscles arise?

distal part of ulna and the surrounding interosseous membrane

primary fissure cerebellum

divides anterior and posterior lobes of cerebellum

posterolateral fissure cerebellum

divides flocculonodular lobe from rest of cerebellum

in a TS spinal cord, which is longer, the dorsal or ventral horn?

dorsal horn

maxillary prominence

dorsal process formed by bifurcation of tissue anterior to/in the first pharyngeal arch in the embryo. fuses with nasal processes to form upper jaw + cheeks

where are the cell bodies of primary sensory neurons?

dorsal root ganglia

which is the more medial projection, the radial styloid process or the dorsal tubercle of radius?

dorsal tubercle of radius

name some typical diseases which reveal themselves as a lower motoneuron sign

Peripheral neuropathies, Injury in dorsal/ventral root, e.g. herniated vertebral disc, Polio myelitis - virus kills motoneurons, Myasthenia gravis - decreased neuromuscular transmission• Muscular dystrophy - primary muscle disease

lateral ventricles

each of the first and second ventricles in the center of each cerebral hemisphere

cerebral hemisphere

each of the two parts of the cerebrum (left and right)

flexor digitorum longus insertion

each tendon passes through Flx.Digt.brevis tendon + into distal phalaynx of toes 2-5

what happens in brachial plexus behind the clavicle?

each trunk divides into posterior and anterior divisions

what are the two peak ages in life to have a first-time shoulder dislocation?

early 20s and 60s

name all the carpals

Some Lovers Try Positions That They Can't Handle Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum, Pisiform, Trapezium, Trapezoid, Capitate, Hamate

palpebral fissures

elliptic space between the medial and lateral canthi of the two open lids

aside from FGF receptor mutations, which gene mutations have been linked to craniosynostosis?

TWIST1, MSX2, and EFNB1

angle of femoral torsion

The angle of the femoral neck relative to the femoral condyles (most easily seen by looking 'head on' at the femur from below). should be ~20°

hilton's law

The motor nerve to a muscle tends to give a branch of supply to the joint which the muscle moves and another branch to the skin over the joint

hyoid bone

U-shaped bone in the neck that supports the tongue, palpable in neck just above thyroid cartilage

which fluid fills the membranous labrinth?

endolymph

name connective tissue layer around myelin sheath of each myelinated nerve fiber

endoneurium

name the anterior part of the parahippocampal gyrus

entorhinal cortex

afferent lymph vessels carry lymph to what?

a lymph node

which bones form the orbit

ethmoid bone, frontal bone, zygomatic, maxilla, lacrimal, sphenoid

how does dopamine affect the basal ganglia direct pathway?

activates it (hence increases movement)

pectineus action

adducts + flexes thigh

action of adductor longus

adducts + laterally rotates thigh. can flex the extended thigh

name the 6 deep muscles of the posterior forearm from proximal to distal

anconius, supinator, abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis longus and brevis, extensor pollicis longus, extensor indicis

name two diseases which occur when the neural tube does not seal closed in CNS development?

anencephaly and spina bifida

which forearm muscle mass is larger, anterior or posterior muscles?

anterior (flexion requires more effort)

name 4 fontanelles

anterior (main one), anterolateral, postior, posterolateral

name the 2 nerves which supply the anterior and posterior external auditory meatus

anterior = trigeminal posterior = vagus

which ligaments are present *within the knee joint itself*

anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments

where can you palpate a pulse in the dorsalis pedis artery ?

anterior ankle, in the midpoint between the malleoli (where the artery arises under the extensory retinaculum)

at which muscle border can the chain of neck lymph nodes be felt?

anterior border of sternocleidomastoid

anterior axillary fold

anterior boundary of axilla. quite rounded. formed by lower border of peck major

where does the great saphenous vein begin?

anterior to medial malleolus

name the 3 divisions of the floor of the cranial cavity

anterior, middle, posterior cranial fossae

3 major transverse divisions of cerebellar cortex

anterior, posterior, and flocculo-nodular lobes

angular gyrus

fold in inferior parietal lobe formed by the united posterior ends of the superior + middle temporal gyri. involved in processing audio/visual input and comprehending language

name the folds in the cerebellum

folia

primary prevention of NTDs is most famously what?

folic acid

what may happen if the protective role of the larynx becomes ineffective?

food/fluid may be aspirated into the trachea

why doesn't strychnine cause any inhibitory effects?

it acts as a glycine antagonist everywhere except at NMDA receptors (hence glycines one excitatory role is not interfered with)

obturator nerve arises where?

from the lumbar plexus high in posterior abdominal wall. L2-L4

where does pec major take origin?

from the medial half of the clavicle + the front of the sternum, costal cartilages and upper external oblique aponeurosis

infundibulum means what in latin?

funnel

femoral sheath

funnel-shaped sheath of fascial tissue extending from the fascial lining of abdomen into the upper thigh; encases the femoral neurovascular bundle deep to the inguinal ligament

saccule of larynx

fusiform fossa, situated between the vestibular and vocal folds on either side, and extending nearly their entire length

semitendinosus action

flexes knee, extends hip. can medially rotate flexed knee

gastrocnemius action

flexes knee, plantarflexes ankle

flexor hallucis action

flexes phalanges of great toe

quadrangular space: boundaries and contents

gap between teres major, minor, and long + lateral heads of triceps, through which axillary nerve + posterior humeral circumflex artery passes

the two heads of which muscle arise from the lateral and medial condyles of the femur?

gastrocnemius (medial head and lateral head)

what does the lingual nerve supply to the tongue?

general sensation across most of it

which structures can be imagined as a 'hammock' of the shoulder joint?

glenohumeral ligaments

what is the shoulder capsule attached to?

glenoidal labrum and anatomical neck & shaft of humerus

what nerve supplies the gag reflex (and its surrounding area)

glossopharyngeal

muscles in medial compartment of thigh

gracilis adductor longus adductor brevis adductor magnus pectineus obturator externus

conoid ligament

helps attach clavicle to scapula; runs from the conoid tubercle to the base of the coracoid process

piriformis insertion

highest point of greater trochanter

before rising up to supply the tongue muscles, where is the hypoglossal nerve found?

hyoglossus

which nerve canal is located in the occipital bone, just above the occipital condyle?

hypoglossal canal

all muscles of the tongue are supplied by which nerve

hypoglossal nerve

sleep and wakefulness is mainly controlled by which part of the brain?

hypothalamus

why do you plantar flex your foot when you step on something?

if standing, this will raise the heel off the ground through pushing your toes down

what is defined as torsion of the femur?

if the angle of femoral torsion (between femoral neck and femoral condyles) is deviated from 20°, torsion of femur is said to exist

origin of iliacus

iliac fossa (internal wing of ilium) and sacrum

tensor fasciae latae origin

ilium; anterior 1/5th iliac crest, + ASIS

why can cysts easily grow in the thyroid?

it has a high osmotic pressure, so water is trying to be drawn in and make it grow outwards

what is special about occipital bone which enables skull to 'contract' during birth and quickly reexpand after?

it is not fully ossified until shortly after birth; means it can slide over other skull bones

why is the medial meniscus more often injured than lateral?

it is not so mobile/circular in shape as the lateral

why is external branch of superior laryngeal nerve susceptible to damage during thyroidectomy or cricothyrotomy?

it lies immediately deep to the superior thyroid artery

in what direction are you most likely to dislocate your shoulder and why?

it slips downwards and out of the glenoid fossa (the shoulder joint is protected from above and either side, but is weakest inferiorly)

why is the axillary nerve most commonly injured nerve in shoulder dislocation?

it wraps around the surgical neck of the humerus from posterior to anterior. dislocated shoulders put traction on it

which structure divides the vertebral arch into a pedicle and a lamina?

it's transverse processes; anteriorly , between them and the body is called the pedicle. the rest is the lamina

the 3 static (non-contractile) stabilisers of the shoulder joint

labrum, glenohumeral ligaments, capsule

what is 'flat feet' ?

lack of shock-absorbing longitudinal and transverse arches in the foot (puts more wear on the knee joint

which neurovascular structures pass through the superior orbital fissure but *not* through the tendinous ring?

lacrimal nerve + frontal nerve, (both branches of V1), trochlear nerve, opthalmic vein (superior + inferior branches)

name the point at which the occipital bone meets the parietal bones in the midline

lambda

name the posterior, thick part of the cricoid cartilage

lamina of cricoid

talus

large bone in the ankle that articulates with the tibia of the leg and the calcaneum and navicular bone of the foot

suprapatellar bursa

large bursa above/in front of knee, continuous with the synovial cavity of the joint. shown in picture as 'F'

subscapular fossa

large flat anterior surface of scapula (the 'blade')

jugulodigastric node

large node found near where the posterior belly of the digastric muscle crosses the internal jugular vein. if enlarged, think tonsilitis/strep

cavernous sinus

large pool of venous blood either side of pituitary fossa, covered by dura to prevent spillage. important structures pass through it

cephalic vein

large superficial vein of the upper limb

is a larger or smaller semilunar canal more sensitive?

larger

ventral spinal artery

largest artery of spinal cord. arises from branches of vertebral arteries; supplies anterior and *most of posterior* spinal cord. runs in the subarachnoid space, surrounded by CSF

broadly, where does cerebellar output travel to?

lateral cerebellum = up to thalamus + motor cortex. intermediate parts = to red nucleus. medial parts = to vestibular nuclei

origin of popliteus

lateral condyle inside knee joint capsule

plantaris origin

lateral epicondyle of femur

which nuclei of thalamus is involved in the visual pathway? what role does it play?

lateral geniculate nucleus (receives the optic nerve/tract, passes info on to calcarine cortex/area V1/17)

gastrocnemius origin

lateral head = lateral epicondyle (and suprcondylar line) of femur. medial head = surface of femur above med. epicondyle.

name the sheet of fascia which stretches from the linea aspera laterally (between muscles) towards the fascia lata

lateral intermuscular septum

which nerve supplies clavicular head of pectoralis major

lateral pectoral nerve

what type of rotation of the humerus accompanies abduction?

lateral rotation

which is more superior, the lesser or greater wing of the sphenoid?

lesser

the upper margin of the superior orbital fissure is part of which sphenoid bone wing?

lesser wing

intercranially, what forms the posterior margin of the anterior cranial fossa?

lesser wing of sphenoid

flocculonodular lobe forms which lobule of cerebellum?

lobule ten

interossei of hand

intrinsic dorsal and palmar muscles near the metacarpal which on dorsal side abduct, and palmar side adduct

jugular foramen

iregular-shaped foramen, anterolateral to foramen magnum. formed in front by the petrous temporal, and behind by the occipital. larger on RHS

superior gemellus origin

ischial spine (upper margin of lesser sciatic notch)

which supplies blood to face and neck, the internal or external carotid artery?

external

name the opening just posterior to the temporomandibular joint

external auditory meatus (aka ear canal)

which artery can be felt pulsing under the jaw, a few cm lateral to the chin?

facial artery

which artery arises just above the lingual artery? from which vessel does it arise?

facial artery, from the external carotid

what shape is the body of a cervical vertebra?

fairly small and wide; rectangular

ventral rami only have motor fibres. true/false?

false. ventral roots only have motor fibres, but these are different to rami, which are combos of fibres from ventral and dorsal roots

deep fascia of the thigh AKA

fascia lata

vastus intermedius nerve supply

femoral nerve (L2,L3)

what are the 2 largest bones in the body?

femur then the tibia

the glandular tissue of the breast is divided into lobes by what?

fibrous septa which pass from pectoral fascia, through fat, to skin

what is 'roof' of tarsal tunnel

flexor retinaculum

which lobe of cerebellum controls balance/eye movements?

flocculonodular lobe

name cranial nerve V3

mandibular nerve

which division of the trigeminal sensory ganglion does the motor component of the trigeminal nerve run with?

mandibular nerve (V3)

which muscles are supplied by the median nerve?

many of the lower anterior flexor muscles of the arm (eg wrist, thumb muscles)

tibialis anterior insertion

medial side of medial cuneiform + first metatarsal

semitendinosus insertion

medial surface of upper shaft of tibia

how can the coracoid process be used to protect important structures during surgery?

medial to it is a no-go zone due to the presence of the brachial plexus

the medial and lateral walls of the orbit face in which direction

medial wall = directly forward, lateral wall = about 45 degrees outwards

3 main parts of brainstem

midbrain, pons, medulla

which is deeper, gluteus minimus, medius or maximus?

minimus

what does low FGF activity induce in the cranial sutures?

mitosis (maintains the cartilage in the sutures)

is the brachial plexus sensory or motor innervation?

mixture of both

what shape is the body of a thoracic vertebra?

more of a heart shape

in the hand, which parts of skin are made sensory by the radial nerve?

most of the dorsal surface of the hand (excluding the little finger on the ulnar side, and the fingertips)

in the hand, which parts of skin are made sensory by the median nerve?

most of the palm, (except the little finger on ulnar side) and the fingertips on the dorsal side

through which kind of receptors can ACh have both an excitatory & inhibitory effect

muscarinic (nicotinic is only excitatory)

muscarine is an agonist for which ACh receptors?

muscarinic receptors 1,3 and 5 (*only the excitatory muscarinic receptors)

brachialis

muscle deep to biceps brachii which assists in flexing the elbow

flexor pollicis longus

muscle in the deep anterior forearm that flexes the thumb

flexor digitorum profundus

muscle in the deep anterior layer of forearm that flexes the fingers

Orbicularis oculi

muscle in the face that closes the eyelids

the 2 major proteins in CNS myelin

myelin PLP (proteolipid protein) and myelin basic protein (MBP) form ~80%

turbinate bones are AKA

nasal concha bones

dorsal root ganglion

nodule on a dorsal root of the spine. contains cell bodies of sensory neurons

greater and lesser sciatic notch

notches in the ilium and ischium respectively which helf create foramens in the posterior pelvis

basal ganglia

nuclei deep in the brain with motor functions. They are sites of degeneration in Huntingtons's disease and Parkinson's disease, which give rise to dyskinesias

obturator internus origin

obturator membrane (lateral half of inner surface)

gracilis nerve suppy

obturator nerve anterior division

foramen magnum is located in which bone

occipital

who is at greatest risk of a femoral neck fracture?

old osteoporotic women

which cells myelinate neurons in the CNS?

oligodendrocytes

mossy fibres cerebellum

one of the major inputs to cerebellum. bring info from cortex, vestibular nuclei, spinal cord + reticular formation, via middle and inferior cerebellar peduncles, to granule cells

craniosynostosis

one or more fibrous sutures in an infant skull prematurely fuses by turning into bone, changing the growth pattern of the skul

tracheostomy

opening a direct airway through an incision in the trachea. more common in non-emergency situations than emergency

anterior cruciate ligament origin and insertion

origin: anterior intercondylar region of tibia. insertion: inner surface of lateral condyle of femur

scalenous medius origin + insertion

origin: anterior transverse process tubercles of first 4-5 C vertebrae. inserts on lateral edge of first rib

latissimus dorsi

pair of large muscles covering the lower back, extending from sacral, lumbar, and lower thoracic vertebrae to the armpits

levator scapulae

pair of muscles in posterior neck which raises the scapula

aryteniod cartilages

pair of small pyramids which form part of the inner wall of larynx

subclavian artery

paired arteries. supply blood to the neck and arms. left subclavian = 3rd branch of aortic arch

parachordal cartilage

paired cartilages in developing forebrain which form part of the chondrocranium (the base of occipital bone)

hypophyseal cartilage

paired cartilages in developing forebrain which form part of the chondrocranium (the body of sphenoid bone)

cleft palate

palatial shelves fail to fuse

dilator pupilae: parasympathetic or sympathetic?

para

occipital somites (mesodermal cells) form which cartilages of the chondrocranium?

parachordal cartilages

what closes the fenestra vestibuli opening?

part of the stapes

alimentary canal

passage from mouth to anus

meatus

passage or opening in the body, especially one which is open to the exterior

what does the anterior division of obturator nerve do?

passes over obturator externus to lie inbetween superficial + middle strata of adductor muscles (supplies adductor longus + brevis, pectineus + gracilis)

which muscles in medial compartment of thigh ARENT supplied by obturator nerve?

pectineus (usually femoral n instead) and posterior part of adductor magnus (tibial part of sciatic nerve)

name the regions which form the anterior, superior and posterior walls of the axilla respectively

pectoral region, deltoid region and scapular region

Volkmann's ischaemic contracture

permanent flexion contracture of the hand at the wrist, resulting in a claw-like deformity of the hand and fingers, more common in children

patients shoes are too tight, has bitemporal hemianopia. what is likely diagnosis

pituitary tumour (over producing growth hormones + optic nerve pushed up)

which muscles are larger, ones for dorsiflexion or plantar flexion of the foot? why?

plantar - because plantar flexion involves lifting the whole body (whereas dorsi- is just lifting the foot)

tibialis posterior action

plantar flex ankle, invert foot

soleus action

plantarflexes ankle

radial styloid

point at lateral distal radius. brachioradialis tendon and radial collateral ligament of wrist attaches here

obex

point in the caudal medulla where the fourth ventricle narrows to become the central canal of spinal cord. decussating of sensory fibers happens at this point

which muscle is partly covered by the posterior oblique ligament

popliteus

what is the only muscle capable of *initiating* the lateral pull / abduction of vocal cords

posterior cricoarytenoid

which 4 groups muscles surround the cervical vertebral column?

posteriorly a strong extensor mass (prevents head dropping down onto chest). anteriorly weak flexor prevertebral muscles. laterally, rotators and lateral flexors

mGLU-R

pre and post-synaptic GPCRs which binds to glutamate, found in hippocampus, cerebellum, cerebral cortex etc

neural crest cells form which cartilages of the chondrocranium?

prechordal cartilages

metopic suture

present from birth to around 2 years of age; divides the frontal bone in half (down the midline)

how might a cervical rib induce digital gangrene?

pressure on subclavian artery obstructs circulation

thyroid is tied to the trachea by what?

pretracheal fascia

how does the palate develop?

primary palate formed by extension of intermaxillary process. 2ndary palette by 'palatine shelves' growing medially from maxillary prominences, and fusing with each other and the nasal septum

the only axons leaving the cerebellum are the axons of which cells?

purkinje cells

how do you test the trapezius muscle

put both hands on patients shoulder and ask them to shrug them

what shape is the axilla?

pyramid

occasionally, in track of migration of thyroid tissue, a streak of fibres is left behind extending up anteriorly in the midline. what is it called?

pyramidal lobe

difference between pyramidal and extrapyramindal tracts

pyramidal originate in cerebral cortex (pass through the medullary pyramids). involved in *voluntary* muscle control of body + face. extrapyramidal originate in brainstem (don't pass through pyramids). involved in *involuntary* muscle control

petrous part of temporal bone

pyramidal processes of temporal bone, wedged in under the base of the skull between the sphenoid and occipital bones

which nerve is most at risk in fractures of the humeral shaft and why?

radial nerve (the one nerve in direct contact with the humerus)

what kind of epithelium covers the nasal conchi?

respiratory epithelium (secretes mucus to trap large airbourne particles)

decerebate rigidity

results from a midbrain lesion and is manifested by an exaggerated extensor posture of all extremities

which arthritis is worse in the morning and which at night?

rheum worse in morning (rheum factor has collected in joints) and OA worse at night (after a days wear and tear)

common carotid artery arises from which artery?

right CC arises from brachiocephalic. left from aortic arch (2nd branch)

ciliary muscle

ring of striated smooth muscle in eye's middle layer. controls shape of lense by regulating flow of aqueous humour into Schlemm's canal

scalenous anterior insertion

scalene tubercle of first rib

which scalene muscle attaches to the 2nd rib?

scalenus posterior

what is the most common type of carpal bone fracture

scaphoid fracture

semimembranosus nerve supply

sciatic nerve

which nerve travels to the posterior aspect of the leg?

sciatic nerve

name the 3 layers which coat the wall of the eyeball

sclera, choroid, retina

humeral shaft

section of bone from upper border of pec major proximally, to supracondylar ridge distally. high facture risk

what does the femoral nerve supply below the knee?

sensory supply to anterior leg

intercondylar eminence

separation between the medial and lateral condyle on the upper extremity of the tibia

peroneus tertius insertion

shaft of 5th metatarsal

which is deeper, short or long plantar ligament?

short

coracoid process

short anterior projection from scapula which helps stabilise shoulder joint

which vein runs up the posterior leg with the sural nerve?

short saphenous vein

frozen shoulder

shoulder capsule becomes inflamed and stiff, greatly restricting motion and causing chronic pain

describe shoulder flexion and extension

shoulder flexion is swinging arm forward (shown) extension is swinging arm backward

falx cerebri

sickle shaped sheet of dura mater between two cerebral hemispheres

what is the mastoid antrum related to posteriorly?

sigmoid sinus (bone quite thin here). pic is superior view

triceps brachii

skeletal muscle having three origins that extends the forearm when it contracts

are the knee collateral ligaments tight or slack during flexion of knee?

slack

pterygomaxillary fissure

slit between the sphenoid + maxilla where the bones don't quite meet; contains a part of the palatine bone

primary palette

small anterior portion of palate formed from intermaxillary process

fovea of eye

small depression in the retina where visual acuity is highest; center of the field of vision is focused in this region. other cells are 'pushed aside' and retinal cones are concentrated

fontanelles

space between the bones of the skull in an infant/fetus, where ossification is not complete. tends to close up at about age 2

posterior cavity of eye

space in eyeball behind the lens. contains vitreous humour

cranial base

space in the skull which forms the floor of the cranial cavity

which CN gives motor innervation to sternocleidomastoid and trapezius?

spinal accessory nerve (XI)

which part of the cerebellum receives sensory info from limbs?

spinocerebellum (intermediate cerebellum)

which salivary gland secretes primarily mucus?

sublingual

Tuberomammillary nucleus

subnucleus of the posterior third of the hypothalamus. cosists largely of histaminergic neurons

peroneus brevis nerve supply

superficial peroneal nerve

peroneus longus nerve supply

superficial peroneal nerve

why should you learn head forward to stop epitaxis?

swallowing blood irritates stomach; tilting head forward decreases chance of nausea/airway obstruction

name the 4 key chewing muscles

temporalis, masseter, buccinator, pterygoid muscles

what prevents a goitre from rising above the oblique line of the thyroid cartilage?

the attachment of the thyrohyoid muscle prevents the gland expanding upwards

subcortical gray matter forms which key structures?

the basal ganglia

name the part of the occipital bone in front of the foramen magnum

the basilar part, aka Base of Occiput

which *ectodermal* embryonic tissue is able to form bone?

the cranial neural crest

which vessel passes through the jugular foramen?

the internal jugular vein

where do the corticospinal tracts cross the midline?

the junction of the brainstem with the spinal cord

which nerve emerges between the fibrous ring origin of the rectus muscles?

the optic nerve

cranium

the part of the skull which encloses the brain

which bone in the carpus 'sets' the alignment of the carpals

the scaphoid

pectoral girdle

the scapulas and clavicles

what is the fibrous tissue of the anterior fontanelle fused to below it?

the underlying dura

which muscles are supplied by musculocutaneous nerve?

the upper anterior flexor muscles of the arm (eg shoulder/elbow flexors)

why do astrocytes have neurotransmitter receptors?

they pick up NTs, causing entry of Ca2+ into astrocyte and initiating release of gliotransmitters, affecting how the synapse works

where are collateral ligaments found

they sit on either side of a joint

which bones are involved in the support and movement of the head?

thoracic & cervical vertebrae, upper ribs, clavicles, the occiput

name the single hole at the root of the neck

thoracic inlet

how does the subscapular bursa protrude from the joint cavity?

through a hole in the capsule in front

how do cranial nerves VII and VIII enter the petrous temporal bone(and hence the ear)?

through internal auditory meatus

how do nerves/vessels enter the medial thigh?

through obturator foramen

where is it safe to perform a cricothyrotomy? why would you do this?

through the skin and cricothyroid membrane to establish a patent airway during certain life-threatening situations, such as airway obstruction

name the key ligaments around the knee joint

tibial and fibular collateral ligaments, posterior + anterior cruciate ligaments, posterior oblique ligament, patella ligament, transverse ligament

what is the function of the strap muscles

to depress the hyoid bone + larynx during swallowing/speech

where does the epiglottis attach to?

to the larynx by a ligament, into the inner surface of the angle of the thyroid laminae

styloglossus

tongue muscle which . pulls your tongue upwards and backwards against hard palate when you swallow

odontoid process

toothlike process from the body of the axis vertebra. fits into atlas and acts as pivot for head rotation

name the fibrous band which unites the menisci anteriorly

transverse ligament

deltoid

triangular muscle 'the cap' on your shoulder joint. used to raise arm away from body

lateral thoracic vein

tributary of the axillary vein. It runs with the lateral thoracic artery and drains the Serratus anterior muscle and the Pectoralis major muscle

which nerves innervate the eye

trochlear, abducens, optic, occulomotor (ciliary nerves), opthalmic branch of trigeminal (lacrimal, supraorbital, supratrochlear branches)

most TCOF1 mutations have what affect on the treacle protein produced?

truncation of protein, which lacks nuclear import signal so cannot get into nucleolus to function

ophthalmic vein

two veins which drain each eye:* superior ophthalmic vein*, which follows ophthalmic artery into cavernous sinus, and *inferior ophthalmic vein* which drains half into the superior ophthalmic, and half into the pterygoid venous plexus

which nerve supplies the interossei of hand?

ulnar nerve (both dorsal and palmar)

does the brachial plexus pass over or under pec minor?

under

damage to fibres of the corticospinal tract (anywhere along its length) gives rise to what kind of syndrome?

upper motor neuron syndrome

where is the safe area for buttock intramuscular injections

upper outer quadrant of buttock

origin of psoas major

vertebral bodies T12-L5

substantia gelatinosa

vertical band of gray matter forming the dorsal part of the posterior column of spinal cord. integrates the sensory stimuli that give rise to pain and temperature

philtrum

vertical groove between the base of the nose and the upper lip

what does the word parietal mean

wall

meaning of word 'cuneate'

wedgelike

what is *complete* extension of the knee

when leg is straight

what purpose doe arteriovenous anastomoses serve?

when open, these vessels permit flow without capillaries, hence more heat transfer without a rise in local tissue metabolic rate

how do you test the hypoglossal nerve?

"stick your tongue out" - if it deviates to the side, its being pushed to the side by the strong side (ie weak side = side of lesion)

what does myelomeningocele translate to?

'spine and meninges in a sac'

where does the external iliac artery become femoral?

at the femoral point; when it passes under inguinal ligament

which extrinsic eye muscles are not supplied by oculomotor nerve? give the supply of these

lateral rectus (abducens n), superior oblique (trochlear n), the involuntary part of levator palpebrae superioris (sympathetic)

when flexing the knee from straight-legged position, what kind of rotation needs to occur to unlock it?

lateral rotation of the femoral condyles on the tibial plateau

inferior gemellus action

lateral rotation of thigh

piriformis

lateral rotator group muscle in the gluteal region

where does the internal carotid artery terminate?

lateral to optic chiasma, supero-dorsal to cavernous sinus, where it branches into anterior + middle cerebral arteries

list the 5 lymph node groups in the axilla

lateral • subscapular • pectoral • central • apical

which is more mobile, the medial or lateral meniscus? why?

lateral. the medial is attached in part to the tibial collateral ligament, so less mobile. the lateral is attached to popliteus which makes it more mobile.

gluteus maximus action

laterally rotates + extends thigh, tightens iliotibial tract

obturator internus action

laterally rotates thigh

piriformis action

laterally rotates thigh

quadratus femoris action

laterally rotates thigh

superior gemellus action

laterally rotates thigh

action of obturator externus

laterally rotates thigh.

Os coxae

latin for *hip bone* (ilium,ischium,pubis). aka *coxal bone*

the posterior fold of axilla is formed from which muscles?

latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles and tendons

which sphenoid bone wings are in the anterior cranial fossa, and which are in the posterior?

lesser wings in anterior, greater in posterior

pterygoid plexus

lies around the pterygoid muscles. has connections to cavernous sinus and facial vein. drains into maxillary vein.

pons

lies between the midbrain (above) and the medulla oblongata (below) and in front of the cerebellum

nuchal ligament

ligament extending downwards from the external occipital protuberance of the skull, attaching around the cervical spinous processes. limits forward flexion of head

costoclavicular ligament

ligament from medial cartilage of first rib, to the above costal tuberosity on the clavicle

zona orbicularis

ligament on neck of femur formed by the circular fibers of the articular capsule of the hip joint

transverse scapular ligament

ligament which crosses scapular notch

what are the most important stabilising structures of the knee - bones, ligaments or muscles?

ligaments

two most frequent things injured in the knee joint

ligaments (esp. tibial collateral) and menisci (esp. medial)

what is the shape of the vertebral column in infants?

like a letter 'C' (only primary curvature)

how does the sagittal suture run?

like a mohican; unites the two parietal bones

how does the trochlear nerve appear in real life?

like a tiny thread

parieto-occipital sulcus

line across back of brain in coronal plane. marks the boundary between the cuneus and precuneus, and also between the parietal and occipital lobes

brain lateral fissure

line across side of brain.divides both the frontal lobe and parietal lobe above from the temporal lobe below

precentral sulcus

line across top of brain in coronal plane. divides the inferior, middle, and superior frontal gyri from the precentral gyrus

central sulcus

line across top of brain in coronal plane. separates precentral from postcentral gyrus

longitudinal brain fissue

line across top of brain in sagittal plane. divides the two cerebral hemispheres in the midline

intertrochanteric line

line between the greater and lesser trochanters of femur, when they are viewed from the front

myelohyoid line

line on the inside of the mandible. It extends superior and posterior on either side from the lower part of the symphysis

adductor brevis insertion

line running from lesser trochanter to linea aspera

adductor longus insertion

linea aspera of femur

each lobe in the breast is further divided into what?

lobules

where is the axillary pulse

located inferiorly of the lateral wall of the axilla

where do the short and long intrinsics of the foot arise?

long come from the heel, short come from the midfoot

biceps femoris origin

long head = ischial tuberosity of pelvis. short head = lower linea aspera

four layers of the foot

long intrinsics, long flexors, short intrinsics, interossei + two tendons.

name the 3 heads of the triceps brachii

long, lateral and medial

erector spinae

longitudinal muscle group in the back which act *together* to flex + extend the vertebral column (iliocostalis, longissimus, spinalis)

what are the actions of the superior, inferior, lateral and medial rectus muscles?

looking up, down, side to side - also superior + inferior rectus muscles slightly rotate the eye

carotid sheath

loose areolar connective tissue that surrounds the vascular compartment of the neck; part of the deep cervical fascia of the neck

describe the sensory loss in median nerve damage

lose sensation over thumb, radial 2.5 fingers, palm of hand. lose fine movement in response to tactile stimuli

injuries to the ethmoid often cause what?

loss of CSF, subconjunctival haemorrhage, epistaxis

asynergia

loss of coordination between different muscle groups (muscles can end up opposing each other)

ataxia

loss of coordination in movement

give the 4 cardinal signs of osteoarthritis

loss of joint space (cartilage erosion), subchondral sclerosis, cyst formation (little bubbles underneath joint), formation of osteophytes

akinesia

loss or impairment of the power of voluntary movement of any kind

which can involve individual muscles, an upper or lower motoneuron lesion?

lower

peroneus brevis origin

lower 2/3 lateral fibula

where does the common carotid bifurcate?

at the level of the upper border of thyroid cartilage (easily palpable)

where does superior thyroid artery arise? where from?

at the level of the upper border of thyroid cartilage, from the just formed external carotid

where does the popliteal artery terminate?

at the lower angle of the popliteal fossa,where it divides into anterior + posterior tibial arteries

where is the axillary vein renamed the subclavian vein?

at the root of the neck

distal radioulnar joint

at the wrist. joins the head of the *ulna* to the ulnar notch on the *radius*

name the joint between an occipital condyle and the atlas vertebra?

atlanto-occipital joint

which is more superior, the atlas or the axis vertebra?

atlas ('on top of the world!')

why does the thyroid gland rise and fall during swallowing?

attached to trachea by pretracheal fascia

how does the fascia lata attach to the root of the lower limb?

attaches along the iliac crest, the inguinal ligament to pubic crest, then posteriorly around the ischial tuberosity, where it blends with the deep fascia covering the glutes.

cricotracheal ligament

attaches lower border of cricoid cartilage to the uppermost ring of the trachea

interclavicular ligament

attaches the two clavicles and upper margin of sternum

anterior gluteal line

bony line on hip bone from ASIS to top of greater sciatic notch. separates attachment of gluteus medius and minimus

posterior gluteal line

bony line on hip bone just anterior to iliac crest. gluteus medius attaches between it and the anterior gluteal line

tympanic ring

bony ring that holds the eardrum, or tympanic membrane

fracture callus

bony tissue which forms at the healing ends of a fracture

3 types of joint stabilisers

bony, static and dynamic

arithmetic ability involves which hemisphere of parietal lobe?

both

which has a labrum, acetabulum or glenoid?

both

what are the shapes of the medial and lateral menisci respectively?

both C shaped, medial more oval, and lateral circular

what is the difference between a tuberosity and a tubercle?

both are bony elevations; points of attachment for ligaments/tendons. terms can be used interchangeably but usually a tuberosity is larger/more prominant

what rough path does the nerve plexus for the upper limb take to reach the axilla?

brachial plexus travels from ventral rami in the neck, over the first rib, and into the axilla

which muscle mostly sits deep to the biceps brachii

brachialis

in anatomical position, name the superficial muscles on posterior forearm from lateral to medial (by their insertions)

brachioradialis, extensor carpii radialis longus and brevis, extensor digitorum (4th in the list + supplies 4 fingers), extensor digiti minimi, extensor carpi ulnaris

exencephaly

brain is located outside of the skull; usually found in embryos as an early stage of anencephaly. As pregnancy progresses, neural tissue gradually degenerates.

what does the cranial cavity contain?

brain, meninges, associated vessels + nerves

superior laryngeal nerve

branch of vagus. divides into internal (sensory to tongue/epiglottis) and external (tenses cricothyroid, increasing pitch)

path of nerve to subclavius

branches from brachial plexus in posterior triangle, descends anteriorly to the deep surface of subclavius

path of long thoracic nerve

branches from brachial plexus in posterior triangle, descends over medial wall of axilla supplying serratus anterior

path of dorsal scapular nerve

branches from brachial plexus in posterior triangle, passes posteriorly to levator scapulae and rhomboids

path of suprascapular nerve

branches from brachial plexus in posterior triangle, passes posteriorly to scapular notch, supplies back of scapula muscles

describe the course of the ulnar nerve to reach the wrist

branches from medial cord (C8/T1) of plexus in axilla. runs down medial arm, passing behind medial epicondyle of humerus + enters forearm between the two heads of flexor carpi ulnaris. superficially supplies this muscle + deeply supplies the ulnar (medial) part of flexor digitorum profundus. passes down ulna + emits a dorsal and a palmar cutaneous branch. enters palm through Guyon's canal going just lateral to pisiform

retinacular arteries of hip

branches of medial + lateral circumflex femoral arteries. extend to femoral head within the retinacular folds (in neck) of synovial membrane - provide head's major blood supply in adults

what are collateral nerves?

branches of nerves (where some of the fibres pass into a separate bundle)

what does STAR stand for?

branches of posterior cord: Subscapular nerve Thoracodorsal nerve Axillary nerve Radial nerve

transient ischaemic attack

brief episode of neurological dysfunction resulting from an interruption in the blood supply to the brain or the eye, sometimes as a precursor to a stroke

describe flexion of the hip joint

bringing your leg forward

thyrohyoid membrane

broad, fibro-elastic layer, between upper border of the thyroid cartilage and inner border of hyoid bone in floor of mouth

extradural hemorrhage

build-up of blood between the dura mater and skull, usually caused by tears in meningeal arteries. may also occur in the spinal column

nerve fascicle

bundle of nerve fibres surrounded by perineurium

how are the menisci attached to the tibial surface?

by fibrous tissue

cervical femur fracture

common hip fracture located at femoral neck, *within the capsule.* devascularises/causes necrosis of the head

third ventricle

central cavity of the brain, lying between the thalamus and hypothalamus of the two cerebral hemispheres

lymph vessels are absent from which bodily system?

central nervous system

behind the foramen magnum, what part of the brain does the occipital bone support?

cerebellum

mossy fibres are found where in the brain

cerebellum + hippocampus

name the grey matter covering the cerebral hemisphere?

cerebral cortex

which fluid flows through the central canal

cerebrospinal fluid

the phrenic nerve is a branch of which plexus?

cervical

name the two forward curves in the spine

cervical + lumbar lordosis

cranial sinuses

channels found between layers of dura mater in the brain which carry venous blood.

gliotransmitters

chemicals released from glial cells that facilitate neuronal communication between neurons and other glial cells and are usually induced from Ca2+ signaling

pectoralis major and minor

chest muscles which (respectively) adduct the arm / lower scapula and raise ribs

which kind of ossification forms the cranium?

chondrocranium + viscerocranium is first made as cartilage then bone (endocondral ossification). neurocranium forms as bone directly (intramembranous ossification)

which nerve crosses the middle ear cavity between the malleus and the incus?

chorda tympani; branch of facial nerve carrying sensation from the taste buds

types of hyperkinetic movements

chorea (continuous fragments of different purposful movements), athetosis (continual uncontrolled writhing, Dystonia (extreme contractions forcing unusual movements), ballismus (jumping about), tics (repeated fragments of movements)

name the vascular layer of the wall of the eye

choroid

what is the areolar

circle of dark coloured skin around the nipple (darker permanently after pregnancy)

canal of schlemm

circular canal that drains aqueous humor from the anterior chamber of the eye into the anterior ciliary veins

the entrance to the axilla (and upper limb) is bounded by what?

clavicle, first rib, upper margin of scapula

craniorachischisis is caused by failure of which closure?

closure 1 (first fold of neural tube)

name the apex of the cochlea

cochlear cupula

Triceps surae

collective name for a pair of plantar flexors on the posterior leg - the two-headed gastrocnemius and the soleus. they form most of the calf.

why is the pinna such a complex, folded shape?

collects sound waves + allows us to discriminate their direction more easily

musculocutaneous nerve

comes off lateral cord of br. plexus. supplies anterior compartment of arm

which artery bifurcates at the level of the upper border of thyroid cartilage?

common carotid

synovial joint

common, flexible joint where articulating bones are covered in slippery cartilage and a fluid-filled fibrous capsule

describe the *close packed position* of the knee

complete extension of knee, where there is medial rotation of femoral condyles on the tibial plateau. ligaments are tight so knee is 'locked' + best able to bear weight

unhappy triad

complete or partial tear of the anterior cruciate ligament, tibial collateral ligament, and medial meniscus of knee

orbicularis oris

complex of muscles around the opening of the mouth, which act to press the lips together includes some intrinsic fibres, some fibres from buccinator, and some fibres from muscles of facial expression

hydrocephalus

condition in which cerebrospinal fluid collects in the ventricles of the brain (due to blocked aqueduct etc). in infants it can cause rapid head growth/brain damage

winged scapula

condition where scapula protrudes from a person's back in an abnormal position, can be due to serratus anterior paralysis

what are the articular surfaces of the knee joint?

condyles of femur and flat upper surfaces of tibial condyles

spina bifida

congenital defect of the spine in which part of the spinal cord+ meninges are exposed through a gap in the backbone. causes paralysis below lesion/ mental handicap

what is CDH?

congenital dislocation/dysplasia of the hip. femoral head and acetabulum developed unstable with each other. more common in girls

modiolus

conical shaped central axis of bone in the cochlea. contains cochlear nerve

gustatory

conncerned with tasting or the sense of taste

cricoarytenoid muscles

connect the cricoid cartilage and arytenoid cartilage. posterior cricoarytenoid muscle *abducts* vocal cords to open the rima glottidis, lateral *adducts* vocal cords to close it

surgical neck of humerous

constriction below the greater and lesser tubercles. much more often fractured than the anatomical neck

Tom, Dick And Very Nervous Harry

contents of tarsal tunnel from anterior to posterior: *t*ibialis posterior tendon flexor *d*igitorum longus tendon posterior tibial *a*rtery and *v*ein tibial *n*erve flexor *h*allucis longus tendon

petroclinoid ligament

continuation of tentorium cerebelli (dura mater), anterior to its attachments up the petrous crest. joins the apex of petrous temporal bone to posterior clinoid process.

which ligament, over time, could cause severe damage to the supraspinatus tendon? why?

coracoacromial ligament, because it lies above the tendon + is very strong so rarely damaged (but likely to erode/inflame the tendon)

which primary structures are responsible for bending incoming light inside the eye

cornea and lens

striatum

corpus striatum: striped mass of white grey matter located in front of the thalamus in each cerebral hemisphere; consists of the caudate nucleus and putamen

UMN lesions always involve which tract?

corticospinal tract

which is the most important of the descending motor tracts

corticospinal tract

which is the more medial, the conoid tubercle or the costal tuberosity?

costal tuberosity

how can you have weakness without having low muscle strength?

could have strong muscles but unable to use them to make strong movements

what is the mesenchyme in pharyngeal arches formed from?

cranial neural crest (outer layer) and rostral paraxial mesoderm (inner layer). they migrate into the arches

name a skull with the mandible taken away

cranium

how do high and low frequencies of soundwaves affect the cochlea?

create waves in the basilar membrane, which vibrate against the tectorial membrane, aggregating hair cells

hiatus semilunaris

crescent-shaped groove in medial meatus of nasal cavity, inferior to ethmoidal bulla. location of openings for the frontal sinus, maxillary sinus, anterior ethmoidal sinus

which is more pronounced, the intertrochanteric line, or intertrochanteric crest?

crest

name the intracranial surface of the ethmoid bone

cribriform plate

which is the only cartilage in the body which is fully complete as a ring?

cricoid cartilage

name the circular base of the larynx

cricoid ring

which part of pharynx ISNT supplied by pharyngeal plexus?

cricopharyngeus (lowest part of inferior constrictor). supplied by external laryngeal nerve

name the midline anterior superficial part of the conus elasticus

cricothyroid ligament

anterior attachment of falx cerebri

crista galli

decussate

cross or intersect each other to form an X

how is the path of the external auditory meatus 'S-shaped'?

curves anteriorly, then posteriorly, then anteroinferiorly to reach tympanic membrane

do lymph nodes increase or decrease with age?

decrease (unless enlarged by inflammation/tumour growth)

from the 1st to the 6th pharyngeal arch, does the contribution of neural crest cells increase or decrease?

decrease. you'll find many less neural crest cells in arch no. 6

is movement amplified or decreased between the tympanic membrane and the oval window?

decreased to lesser movements by transfer of energy through the ossicles

are neural crest cells increased or decreased by TCOF1 mutation?

decreased; especially affects pharyngeal arches 1&2

does the carotid tree pass superficial or deep to the mandible?

deep

profunda femoris

deep branch of femoral artery (arises inferomedial to the acetabulum) which supplies the deep structures of the thigh

which 2 foramina pass out of the middle cranial fossa through the greater wings of sphenoid bone?

foramen ovale and foramen spinosum

3 effects of cerebellar hemisphere lesions

dysdiadochokinesia (no fast alternating movements), speech problems, intention tremor (unable to produce smooth movement with cerebrum alone)

how is the cerebellum of dyslexics affected?

dyslexics have poor motor coordination; and fMRI shows less cerebellar activity when learning a task

list the foramina seen in the cranial base from ant to post

foramen ovale, foramen spinosum, carotid canal, stylomastoid foramen, jugular foramen, hypoglossal canals (shown here as arrows), foramen magnum

which foramina can be found just lateral to the roots of the anterior clinoid processes

foramen rotundum and superior orbital fissure

when and how does the head of the femur develop?

forms during first year of postnatal life, developing from 2ndary ossification centre. fuses with shaft of femur age 16-18

axillary vein

forms from brachial and basilic veins - heads towards 1st rib where it becomes subclavian vein

pharyngobasilar fascia

fibrous coat of the pharyngeal wall, attached above to basilar occipital + petrous temporal bones. major part of pharyngeal wall where muscle is deficient (above the level of the superior constrictor)

what type of joints are formed by the inter-vertebral discs and the vertebrae?

fibrous joints

axillary sheath

fibrous sheath that encloses first portion of axillary artery, together with brachial plexus. an extension of the deep cervical fascia

meniscofemoral ligaments

fibrous strands passing from the back of the lateral meniscus to the posterior cruciate ligament + femoral condyle, found in some knees.

anterior fontanelle

fibrous tissue between the bregma bones before they fuse. seen in infants

which ligament splits the biceps femoris tendon

fibular collateral ligament

perineal nerve is AKA

fibular nerve

how would you find the carotid canal entrance in the cranial base?

find the styloid processes of temporal bone. carotid canal is neat, round opening just medial to them

on the dorsal side of the hand what part is supplied by median nerve?

fingertips (except little finger)

are lymph nodes soft or firm?

firm

which cervical vertebrae are involved in motor supply of neck muscles/cutaneous sensation of the neck?

first 4. (rest are in brachial plexus so go towards upper limb)

what is the root origin of the long thoracic nerve?

first key branch of brachial plexus, C5,C6,C7

by what age should the neural tube be sealed and completed?

first month of development

give the muscles involved in flexion of an extended knee, and the order of their use

first popliteus (to unlock the knee) followed by flexion using biceps femoris, semitendinosus + semimembranosus

lower motor neuron lesion symptoms

flaccid paralysis, rapid muscle wasting, fibrillation and fasciculation

epiglottis

flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue, which is depressed during swallowing to cover windpipe

sustentaculum tali

flat shelf of bone on medial + upper calcaneus, which talus sits on. Tom Dick + Harry tendons wrap under here and lift arch of foot like a 'wheelbarrow'

tibial collateral ligament

flat triangular sheet of fibrous tissue, fanning out from adductor tubercle (femur), across the medial meniscus, onto the tibia

tibial plateau

flat upper end of the tibia capped with articular cartilage, articulating with the femur

pectineus

flat, quadrangular muscle in medial thigh. most anterior adductor of hip

action of psoas major

flex + medially rotate thigh

if there were no muscles supporting it, would the head flop forwards or backwards?

flex forwards onto the chest

what is the major function of the posterior thigh muscles?

flex the knee

biceps femoris action

flexes knee + extends hip. lateral rotation of leg

semimembranosus action

flexes knee, extends hip. can medially rotate flexed knee

flexor digitorum longus action

flexes phalanges toes 2-5, helps mantain longitudenal arches of foot

action of iliacus

flexes thigh

sartorius action

flexes thigh + leg. laterally rotates thigh

rectus femoris action

flexes thigh, extends leg

movements enabled by coracobrachialis

flexion and adduction of arm

which arm movements are supported by coracobrachialis

flexion and adduction of arm

what does the ulnar nerve supply aside from hand muscles?

flexor carpi ulnaris and medial half of flexor digitorum profundus

which muscles in the forearm are supplied by ulnar nerve

flexor carpi ulnaris and the medial half of flexor digitorum profundus

if you lose function of flexor digitorum superficialis, which muscle can also flex the PIP?

flexor digitorum profundus

which types of skull movements occur at the atlanto-occipital joints?

forward flexion & extension (nodding), lateral flexion & extension (head side tilt)

where does spinocerebellun project to?

forwards to red nucleus and up to ventral lateral thalamus

diploic veins

found in diploe of skull vault bones. drain this area into the dural venous sinuses

stylomastoid foramen

found on base of skull between styloid&mastoid temporal bone processes. termination of the facial canal, and transmits the facial nerve and stylomastoid artery

scalenus

four pairs of muscles extending from transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae to rib 2; involved in moving neck and breathing

which finger flexor muscle makes a 'girly fist' ? why?

flexor digitorum superficialis, because it doesnt reach the DIP joints so can't flex the tips of the fingers (that is doe by FDprofundus)

which structure forms the roof of the carpal tunnel?

flexor retinaculum

name the part of the cerebellum important for balance

floccular-nodular node

which lobe of cerebellum projects directly to vestibular nuclei?

flocculo-nodular lobe

vestibulocerebellum is formed from which parts of the cerebellum?

flocculonodular lobe and vermis

which is longer, the floor or the roof of the external auditory meatus?

floor

where is the thyroid formed?

floor of pharynx, just behind developing tongue - migrates down the neck later on

obturator externus insertion

floor of trochanteric fossa (femur)

how does blood from the superficial veins get back to the heart?

flows from superficial to deep veins, gets pumped by muscular contraction, and passes to the heart

bursa

fluid filled sac/cavity (like a deflated balloon) countering friction at a joint, eg subacromial bursa

bursae

fluid-filled sac or saclike cavity, especially one countering friction at a joint

colles fracture

fracture of distal end of the radius, causing dorsal translation of the carpus. wrist joint looks like a dinner fork. cause: FOOSH

treatment for craniosynostosis

frequent surgery from birth til adolescence to open up the sutures

info from the brain goes to the cerebellum from where?

from cerebral cortex via pontine nucleus, and from inferior olive

the main vessels of the leg pass through the adductor hiatus in which direction

from front of thigh to the back

adductor longus origin

from pubis immediately below pubic crest

in anatomy, what region is defined as the leg?

from the ankle to the knee

where does the vocal ligament attach?

from the anterior (vocal) process of the arytenoid cartilage, forwards to the midline of the two thryoid lamenae

obturator artery arises where?

from the internal iliac artery on the inner pelvic wall

with hand laid atop of forearm, label each of the superior anteior forearm muscles indicates by the digits

from thumb to pinky: pronator teres, flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor digitorum superficialis

precentral gyrus is part of which lobe of brain

frontal

sphenoid bone supports parts of which lobes of the brain?

frontal and temporal lobes

coronal suture joins which bones

frontal and two parietals

what is the most common reason for swelling around a joint?

ganglion - 'balloon' of synovial fluid

synovial cyst aka

ganglion, ganglion cyst, or synovial hernia

name the plantar flexors of the ankle

gastrocnemius, soleus, plantaris (posterior leg)

name the 3 key *extrinsic* muscles of tongue we need to know?

genioglossus, hyoglossus, styloglossus

contents of jugular foramen

glossopharyngeal n, vagus n, spinal accessory n (descending), internal jugular vein, inferior petrosal sinus, sigmoid sinus, meningeal branches of the ascending pharyngeal + occipital arteries

gluteus maximus insertion

gluteal ridge of femur, iliotibial tract, fascia lata

which parts of the lower limb are innervated by the lumbarsacral plexus?

glutes, posterior thigh, leg, and foot

which muscles insert into the iliotibial tract?

gluteus maximus and the tensor fasciae latae

name the muscles in superficial group of gluteal region

gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, and tensor fasciae latae

name the 4 muscles inserted into the tibia

gracilis, sartorius, semimembranosis, semitendinosis

what are the most numeral cells in the brain?

granule cells

is the greater or lesser tubercle more lateral the humerus?

greater

which is more anterior, the lesser of greater wing of the sphenoid?

greater

name the two bony prominances just distal to the anatomical neck of the humerus?

greater and lesser tubercles

which of the greater/lesser tubercles on the humerus is posterior and which anterior?

greater is posterior, lesser is anterior

how do you tell which trochanter is which?

greater trochanter is more lateral + superior

gluteus minimus insertion

greater trochanter of femur at front, close to hip joint capsule

inferior gemellus insertion

greater trochanter with obturator internus + superior lamellae

pennate muscle

has fascicles that attach obliquely to its tendon; generally allows greater and longer force production but smaller range of motion

what is special about the body of the atlas vertebra?

has large vertebral foramen and an arch instead of a body. its upper processes cup the occipital condyles.

adductor magnus insertion

has two insertions: one along linea aspera and medial suprachondylar ridge, the other adductor tubercle of femur (gap in between insertions = adductor hiatus)

the medial ventral posterior nucleus in the thalamus deals with somatosensory info from where in the body?

head/face/tongue

calcaneus

heel bone. joins with foot, ankle and va tendo calcaneus

inversion of foot

heel of foot turned to face inward

eversion of foot

heel of foot turned to face outward

name 5 parts of the auricle

helix, antihelix, concha, lobule, tragus

what is the motor function of the cerebellar hemispheres

help coordinate the planning of limb movements (project in paricular to PMcortex)

how do the menisci add to conformity of the knee joint?

help form a 'socket' for the convex femur to fit into the bones of the lower leg

trapezoid ligament

helps attach clavicle to scapula; extends from the upper coracoid process to trapezoid line

adductor hiatus

hiatus between the adductor magnus muscle and the femur just above knee. allows femoral vessels to pass from the anterior thigh to the back of the knee

knee joint is what kind of synovial joint?

hinge

which is more stable, hip or shoulder joint? how is this achieved?

hip, by having a much deeper ball and socket joint including a labrum, and more reliance on ligaments than muscle

where aside from skull vault bones is diploe found?

hips, sternum

what is a hot potato voice

hoarse breathy sounding like you have a hot potato in your mouth

foramen magnum

hole in base of occipital bone through which spinal cord/structures passes

where is the foramen lacerum

hole in the base of skull between sphenoid, apex of petrous temporal and basilar part of occipital

foramen rotundum

hole in the sphenoid bone just lateral to the anterior clinoid processes. connects the middle cranial fossa and the pterygopalatine fossa

infraspinatous fossa

hollow area below spine of scapula (hence 'infraspinatous')

epitympanic recess

hollow located on the superior/roof aspect of the middle ear

what are the upper, middle and lower facets of the patella?

horizontal regions of the deep surface of patella's articular cartilage. flexed knee = upper facet contacts femur. as knee extends, middle + lower facets come into contact

name the 3 joints within the *single* synovial cavity of the elbow

humero-ulnar, radio-capitellar, proximal radio-ulnar (all share same synovial cavity)

supracondylar humerus fracture

humerus fracture just above epicondyles, very common in children. brachial artery and median nerve at risk

how does the knee lock?

in hyperextension, the femur rotates medially tighening ligaments

where is the pituitary gland located

in midline behind bridge of the nose and below the base of the brain, protruding from the bottom of the hypothalamus

where are the cords of the brachial plexus located?

in the axilla, arranged around the axillary artery

despite the knee being a hinge joint, in what position is some rotation between the femur and tibia most possible?

in the flexed position of the knee

apraxia

inability to perform particular purposive actions; eg cannot move lips or tongue to the right place to say sounds correctly because, even though the muscles are not weak, the message from the brain to the mouth are disrupted

lower motoneuron

includes alpha motoneurons (those leaving the spinal cord)

incomplete fusion of what causes cleft chin?

incomplete fusion of the left and right mandibular prominences.

compartment syndrome

increased pressure within one of the body's compartments (usually limbs), leading to insufficient blood supply hence nerve + muscle damage

deltopectoral groove

indent between deltoid and peck major. cephalic vein passes through it.

pulp space infection

infection within the pulp-space of the fingers. little room for swelling/escape so severe pain/swelling/pressure

the flat articular surface of the atlas: inferior or superior surface?

inferior

how do the thyroid cartilage and cricoid cartilage articulate?

inferior cornu of each thyroid lamina articulates with facet on side of cricoid at *synovial joint*

gluteus maximus nerve supply

inferior gluteal nerve (lumbosacral plexus)

where are the climbing fibres found in the cerebellum originate?

inferior olivary nucleus

tennis elbow

inflammation due to tearing of a few fibres at the origin of the common extensor tendon (epicondylitis) caused by overuse of the muscles of the forearm

bursitis

inflammation of a bursa, typically one in the knee, elbow or shoulder, caused by infection, pressure, trauma etc

swan neck deformity

inflammation/injury damages the *extensor digitorum tendon* (mallet finger) and also to the *volar plate* (hyper-extends the PIP joint)

how does dopamine affect the basal ganglia indirect pathway?

inhibits it (hence increases movement)

where does serratus anterior muscle insert?

inserts into the medial margin of scapula

proximal radioulnar joint

inside elbow. joins the head of the *radius* to the radial notch on the *ulna* (with help from annular + quadrate ligament)

what is the mantra for examining hollow viscera?

inspect, palpate, percuss, auscultate

what is a key difference between tremor in basal ganglia disease and cerebellar disease

intention tremor in cerebellar disease, resting tremor in basal ganglia disease

where do the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments and the menisci all attach to?

intercondylar eminence

fundus of eye

interior surface of the eye opposite the lens and includes the retina, optic disc, macula, fovea, and posterior pole

the bridge of the nose and the philtrum form from which structure?

intermaxillary process

which carotid artery enters the carotid canal in the temporal bone, internal or external?u

internal

which has no branches in the neck, the internal or external carotid artery?

internal

name the foramina in the posterior cranial fossa

internal acoustic meatus, hypoglossal canal, foramen magnum, jugular foramen

which artery is pulsing just behind the top lateral aspect of pharynx?

internal carotid

the chains of lymph nodes in the neck lie along which vessel?

internal jugualar vein

many lymph nodes surround which major vessel in the neck?

internal jugular vein

which structure divides the thalamus into anterior, medial and lateral principal nuclear masses?

internal medullary lamina

describe the venous plexi of the spine

internal plexus drains from vertebral bodies/spinal cord into external plexus, which drains to segmental veins of body wall

the pars reticulata of substantia nigra has a similar function to which part of globus pallidus?

internal segment of globus pallidus

what do the internal and external carotid arteries supply?

internal: much of the brain. external: neck, face, head and scalp

which is more deep in the hand, the lumbrical muscles or interossei?

interossei

tibialis posterior origin

interosseous membrane + posterior head/upper 2/3 fibula + latero-medial tibia

what are the ventromedial spinal cord pathways

interstitiospinal, tectospinal, vestibulospinal, reticulospinal tracts

which bony structure runs between the greater and lesser trochanters of femur *anteriorly*?

intertrochanteric *line*

which bony structure runs between the greater and lesser trochanters of femur *posteriorly*?

intertrochanteric crest

vastus lateralis origin

intertrochanteric line, linea aspera + lateral supracondylar line

name the septum between the lateral and 3rd ventricles

interventricular foramen

pairs of spinal nerves leave vertebral column through which foramina?

intervertebral foramina

how are the medial muscles of the thigh divided up?

into 3 strata; deepest stratum = adductor magnus, gracilis, obturator externus. middle stratum = adductor brevis only. superficial stratum = pectineus, adductor longus

within the posterior thigh, how does the sciatic nerve divide?

into common peroneal and tibial nerve

insertion of iliacus

into tendon of psoas, and then to lesser trochanter

where and how do pec major muscle fibres have their insertation?

into the crest of the greater tubercle of humerus (the lower fibres twist up to insert behind)

where does the teres major insert?

into the crest of the lesser tubercle

where does the deltoid insert?

into the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus

some facial muscles have no bony attachment. where do they insert?

into the skin

in which fracture would you worry about the blood supply to the femoral head, extracapsular or intracapsular? what would you do?

intracapsular. If fracture is within capsule, replace the femoral head with an artificial one

which fascia encloses both the anterior and posterior compartments of neck?

investing (deep) cervical fascia

name the fascia which surrounds all the muscles of the leg

investing deep fascia

what buffers the pH of the mouth after sweet/acidic food?

ions in *saliva*

are cerebellar hemisphere lesion effects contra or ipsilateral?

ipsilateral (pathway involves a *double cross*)

does the cerebellum have contralateral or ipsilateral control? why?

ipsilateral. its motor outputs cross twice - once in the midbrain to the contralateral red nucleus, and once immediately as the rubrospinal tract leaves the red nucleus

fourth ventricle

irregular ventricle between the third ventricle and the central canal

describe the undersurface of a sphenoid bone

irregular; extends down to the level of the sides of soft palate in two plates called the *medial* and *lateral pterygoid plates*

quadratus femoris origin

ischial tuberosity

semimembranosus origin

ischial tuberosity

semitendinosus origin

ischial tuberosity

where do the flexor muscles of the knee arise?

ischial tuberosity

inferior gemellus origin

ischial tuberosity (lower margin of lesser sciatic notch)

adductor magnus origin

ischial tuberosity + inferior pubic ramus

why doesn't flexor carpi ulnaris go through the carpal tunnel?

it attaches to the pisiform

following rupture of the urethra in the perineum, why doesn't urine spread down into the thigh? where does it go?

it can't; it is held within a peculiar layer of *membranous fascia* which attaches over the fascia lata. instead, it fills upwards over anterior abdo wall: a kangaroo pouch.

how might an infection get into thenar/mid-palmar space?

it has to travel quite deeply, so by a penetrating wound, or a neglected tendon sheath infection which has spread

the popliteal artery arises from which artery?

it is a continuation of the femoral artery

why is the pisiform not always counted as a real wrist bone?

it is associated with the flexor tendon, and is not involved in movement of the wrist

why can the head of radius rotate around its own axis without moving the ulna?

it is essentially just a cup and ball joint in a ligament circular sling. enables pronation/supination

why can't cartilage heal itself?

its avascular

Temporomandibular joint

joint between the condyle of the mandible and the temporal underside surface of the zygomatic arch

which is most posterior, the jugular foramen or the carotid canal?

jugular foramen

all of the head lymph nodes drain into which 'daddy' node in the

jugulodigastric node

does the brachiocephalic artery divide above or below the thoracic inlet?

just below

where is the brachial pulse?

just medial to the biceps tendon in crevass of a bent arm

is there one or two lambdoid sutures in the skull?

just one, running across the posterior occipital bone (not one on each side)

anterior interosseous nerve

largest branch of median nerve. supplies the deep muscles on the front of the forearm, except the ulnar half of the flexor digitorum profundus

thyroid cartilage

largest cartilage of the larynx, a projection of which forms the Adam's apple in humans

inferior olivary nuclei

largest nucleus situated in the olivary body (part of medulla oblongata). involved in motor control + supplying inputs to cerebellum

is the fibula lateral or medial to the tibia?

lateral

when passing through the adductor hiatus, does the popliteal vein lie medial or lateral to the artery?

lateral

which cord does the musculocutaneous nerve come from?

lateral

peroneus longus insertion

lateral aspect of medial cuneiform + base of 1st metacarpal

where do the medial and lateral cutaneous nerves of the forearm arise?

lateral branches from musculocutaneous nerve, medial arises directly from medial cord of brachial plexus (so in the axilla)

describe the terminal branches of the lateral and medial cords of brachial plexus, in order of branching

lateral pectoral nerve, medial pectoral nerve, musculocutaneous and two medial cutaneous(of arm and forearm). median and ulnar

viscerocranium

lower portion of skull; the bones + cartilages of face and neck, includes maxilla, mandible, ossicles of inner ear

where does the superior constrictor attach?

lower posterior margin of *medial pterygoid plate*, alveolar process of mandible, pterygomandibular raphe, and a few fibres from side of the tongue

if you have to make incisions in the tympanic membrane, where is safest to do so?

lower posterior quadrant

where does the latissimus dorsi arise?

lower thoracic and lumbar spinous processes, their interspinous ligaments, the thoracolumbar fascia, and iliac crest

common clinical conditions of the hand?

lumps + bumps, nerve compression syndromes, finger deformities, common fractures

which vessels drain lymph from the tissues?

lymph capillaries and the venous ends of blood capillaries

which is deeper, adductor magnus or adductor longus?

magnus

how does CSF escape from the 4th ventricle

mainly through the median aperture (some through the two lateral apertures as well)

superficial temporal artery

major artery of the head. arises from external carotid. Its pulse is palpable superior to the zygomatic arch

what affect does BDNF have on pain neurons?

makes the hyper excitable by changing Cl- concentration; makes GABA act to excite not inhibit neuron

is cleft lip more common in males or females?

males

which muscles are supplied by the ulnar nerve?

many of the lower anterior flexor muscles of the medial side of arm (including the fingers but not the thumb)

why when you get mumps do you look 'like a hamster'?

massive swelling of parotid gland

what does the middle ear communicate with posteriorly?

mastoid antrum

what is the only air sinus to be well developed at birth

mastoid antrum

a line between which two structures shows the course of the internal jugular vein in the neck?

mastoid process and sternoclavicular joint

which sinus lies below the floor of the orbit + behind the cheek?

maxillary

name cranial nerve V2

maxillary nerve

what drains into inferior concha?

maxillary sinus

name the two terminal branches of external carotid artery

maxillary, superficial temporal

uvula

means 'little grape.' small pendant fleshy lobe at the back of the soft palate made from longitudinal muscle/connective tissue. initiates gag reflex + can swell eg in tonsilitis, allergic reactions

what is a nerve plexus?

means of connecting more than one spinal nerve root to a peripheral nerve

which cartilage helps form the malleus and incus of ear?

meckels cartilage (of the jaw)

is the apex of the axilla lateral or medial to the coracoid process?

medial

which side of knee is more commonly injured, lateral or medial?

medial

is the ulna medial or lateral to the radius when the hand is in anatomical position?

medial (remember palms face forward)

name the ligaments around the knee joint

medial + lat collateral ligaments (outside capsule of joint) and posterior + ant cruciform ligaments (within capsule)

which cords of brachial plexus supply the flexor muscles of the upper limb?

medial and lateral cords

name the two main parts of the condyle of the humerus

medial and lateral epicondyle

what are the 3 major sagittal divisions of cerebellum

medial cerebellum (vermis), intermediate cerebellum (pars intermedia), lateral cerebellum (hemispheres)

medial border of femoral triangle

medial edge of adductor longus

laterl border of femoral triangle

medial edge of sartorius

what is the common origin of the superficial flexor muscles of forearm?

medial epicondyle

which nuclei of thalamus is involved in auditory pathway of thalamus? what role does it play?

medial geniculate nucleus. receives info from inferior colliculus (midbrain) + passes to primary auditory cortex

which nerve supplies sternocostal head of pec major?

medial pectoral nerve

which 3 main chewing muscles enable you to bite?

medial pterygoid, temporalis, masseter

which nerve provides sensory innervation to the lateral palmar hand

median

which two major nerves run all the way down to the elbow without supplying anything?

median and ulnar

bregma

meeting point of the sagittal and coronal sutures (front of skull)

tympanic membrane

membrane in the ear which vibrates in response to soundwaves; the eardrum

what is the conus elasticus

membrane of lower larynx; arises from circular cricoid cartilage base and ends at a free border, forming the lower edge of the slit in the inner wall of the larynx

which lymph nodes drain the teeth/anterior end of tongue

mental nodes

are dopaminergic receptors ionotropic or metabotropic

metabotropic

intramedullary nail

metal rod forced into the medullary cavity of a bone to treat fractures

where can you reliably find the femoral arterial pulse?

mid-inguinal point

pretectal nucleus

midbrain structure important for the eyes; location of synapse for pupillary light reflex

extensor digitorum longus insertion

middle + distal phalanges of lateral 4 toes

which artery is transmitted into the skull by the foramen spinosum? what is its main function?

middle meningeal artery. travels in groove along cranial base/inner side wall of vault to *supply nutrients to bones of cranial vault*

extensor hallucis longus origin

middle of anterior fibula

which end of the humerus would have to be fractured for you to do a posterior surgical approach? why?

middle to distal third. it gives a reliable way of finding (hence protecting) the radial nerve; between medial and lateral head of triceps

a laterally herniated disk at the level between the penultimate and ultimate cervical vertebrae would affect which trunk of the brachial plexus?

middle trunk (C7). If it was *below* the 7th C vertebra, it would've been inferior trunk (C8)

crista galli

midline ridge of bone that projects from the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. It is where the falx cerebri attaches anteriorly to the skull. The olfactory bulbs lie on either side

perpendicular plate ethmoid bone

midline septum of the ethmoid bone, continuous with the midline cartilage of nose

name the central bony axis the cochlea is wound around

modiolus

are there more glia or neurons in the human body? how about rats?

more glia in humans, not rats though - indicates glia are involved in greater computational power

which nerves are most at risk in shoulder instability?

most at risk is axillary nerve (also medial and radial)

Holoprosencephaly

most common craniofacial defect in human *pregnancies* - often fatal before birth. forebrain (prosencephalon) fails to properly split into left + right. caused by SHH mutations

why is the superficial dorsal horn important?

most pain fibres end there (C fibres) - particularly in lamina II

where can ganglion cysts form?

mostly wrists and feet - but can occur wherever there is synovial fluid

which nerves supply the strap muscles of the neck?

motor nerves from the cervical plexus

which nerve mainly motor supplies muscles of chewing?

motor supply from mandibular division of trigeminal nerve

rubrospinal tract

motor tract from red nucleus of midbrain to cervical spine. decussates in midbrain. functions mostly in upper limb flexion, but if corticospinal tract is lesioned, it can assume many corticospinal functions.

thumb opposition

moving the thumb round to be opposite the fingers (combination of flexion, medial rotation, adduction)

radial nerve provides sensory innervation to what?

much of the posterior arm and forearm as well as the dorsal thumb, index, and middle fingers up to the level of the fingernails

give 4most common syndromes with craniosynostosis. what causes them?

muenke, apert, crouzon, pfeiffer. Mutations in our 4 Fibroblast Growth Factors (FGF) receptors

orbicularis oculi

muscle in the face that closes the eyelids. has an orbital and a palpebral part

risorius

muscle of facial expression arises in fascia over parotid gland; passes superficial to the platysma to inserts onto the skin at angle of mouth

occipitofrontalis

muscle of facial expression which covers parts of the skull. It consists of two bellies connected by aponeurosis: The occipital belly, near the occipital bone, + frontal belly, near frontal bone

brachioradialis

muscle of the forearm that aids flexion at the elbow/supination/pronation

extensor digitorum

muscle of the posterior forearm extends medial 4 digits of hand

tensor fasciae latae

muscle of the thigh arising just behind ASIS + inserting to anterior iliotibial tract. keeps balance of pelvis while standing/moving

hyoglossus

muscle of tongue. arises from sides of the hyoid, passing up to insert into the tongue. It pulls the tongue down into the mouth

genioglossus

muscle which forms the bulk of the tongue - allows you to stick out tongue. arises from genial spines inside the mandible near the midline + attaches to hyoid bone and underside of tongue

prevertebral muscles

muscles located between the prevertebral fascia and the vertebral column. flex the neck.

what have pharyngeal arches got to do with the innervation of the head?

muscles that develop in each pharyngeal arch are innervated by a specific cranial nerve. These nerves continue to innervate the same muscles and they move to their final locations

which nerve travels through the coracobrachialis muscle?

musculocutaneous

why does the atlas have an unusually large vetebral foramen?

must enclose the spinal cord *and* the odontoid process of the axis

gain-of-function mutation

mutation that confers new or enhanced activity on a protein (eg in FGFR mutations causing craniosynostosis and achondroplasia)

sartorius

narrow muscle runs obliquely across anterior thigh from ASIS to medial leg below the knee

nasal conchae

narrow, curled bone shelves (usually 3) protruding from lateral wall into nasal cavity, dividing it into meatuses + filtering/heating/humidifying air

corrugator supercilii

narrow, pyramidal muscle located at the medial end of the eyebrow, beneath frontalis and just above orbicularis oculi

name the 3 main regions of the pharynx

nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

tibialis posterior insertion

navicular tuberosity, medial cruneiform + slips to other tarsal bones. 2nd 3rd + 4th metatarsals

cephalic

near the head

which particular basal ganglia part degenerates in huntingtons?

neostriatum

what word is used instead of 'tract' in the PNS?

nerve

excitotoxicity

nerve cell death caused by excessive stimulation of NMDA glutamate receptors. allow high levels of Ca2+ in enter cells, activating enzymes + causing damage

nerve supply superior gemellus

nerve to obturator internus

nerve supply obturator internus

nerve to obturator internus (L5,S1,S2)

inferior gemellus nerve supply

nerve to quadratus femoris

quadratus femoris nerve supply

nerve to quadratus femoris (from sacral plexus)

does the PNS come from the neural tube or neural crest?

neural crest

what is the main source of mesenchyme cells in the frontonasal prominence?

neural crest

the neural tube develops from which epithlium?

neural plate epithelium

which kind of defects cause the most stillbirths?

neural tube defects (esp. anencephaly)

together, the bones of the cranial vault form which structure

neurocranium

name the 3 parts of the cranium

neurocranium, viscerocranium, chondrocranium

which ACh receptors are excitatory?

nicotinic receptors and muscarinic receptors 1,3 and 5

can you easily palpate the AIIS?

no

does carotid body detect changes in blood pressure?

no - carotid sinus does

key differences in a fetal skull to adult?

no mastoid process. frontal bone divided by metopic suture. fontanelles between vault bones. mandible unfused at symphysis. only a ring of bone around the outer margin of middle ear cavity (tympanic ring) - no tube of bone

are the ligaments within the joint capsule in the hip joint?

no the ligaments surround the capsule

are glial cells able to conduct APs?

no they are not electrically excitable

does the femoral vein pass through the saphenous opening?

no, but the great saphenous vein passes through the opening to reach the underlying femoral vein

do individual nerve fibres fuse anywhere in the body?

no. however, multiple fibres often enter a single sheath/bundle

are all the cranial nerves mixed sensory/motor nerves (like most of the spine)?

no. some are special sensory nerves, some entirely motor, some mixed.

will the cranial vault develop in anencephaly?

no. vault bones grow around the brain to fit its size perfectly - if there is no brain, there will be no cranium

what important bony landmarks exist on the shaft of femur?

non on the front. linea aspera on the back, with spiral line and gluteal tuberosity above it, and supracondylar lines below

shenton's line

normally continuous line from medial edge of femoral neck, below femoral head, to inferior edge of the superior pubic ramus; used to determine the relationship between the head of the femur and the acetabulum

what is the function of the maxillary sinus?

not fully known - they are more vascular than the brain though; likely to do with warming air/controlling temperature

acetabular notch

notch in inferior margin of acetabulum, converted to a foramen by transverse acetabular ligament. gives passage to the acetabular branches of the obturator artery and vein

scapular notch

notch in the superior border of the scapula, just medial to the base of the coracoid process. allows passage of a neurovascular bundle to posterior muscles.

where in the brain is AMPA found?

nowhere - AMPAR receptors are found, but they detect glutamate. AMPA is not present naturally

where is biceps brachii attached to the humerus?

nowhere - it goes from the scapula to radial tuberosity

ligamentum nuchae

nuchal ligament: thick sheet of 'midline' fascia in the posterior cervical spine, provides the proximal attachment for the rhomboids and trapezius

give 5 indications supporting doing surgery on a patient with a fracture (as opposed to leaving it)

open wound, vascular injury, nerve injury (sometimes!), polytrauma, non-uniting bone fragments

which muscle arises from the hook of the hamate and inserts on the ulnar side of the 5th metacarpal

opponens digiti minimi

name the muscles of the hypothenar eminance from lateral to medial

opponens digiti minimi, flexor digiti minimi, abductor digiti minimi

the three true thenar muscles are

opponens pollicis, abductor pollicis brevis, flexor pollicis brevis

name the 4 thenar muscles

opponens pollicis, abductor pollicis brevis, flexor pollicis brevis, adductor pollicis

which small hand muscles AREN'T supplied by the ulnar nerve?

opponens pollicis, abductor pollicis brevis, flexor pollicis brevis, two radial lumbricals

name cranial nerve V1

opthalmic nerve

which foramina are found anterior to the roots of the anterior clinoid processes

optic foramina

which neurovascular structures pass within the common tendinous ring?

optic nerve, opthalmic artery, oculomotor nerve (superior and inferior divisions), abducens nerve, nasociliary nerve (branch of V1)

describe cranial nerve II

optic nerve; for vision. passes from back of eye, through optic canal, then splits; lateral fibres of retina run to the visual cortex, medial retina fibres to the optic chiasma

which muscles come out of the modiolus of the face

orbicularis oris, levator anguli oris, zygomaticus major, buccinator, depressor anguli oris

how can you tell the origin of muscles from their insertion?

origin is the attachment site that doesn't move during contraction (usually proximal), while the insertion is the site that does move when the muscle contracts (usually distal). often tendons are at insertion.

posterior cruciate ligament origin and insertion

origin: posterior intercondylar region of tibia. insertion: inner medial surface of femur

facial artery

originates in the external carotid under the chin, and gives off branches that supply the neck and face

where does the internal carotid artery emerge into the cranial cavity?

out of the foramen lacerum (though it *does not* pass all the way through the lacerum) emerging near to the pituitary fossa

what percentage of the *adult* external auditory meatus is cartilagenous and what percent walled by bone?

outer 1/3rd cartilagenous, inner 2/3 walled by bone

saphenous opening

oval opening in the fascia lata, lies 3-4 cm inferolateral to the pubic tubercle. great saphenous vein passes through it.

superior colliculus

paired structure of the midbrain (means 'upper hill') essential for vision/eye movements

prechordal cartilage

paired, rod shaped cartilages in developing forebrain which form parts of the chondrocranium (the wings of sphenoid, and part of ethmoid bone)

which way does your palm face after internal rotation of shoulder (when arm is down by sides)

palm faces backwards

when discussing the hand, which term can be used instead of anterior?

palmar

mastoid process

palpable prominence of the temporal bone behind and below the ear, to which muscles are attached

constriction of pupil, ciliary body muscles, and sphincter pupillae: parasympathetic or sympathetic?

para

what symptoms may present if lower brachial plexus is compressed eg by a cervical rib

paraesthesia along ulnar border of forearm. wasting of small handle muscles (hypothenar/interossei, ulnar lumbricals + thumb adductors)

Bell's palsy

paralysis of the facial nerve (lower motoneuron lesion) causing muscular weakness on the affected side of the face. cannot close eyes, stop mouth dribbling (v disabling).

palsy

paralysis, especially that which is accompanied by involuntary tremors

ciliary ganglion

parasympathetic ganglion located in posterior orbit. Preganglionic axons from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus hitchike along the *oculomotor nerve* and form synapses with these cells

angular and supramarginal gyri are part of which lobe of brain

parietal

which vault bones don't contribute to the cranial base?

parietal bones

lambdoid suture connects which bones

parietal bones with the occipital bone

which lobe is involved with giving a sense of our individual 'body image' eg what is ours, and how tall/wide we are?

parietal lobe

within which gland does the fascial nerve divide into at least 5 branches?

parotid

which gland does the carotid tree pass through deep to the mandible?

parotid salivary gland

name the two parts of substantia nigra?

pars compacta, pars reticulata

which bones form the middle cranial fossa?

part of sphenoid, and two temporal bones

where do the deep muscles of the posterior forearm arise?

partly from interosseus membrane between ulna and radius, partly from shafts of bones themselves

greater sciatic foramen

partly ligament-bounded foramen in posterior pelvis through which many structures exit the pelvis into posterior thigh, including: piriformis muscle + gluteal/pudendal vessels + sciatic/pudendal/gluteal nerves

nasal placodes

parts of frontonasal prominance which invaginate to form the nasal pits and lateral + medial nasal processes

corticospinal tracts receive input from where?

parts of the *cerebral cortex* eg Primary motor cortex Premotor cortex Supplementary motor area somatosensory area

carotid canal

passage in the temporal bone through which the internal carotid artery enters the middle cranial fossa from the neck

what is the path of the cephalic vein in the shoulder region?

passes along medial border of deltoid + over pec minor insertion to drain into axillary vein over 2nd rib

what are the distal attachments of the fascia lata?

patella, margins of tibia and head of fibula. forms *popliteal fascia* behind the knee joint

rectus femoris insertion

patella, via tendon, then via patella ligament inserts into tibial tuberosity

name the ligaments of the knee

patellar ligament + tendon, collateral ligaments, cruciate ligaments

what does 'piriform' mean?

pear-shaped

which muscles make up the deeper layer of the pectoral region?

pec minor and subclavius

what makes up the anterior wall of the axilla?

pec minor, subclavius, clavipectoral fascia - and the more superior pec major and its surface fascia.

why is it rare to break the pelvis in only one place?

pelvis is a ring (like a hula hoop) you can't crush it and break it in only one place

blood supply to the breast

perforating branches of internal thoracic artery, thoracic branches of axillary artery

which fluid does the footplate of the stapes hammer against?

perilymph

which fluid fills the bony labrinth?

perilymph

name the sheath of connective tissue around the bundle of nerve fibres in a nerve fascicle

perineurium

which muscles are the key evertors the foot?

peroneus longus and peroneus brevis (with help from peroneus tertius)

which muscles are supplied by superficial peroneal nerve?

peroneus longus, peroneus brevis

which ligaments hold together the lateral ankle joint?

posterior talo-fibular and anteroir talo-fibular ligaments along with calcaneofibular ligament

where are your hamstrings?

posterior thigh

function of cruciate ligaments

prevent excess rotation between the femur and tibia. prevent femur from slipping forwards/backwards on the tibia

why do mutations in PCP signalling prevent normal closure of embryos

prevents closure 1, by stopping the bunched up neural crest cells from distributing evenly down the midline, and creating a clog of cells which the fold is unable to close around

what is the function of the transverse ligament of the knee?

prevents the menisci moving apart and keeps a degree of interaction between them (as they do have some mobility)

chondrocranium

primitive head bone; in humans forms base of skull and capsules protecting sensory organs. includes ethmoid, sphenoid + occipital bones.

cerebrum

principal part of the brain, found within front area of skull and consisting of two hemispheres separated by a fissure. responsible for the integration of complex sensory/neural functions, + initiation/ coordination of voluntary activity

olecranon

process of the ulna that forms the outer bump (funny bone) of the elbow and hooks into the fossa of the humerus when the arm is extended

lineage restriction

processes in which pluripotent stem cells are 'refined' so that they have more specific pathways of differentiation (aka become *multipotent*)

give 4 parietal lobe functions

processing sensory info (two point discrimination), constructional ability (right side); arithmetic, body image

pertussis toxin

produced by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis, which causes whooping cough. targets Gi g protein

phonation

production of speech sounds

kluver-bucy syndrome

profound amnesia, hyperphagia, hypersexuality, placidity, and visual agnosia (unable to recognise familiar objects/people) due to bilateral amygdala damage

latin word for 'deep'

profundus

intertrochanteric crest

pronounced line between the greater and lesser trochanters of femur, when they are viewed from the back

protraction vs retraction of scapula

protraction is forward movement of the scapula around the trunk. retraction is the opposite

benzodiazepine

psychoactive drugs which act as allosteric modulators to increase GABA inhibition

the tips of the greater wings of the sphenoid reach to which point?

pterion

adductor brevis origin

pubic arch - below pubic

which scapula movement is controlled by serratus anterior?

pulling scapula forwards, eg when throwing a forward punch, or planking on all fours

what action does latissimus dorsi enable?

pulling the arm down (eg when a monkey pulls itself up into a tree)

pituitary fossa

saddle-shaped depression in the body of the sphenoid bone. houses the pituitary gland

great saphenous vein is closely related to which nerve?

saphenous nerve

which muscle flexes both the hip and the knee?

sartorius

what are the 3 medial tendons of the knee?

sartorius, gracilis, semitendinosus

anterior ethmoidal nerve

sensory branch of opthalmic division of trigeminal. bizarre path through the orbit, up through cribiform plate, then down again to supply tip of nose

spinothalamic tract

sensory pathway originating in the skin; transmits info to the thalamus about pain, temperature (lateral pathway) itch and crude touch (anterior pathway)

obturator nerve supplies what?

sensory supply to medial thigh, motor supply to obturator externus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magnus, gracilis, and pectineus (inconstant)

cranial neural crest cells migrate to the heart to form what?

septation of aorta + pulmonary trunk

cauda equina syndrome

serious neurologic condition in which damage to the cauda equina causes acute loss of function to the spinal canal below the termination of the spinal cord (affects all of both legs)

patient can't abduct arm above 90 degrees. which muscle isn't working?

serratus anterior

which muscle lies over the chest wall region of the axilla

serratus anterior

which muscle lies over the medial wall of the axilla?

serratus anterior

what forms the medial wall of the axilla?

serratus anterior and the upper ribs

most common cause of a winged scapula

serratus anterior paralysis due to damaged long thoracic nerve

what are the brain ventricles?

set of 4 interconnected cavities in the brain, each containing a region of choroid plexus where CSF is produced. system is continuous with central canal of spinal cord

radiculopathy

set of conditions in which one or more nerves is affected and does not work properly. The emphasis is on the nerve root

reticular formation

set of interconnected nuclei throughout brainstem; key in controlling alertness/consciousness/heart/muscles/pain/habituation

spinocerebellar tracts

sets of axonal fibers originating in the spinal cord + terminating in ipsilateral cerebellum. Conveys info to cerebellum about limb/joint position

pectineus insertion

short tendon onto bone running from lesser trochanter to linea aspera

Bing sign

sign of UMN lesion - tapping on dorsum of big toe causes dorsiflexion not plantar flexion

cochlea

sinous snail shell tunnel of bone, running forwards from cavity of the vestibule. produces nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations (enables hearing)

rostral paraxial mesoderm forms what in the head?

skeletal elements in back of the head

orbital process

skull processes which project into the skull creating the eye socket

which body functions does the hypothalamus regulate?

sleep/awake, body temp, food intake, water intake/loss (blood osmolarity), sex (hormones/behaviour), stress response (stress hormones + blood flow to specific tissues) - basically the *ANS*

fascia lata

sleeve of fascia around all the muscles of the thigh (particularly enforced laterally as the iliotibial band)

describe motion of scapula around vertical and horizontal axis

sliding forwards and backwards (centre of rotation is upward) and curving up and down (centre of rotation horizontal)

what kind of rotation occurs within the knee joint just as it is reaching full extension?

slight *medial* rotation of the whole femur, around the lateral tibial condyle (to lock the joint in close packed position)

which have more subtle subsequent effects within neurones, fast acting receptors or slow acting receptors?

slow

how might a synapse be specialised for slow synaptic transmission?

small (electron) dense core vesicles (SDCVs) or large dense core vesicles (LDCVs). slow transmitters eg peptides. metabotropic receptors

antitragus

small anterior tubercle above ear lobule, opposite the tragus

sural nerve

small cutaneous branch of tibial nerve whilst in back of thigh/popliteal fossa. descends in subcutaneous fat down midline of posterior leg

capitulum

small eminence on a bone (as on the lateral distal end of the humerus) by which it articulates with another bone (head of radius)

anconeus

small muscle on the posterior elbow joint; assists extension of elbow

regimental badge area

small patch of skin which has sensory innervation from axillary nerve (important for testing axillary nerve function)

tragus

small spur of elastic fibrocartilage in front of the external auditory meatus

how might a synapse be specialised for fast synaptic transmission?

small synaptic vesicles (SSVs). fast transmitters eg glutamate, gaba, glycine, ACh. ionotropic receptors

hyaloid canal

small transparent canal in eye. carries lymph through vitreous humour from lens to optic nerve disc. aids in changing volume of lens

calcarine sulcus

small, horizontal sulcus at the posterior end of the *medial surface of brain*, superior to cerebellum

supraspinatus

small, rotator cuff muscle of the upper back. stabilises and abducts the arm at the shoulder

In the radius and ulna bones: are the 'head' ends the smallest or largest ends?

smallest

coracobrachialis

smallest of the 3 muscles that attach to the coracoid process of the scapula. upper and medial in the arm

3 risk factors for oral cancer?

smoking, drinking, male

glenoid cavity

socket in scapular that receives head of humerus

which muscle is a more slow twitch muscle, gasctrocnemius or soleus? why?

soleus. it is the deeper muscle and is more involved in posture (hence more fatigue resistant)

which pathways which run into the ventral posterior nucleus of thalamus? where do they go from there?

somatosensory pathways eg medial lemniscus, spinothalamic tract. from the VP nucleus they go to somatosensory cortex

which cranial nerves have sensory ganglia?

some say money matters, but my brother says big boobs matter more - except not CN I or II. so *V, VII, VIII, IX, X*

cranial vault

space in the skull surrounding the sides and above of the cranial cavity, occupied by the brain

upper motor neuron lesion symptoms

spastic paralysis, little muscle wasting, Babinsky sign

optic canal is located in which bone?

sphenoid

which bone forms part of both anterior and middle cranial fossa?

sphenoid

the pituitary gland rests on which bone?

sphenoid bone (the hypophysial fossa)

which sinus lies posterior to the pituitary fossa?

sphenoid sinus

describe the epithelium covering the cornea

stratified; 2-3 cells thick

How do you distinguish between facial paralysis from a stroke or a bells palsy

stroke is UMN lesion, and bells palsy is LMN lesion. in stroke, muscles around the eye and forehead can still be moved voluntarily, unlike bell's palsy

what can cause damage to fibres of corticospinal tract?

strokes, subdural hemorrhage, absesses and tumours, inflammation such as meningitis and multiple sclerosis, and trauma to the spinal cord, including from slipped discs

ulnar collateral ligament (elbow)

strong + thick triangular band at medial aspect of elbow, uniting distal humerus with proximal ulna

name the long sharp bony projection from the base of the temporal bone

styloid process

what separates the undersurface of the deltoid from the underlying shoulder joint?

subacromial bursa

which muscle pulls the humerus medially and inferiorly (during anterior shoulder dislocation)

subscapularis

which one of the rotator cuff muscles inserts onto the more anterior surface of the shoulder joint?

subscapularis

what forms the posterior wall of axilla?

subscapularis, teres major, tendon of latissimus dorsi

which particular basal ganglia part degenerates in parkinsons?

substantia nigra

which part of basal ganglia is most associated with dopamine release?d

substantia nigra pars compacta

which particular basal ganglia part is affects in hemiballismus?

subthalamic nucleus lesion

intraparietal sulcus

sulcus on lateral parietal lobe involved in directing eye movements/depth perception/visual attention+control/hand-eye coordination, as well as arithmetic ability

gluteus medius nerve supply

superior gluteal nerve (lumbosacral plexus)

nerve supply gluteus minimus

superior gluteal nerve (lumbosacral plexus)

tensor fasciae latae nerve supply

superior gluteal nerve (lumbosacral plexus)

what nerve supplies cricothyroid muscle

superior laryngeal nerve external branch

which parts of the brainstem do the cerebellar peduncles connect to?

superior penduncle connects to midbrain, middle P to the pons, and inferior P to the medulla

dorsum of tongue

superior surface of the tongue

name the first sulcus inferior to the lateral fissure

superior temporal

what is the blood supply of the thyroid?

superior thyroid artery (running with external branch of superior laryngeal nerve) and inferior thyroid artery branching from thyrocervical trunk

name the important branches of the external carotid artery

superior thyroid, lingual, facial, superficial temporal, maxillary

where is the flaccid tympanic membrane, and why is it important?

superior, anterior tympanic membrane, between the two malleolar folds. important because is particularly vascular

which 3 bones make up the major components of the lateral wall of nose?

superior, inferior and middle conchi

boundaries of popliteal fossa

superior: semimembranosus (medial) biceps femoris (lateral). inferior: medial + lateral heads of gastrocnemius

which is the more major function of biceps, flexion or supination?

supination. flexion can easily be achieved without biceps

which two muscles supinate the forarm?

supinator and biceps brachii

function of vitreous humour

supports lens/suspensory ligament, and produces a pressure which pushes the retina against the choroid (or it would fall off).

function of vertebral column

supports skull, anchors ribs, protects spinal cord

name the large bursa above/in front of knee, continuous with the synovial cavity of the joint

suprapatellar bursa

which muscle is involved in abduction of arm from 0° to 15°

supraspinatus

which rotator cuff muscle(s) abducts the arm?

supraspinatus

prevertebral fascia

surrounds the cervical vertebral column and its associated muscles (scalene, prevertebral, and deep muscles of the back). part forms the floor of posterior triangle.

what is dermal bone

aka membrane bone; bone derived from intramembranous ossification

genial spines

aka mental spines. 4 small projections of bone on the inside of the mandible in the midline, from which the geniohyoid and genioglossus tongue muscles arise

spring ligament

aka plantarcalcaneonavicular ligament. located inferior to head of talcus. connects sustentaculum tali and navicular

type Ia afferent fibre

aka primary afferent fiber. A type of sensory nerve which a component of a muscle spindle, which constantly monitors how fast a muscle stretch changes

zygomatic arch

aka the cheekbone. arch formed by the fusion of projections from the temporal and zygomatic bones

the lateral ventral posterior nucleus in the thalamus deals with somatosensory info from where in the body?

all of body below the neck

which nerve supplies the thenar muscles

all supplied by median nerve except adductor pollicis, which is by ulnar nerve

the synovial membrane of the knee joint lines which inner surfaces of the knee joint?

all surfaces except those covered with articular cartilage

what is the purpose of the late fusion of the triradiate cartilage?

allows growth + adjustment of the acetabulum along with the growth of the femoral head

inferior temporal sulcus

almost horizontal line across side of temporal lobe, separates the fusiform gyrus from the inferior temporal gyrus on its lateral side

superior temporal sulcus

almost horizontal line across side of temporal lobe, separating the superior temporal gyrus from the middle temporal gyrus

prazosin

alpha-1 adrenoceptor antagonist used to treat hypertension

clonidine

alpha2 adrenoceptor agonist + imidazoline receptor agonist. lowers BP and used to treat ADHD

which structure lies at the end of the tail of the caudate nucleus

amygdala

goitre

an abnormally enlarged thyroid gland

microcephaly

an abnormally small brain and hence small head

bicipital aponeurosis

aponeurosis of the biceps brachii, located in the cubital fossa of the elbow. separates superficial from deep structures in much of the fossa

name the meningeal layer which is stuck to the inside of the dura?

arachnoid

which pharyngeal arch does meckel's cartilage form from?

arch 1

stylohyoid and stylopharyngeus muscles are formed from cells of which pharyngeal arch?

arch 3

what do the pharyngeal arch muscles form into?

arches 1&2 produce basically all skeletal muscle of face. arches 3,4 &6 form some muscles of neck

what 'plugs' the saphenous opening?

areolar tissue called the cribriform fascia (perforated by blood + lymphatic vessels)

what are the attachments of the lumbricals in the hand?

arise from flexor digitorum profundus tendon, insert into the extensor expansion (connects two tendons!)

describe the pattern of the lumbricals in the foot

arise from the medial aspects of flexor digitorium longus tendons (note not from hallucis tendons).

long head of triceps

arises from infraglenoid tubercle of scapula and extends to the teres muscles. passes below abducted shoulder joint

path of lateral pectoral nerve

arises from lateral cord of brachial plexus below the clavicle, pierces clavipectoral fascia, enters pec major

describe path of musculocutaneous nerve

arises from lateral cord of brachial plexus, opposite pec major's lower border, and passes into coracobrachialis/biceps

path of medial pectoral nerve

arises from medial cord of brachial plexus below the clavicle, enters deep surface of pec MINOR. some fibres pass through to aid supply of pec major

where does pec minor attach to the skeleton?

arises from ribs 3,4,and 5 and inserts onto the coracoid process

where does the subclavius attach?

arises from upper surface of rib 1, and inserts under the clavicle

describe basic path of median nerve

arises in axila, from lateral and medial cords of brachial plexus. passes down with brachial artery to supply flexors below the elbow. continues through carpal tunnel to supply some of the hand

describe basic path of ulnar nerve

arises in axilla from medial cord of brachial plexus, descends on postero-medial humerus. travels with ulnar artery in forearm to enter hand

branchial cysts

arises on the lateral part of the neck due to failure of branchial arches to fuse in development

at what age do the three bones of the innominate bone fuse?

around puberty

name the structures which short-circuit blood capillaries

arteriovenous anastomoses

arthroscopic stabilisation of shoulder

arthroscope camera inserted into shoulder. using small anchors and suturing, the labrum/torn tissue from a dislocation is reattached

when does the patella articulate with the femur, and when with the tibia?

articulates with femur at all times. *never* with the tibia

what forms the inner wall of the larynx

arytenoid cartilages posteriorly, epiglottis above, membranes and muscles anteriorly

where does the axillary artery become the brachial

as soon as it enters the arm

where does the obturator nerve divide into anterior and posterior?

as soon as it passes through the obturator foramen

describe the 2 main branches of lateral sulcus

ascending (aka vertical) ramus and anterior (aka horizontal) ramus. they divide the inferior frontal gyrus - seen in yellow here

how does the larynx move during swallowing?

ascends up to the back of the palette (and epiglottis flaps forwards to block airway)

how can you easily test the hypoglossal nerve

ask patient to stick out tongue (genioglossus is innervated by hypoglossal nerve)

how could you test the olfactory nerve?

ask patients to identify strong smells eg coffe/chocolate through each nostril in turn

how would you test flexion of DIP?

ask them to make an OK

name the place where the temporal, occipital and parietal bones meet

asterion

why is it important to keep the head back when patient is under anaesthesia?

at a stage of anaesthesia, the jaw muscles relax and the tongue etc falls back. dangerous as will block airway unless head is back

where does lingual artery arise? where from?

at level of hyoid bone, from the external carotid artery

where doesn't the cranial dura completely fuse to the vault periosteum?

at sinuses or places where dura folds into fibrous brain septa

where does the sciatic nerve divide?

at some point between pelvis and patella

supraoptic region of hypothalamus

the SON; a nucleus of magnocellular neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus, next to optic chiasm. produces ADH

sphenoid bone is wedged across the cranial base between which bones

the front and two temporal bones

which bones form the anterior cranial fossa

the frontal bone, ethmoid bone, and part of sphenoid bone

which major vein pierces the opening in the fascia lata at the superiomedial thigh?

the great saphenous vein (saphenous opening)

what part of the sphenoid bone contributes to the vault at pterion

the greater wings

which part of sphenoid bone forms the floor + sides of middle cranial fossa

the greater wings

what overlies the white matter of the cerebellum

the grey matter of the cerebellar cortex

the anterior half of the palate undergoes endochondral ossification to become what?

the hard palate

what does the capitulum of humerus articulate with?

the head of the radius

intervertebral foramina

the holes between spinal vertebrae via which spinal nerves etc escape

what stops the thyroid rising up in the neck?

the infrahyoid (strap) muscles

nerves/vessels pass into the front of thigh between the bony pelvis and what?

the inguinal ligament

cranial branches of the middle meningeal artery pierce what to enter the vault bones?

the inner surface of periosteum

where does the latissimus dorsi insert?

the intertubercular groove

what divides the anterior cavity of eye into ant. and post. chambers?

the iris

which joint do most of the anterior thigh muscles extend?

the knee joint (not hip joint)

why couldn't you lift heavy things if you didn't have a larynx?

the larynx acts as a valve

the deep branch of the ulnar nerve supplies all the intrinsic hand muscles medial to flexor pollicis longus EXCEPT

the lateral 2 lumbricals (median nerve)

muscular process of arytenoid

the lateral angle of each arytenoid cartilage pyramid; gives insertion to cricoarytenoid muscles

dorsal ganglion

the most commonly seen ganglion cyst; located along the extensor carpi radialis brevis as it passes over the dorsum of the wrist joint

which part of the retina receives light from the temporal fields?

the nasal (medial) part

what bodypart is formed from the developing body of the atlas vertebra

the odontoid process of the axis vertebra

what is the ostium of the maxillary sinus?

the opening of the sinus into the nasal cavity (through which the sinus drains). highly sensitive - if blocked, causes sinusitis

optic foramen

the opening to the optic canal. transmit optic nerve and ophthalmic artery (with accompanying sympathetic nerve fibres) into each orbit

which order are the cranial nerves numbered in?

the order in which they come off the brain/brainstem (from front to back)

acromion

the outermost point of the spine of the scapula

what are spinous processes

the palpable bumps of the spine. point posteriorly and downwards

the tentorium cerebelli deflects the wight of the cranial hemispheres towards where?

the parietal bones which it attaches to

appendicular skeleton

the pectoral girdle and the pelvic girdle and the upper and lower limbs

where do new cells of the cornea grow from?

the periphery of cornea - stem cells in the limbus. there are no stem cells in the cornea

what forms the boundary between middle + posterior cranial fossae?

the petrous crest

what does the middle ear communicate with anteriorly?

the pharynx, through the eustachian tube

horns of menisci

the pointed ends of the menisci, pointing towards the intercondylar eminence

from which side are the cruciate ligaments bare and uncovered?

the posterior (no infrapatellar fat pad etc)

which cord does the radial nerve come from?

the posterior cord

what forms the posterior cord of the brachial plexus?

the posterior divisions of the upper, middle and lower trunks

the scapula region takes part in the formation of which wall of the axilla?

the posterior wall

medial malleolus

the prominence on the inner side of the ankle, formed by the lower end of the tibia

if somebody can't extend there wrist (they have 'wrist drop') which nerve has been damaged?

the radial nerve

anterior and posterior compartments of the forearm are separated by what?

the radius, ulna and their interosseus membrane

what happens in brachial plexus inside the posterior triangle?

the rami fuse to form the upper, middle and lower trunks. 4 branches come off - *dorsal scapular,* *suprascapular nerves, nerve to subclavius, long thoracic nerve*

why are anastomoses important when an artery gets blocked?

the remaining arteries in the anastomoses mesh can enlarge and to produce a collateral circulation

which side of the brain supplies the lower face with innervation?

the right brain supplies lower left face, and vice versa (important in strokes)

from which end of the neural tube does the brain develop?

the rostral (nearest nose/mouth) end

sacroiliac joints

the sacrum is wedged between the two pelvic bones, joined by strong ligaments

why do you often get cyclopia in holoprosencephaly

the same process which splits the brain into left and right, splits the eye field from a single part into two. this is defected in holoprosencephaly

which muscles are 'like lines that keep up the tent pole' of the neck?

the scalenes

vestibular ligament

the sharp inferior free border of the quadrangular membrane in the inner larynx, joining the angle of the thyroid laminae with the bottom of the arytenoid cartilages

falciform margin

the sharp outer edge of the saphenous opening

where does the 'base' of the breast extend from?

the side of the sternum to the edge of pec major (with some glandular tissue extending beyond the edge of the muscle to lie on the medial wall of axilla)

what part of the ethmoid bone forms the medial walls of the orbit?

the sides

on the inside of the skull, what is the groove behind the jugular foramen called?

the sigmoid sinus

interventricular foramen

the small opening (on both the right and left sides) that connects the third ventricle in the diencephalon with the lateral ventricle in the cerebral hemisphere

acetabulum

the socket of the hipbone, into which the head of the femur fits. Y shaped cartilage fuses during infancy

extensor expansion

the special connective attachments by which the extensor tendons insert into the phalanges. These flattened tendons of extensor muscles span the proximal and middle phalanges

plantar aponeurosis

thick connective tissue on sole of foot, from calcaneus to the MP joints. much stronger than palmar aponeurosis; like an extension of achilles tendon

short plantar ligament

thick fibrous bundle on base of foot between calcaneus anterior tubercle + cuboid bone

palmar aponeurosis

thickened, central portion of the deep palmar fascia; radiates toward bases of fingers. some muscle tendons attach to it

ependyma

thin epithelium-like lining of ventricular system of brain+central canal. One of the four types of neuroglia in CNS. Involved in the production of CSF

perpendicular plate of ethmoid

thin plate of bone projecting downward from the crista galli of the ethmoid; it forms part of the nasal septum

buccinator

thin quadrilateral muscle, arising from maxilla, pterygomandibular band and mandible. Forms anterior part of the cheek + lateral wall of the oral cavity.

articular disc

thin, oval plate of fibrocartilage present in several joints which separates synovial cavities (like a larger version of a meniscus)

what does the word gracile mean?

thin/slender

why might patients with lung disease hold on to the side of their bed/fix their pectoral girdles when struggling to breathe?

this enables the pec minor to raise the rib cage in contraction (instead of lowering it)

why might a patient with breast cancer be asked to put their hands on their hips during palpation?

this fixes the pectoral muscles and their surface fascia in place. any palpated lumps which are stable in this posture are likely to have invaded the pectoral fascia/muscle (bad news)

in which regions of the spinal cord might you find a lateral horn of grey matter?

thoracic

which muscles are supplied by trigeminal nerve?

those from the first pharyngeal arch; muscles of mastication and tensor muscles

cuneiform bones

three bones of the tarsus between the navicular bone and the metatarsals

inferior thyroid artery arises from which artery?

thyrocervical trunk - a branch of subclavian artery

which four main structures form the outer wall of the larynx

thyroid cartilage + thyrohyoid membrane + cricoid cartilage + crico-thyroid membrane

midline swellings in the neck which move when you swallow are likely to be which kind of swelling?

thyroid swelling

semimembranosus insertion

tibia - groove in posterior medial condyle (fanned out as aponeurotic expansions which bleed with knee joint capsule)

which nerve supplies the hamstrings?

tibial division of the sciatic nerve, except the short head of the biceps femoris which is common peroneal branch

gastrocnemius nerve supply

tibial nerve

nerve supply flexor hallucis

tibial nerve

plantaris nerve supply

tibial nerve

soleus nerve supply

tibial nerve

tibialis posterior nerve supply

tibial nerve

which nerve supplies the posterior leg?

tibial nerve

sciatic nerve divides anteriorly and posteriorly into what?

tibial nerve and fibular nerve respectively

nerve supply popliteus

tibial part of sciatic nerve

semitendinosus nerve supply

tibial part of sciatic nerve

biceps femoris nerve supply

tibial part of sciatic nerve (long head) and common peroneal part of sciatic nerve (short head)

vastus intermedius insertion

tibial tuberosity via patella

vastus medialis insertion

tibial tuberosity via patella ligament

you suspect dislocated shoulder. why might you ask for an x-ray in two different planes?

to work out whether the head of the humerus has moved anteriorly or posterior

dura

tough, collagenous membrane enveloping the brain and spinal cord

strychnine

toxic pesticide which competes with inhibitory transmitter glycine, resulting in excitatory state/muscle convulsions

diploe

trabecular bone layer found between the outer and inner tables of cortical bone, in short/flat bones such as the skull

what word is used instead of 'nerve' in the CNS?

tract

vestibulospinal tract

tract of spinal cord. relays info from vestibular nuclei to motoneurons (important in positioning and balance)

function of the middle ear ossicles

transmit the vibrations of the tympanic membrane into the fluid within the inner ear

function of pelvic girdle

transmits weight of trunk to lower limbs. provides bone framework for for muscle attachment. contain + protect organs

describe the facets for rib attachment seen in thoracic vertebrae

transvere costal facet (rib tubercle) superior costal facet (head of rib) inferior costal facet (head of rib below)

which two muscles does the deep cervical fascia split to enclose completely as it surrround the whole neck

trapezius and sternocleidomastoid

intention tremor

trembling of a part of the body when attempting a precise movement, associated especially with disease of the cerebellum (ataxia of arms)

what shape is adductor longus?

triangular

anatomical snuff box

triangular depression on the lateral surface of the wrist on full extension of the thumb. weak point for fractures

coronoid process

triangular eminence projecting forward from the anterior proximal portion of the ulna

adductor pollicis

triangular intrinsicle muscle of deep palm/thumb. not truely part of thenar eminance. adducts the thumb

infraclavicular fossa

triangular region of the chest just below the clavicle, between the deltoid and pectoralis major muscles (label D)

which muscles form the posterior compartment of the arm

triceps brachii, anconeus (sort of deltoid too)

the superior orbital fissure, foramen ovale, and foramen rotundum each transmit a large division of which nerve?

trigeminal nerve

describe cranial nerve Vi

trigeminal nerve; largest cranial nerve responsible for sensation in face + motor functions such as biting and chewing. arises anterolateral surface of pons, runs forwards over petrous crest, forms sensory ganglion in meckel's cave.

name the cartilage between the ilium, ischium, pubis in childhood

triradiate cartilage

which is the only cranial nerve which emerges from the back of the brainstem?

trochlear nerve

describe cranial nerve IV

trochlear nerve; threadlike, supplies superior oblique muscle. arises from posterior midbrain, runs under free edge of tentorium, passing through lateral cavernous sinus wall, through superior orbital fissure into orbit

name the middle region of the hypothalamus

tuberal region

vocal folds

twin infoldings of mucous membrane stretched from back to front, across the larynx. They vibrate, modulating the flow of air being expelled from the lungs during phonation. controlled by vagus nerve

which joint does the gracilis span?

two - the hip and knee joints

infraorbital canal

two bony tunnels running through floor of orbit (passage for the infraorbital artery, vein, nerve) + opening either side of nose as *infraorbital foramina*

platysma

two broad muscles located either side of the neck, + innervated by facial nerve; extends from lower jaw to clavicle + involved in moving the mouth/ jaw

piriform fossae

two fossae/sinuses either side of the larygeal orifice involved in speech. food can become stuck in them

palatine bone

two irregularly shaped bones that form the back of the hard palate + help form nasal cavity / floor of the orbits

what are transverse processes

two lateral projections of vertebra (to which the head of the rib attaches in T vertebra)

saphenous veins

two main large superficial veins of the leg (great and large)

sagittal suture joins which bones

two parietal bones

occipital condyles

two rounded knobs either side of the foramen magnum that articulate with the atlas vertebra

which nerve travels behind the medial epicodyle of the elbow joint?

ulnar nerve

which nerves innervate the interossei of hand?

ulnar nerve innervates all 7 interossei

what symptoms might you see in medial meniscus injury?

unable to fully extend the knee (due to torn piece of cartilage getting caught) and tenderness in points 1&2

give the 3 entry routes of nerves and vessels into the lower limb

under inguinal ligament into front of thigh, through obturator foramen into medial thigh, through greater sciatic foramen into posterior thigh

popliteus action

unlocks knee by laterally rotating femur. weak knee flexor

which movement is controlled by levator scapulae

unsurprisingly, lifting up the scapula (eg when shrugging)

how should you pull the auricle in order to straighten the external auditory meatus for examination?

up and backwards

how many myelin segments can an oligodendrocyte make?

up to 40 or 50

peroneus longus origin

upper 2/3 lateral fibula

extensor digitorum longus origin

upper 3/4 anterior fibula + intermuscular septum

what are the two parts of the medulla?

upper open part where dorsal surface of medulla is formed by the fourth ventricle. lower closed part where the fourth ventricle has narrowed into the central canal

neurocranium

upper portion/vault of the skull which surrounds + protects the brain, includes front + parietal bones etc

what might anosmia be caused by?

upper resp. tract infection or cold, brain injury to olfactory system/olfactory nerve (eg fracture of cribriform plate/neuroma or meningioma compressing olf bulb?)

where does the epiglottis project from its attachment?

upwards, behind the thyrohyoid membrane, hyoid bone + tongue

which veins drain the thyroid gland?

usually 3; superior, middle, inferior

where are peptide neurotransmitters synthesised?

usually in the neuron cell body, with further processing during passage down axon

does the common peroneal nerve pass through the popliteal fossa?

usually yes, enters with tibial nerve at upper angle. it then leaves fossa by curling over its *lateral* edge

which regions of neural crest does the enteric NS arise from?

vagal and lumbosacral

which nerve is found associated with the common carotid artery in neck, vagus or phrenic?

vagus

emissary veins

valveless veins which normally drain from the dural venous sinuses into veins that lie outside the skull. pass all the way through vault bones

how long does it take after UMN lesion for spinal shock to end and hyper-reflexia to begin?

varies - at least hours, can be weeks

what size are lymph nodes?

varies; between a pin head to a large bean

name the 3 vasti muscles in the quadriceps

vastus laterallis, vastus intermedius, vastus medialis (names describe relation to femur)

woodruff's area

venous plexus at back of nose (posterior part of inferior meatus) linked to more dangerous nosebleeds often in elderly patients

is the brachial plexus derived from dorsal or ventral rami?

ventral

which arteries supply spinal cord?

ventral artery (most of cord) and two posterior arteries

which nuclei are the main motor nuclei in the thalamus. what are their roles?

ventral lateral and ventral anterior nuclei of thalamus . receive input from the globus pallidus, substantia nigra and the cerebellar nuclei and sends output to frontal cortex, including motor cortex

which is the main somatosensory nucleus of the thalamus?

ventral posterior nucleus

mandibular prominance

ventral prominence formed by bifurcation of the first pharyngeal arch in the embryo. *unite to form lower jaw + chin*

difference between vertebral foramen and intervertebral foramen

vertebral = formed by arch and body of each vertebra. intervertebral = passage between two+ adjacent vertebrae formed by notches on the pedicles

branches of subclavian artery

vertebral artery, internal thoracic artery, thyrocervical trunk, costocervical trunk, dorsal scapular artery. (+ it itself becomes the axillary artery at lateral border of 1st rib)

median septum (tongue)

vertical layer of fibrous tissue, dividing the tongue in the midline

what shape is the popliteal fossa?

vertically stretched diamond

ossicle

very small bone, especially those in middle ear

gastrocnemius insertion

via tendo calcaneus into calcaneus

soleus insertion

via tendo calcaneus into calcaneus

bitemporal hemianopia

vision is missing in the outer half of both the right and left visual field, usually associated with tumour (pituitary?) pressing on optic chiasma

name the free border of conus elasticus

vocal ligament (or *vocal fold* when including the covering mucous membrane)

what are the components of the nasal septum?

vomer bone, perpendicular plate of ethmiod, septal cartilage, crest of maxillary bone, crest of palatine bone

what is *complete* flexion of the knee?

when calf comes into contact with back of thigh

where does the femoral artery become popliteal?

when it passes through adductor hiatus

where does the short saphenous vein dip deeper and pierce the deep fascia?

when it reaches the back of the kneeand enters the popliteal vein

trendelenburg sign

when patient stands on one leg, the contralateral leg drops due to paralysed iposilateral gluteus medius + minimus.

when does climbing fibre in cerebellum fire?

when there is an error of movement - important for motor *learning*

what scapula movement does the serratus anterior enable?

when whole muscle contracts, it pulls scapula forwards around the chest wall (protraction). when only upper or lower fibres contract, produces lower or upper rotations of the scapula on the chest wall

what do the semilumar canals do

when you turn head/body, fluid in them continues swirling after movement, hitting sensors in the ampulla and telling your brain how you're turning

pterion

where the frontal, parietal , temporal and sphenoid bones meet

how are lymph capillaries different to blood capillaries?

wider, irregular shape, more permeable to particular matter + cells

gluteus minimus origin

wing of ilium, between anterior and inferior gluteal lines

why might the diploe increase in thickness in some forms of anaemia?

within the diploe, there is active erythopoiesis throughout life (so called 'red bone marrow')

are trapezius + sternocleidomastiod muscles supplied by nerve XI?

yes

does prevertebral fascia cover scalene muscles

yes

does the corticospinal tract cross the midline?

yes

will synapses form readily in mixed neuron-glia brain cultures?

yes

can a neurotransmitter be both excitatory and inhibitory?

yes (eg GABA can be excitatory during development) but never at the same time

can damaged axons regerate new branches to reach their synapse?

yes - *only in the peripheral nervous system*

could the bicipital aponeurosis be penetrated when attempting to take blood from a vein?

yes needles can penetrate it - underneath lies the brachial artery and median nerve - be careful!

have humans ever had opposable toes?

yes we used to have grasping toes but evolved them out - some of our muscles still sort of show this

are the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius enclosed within the investing cervical fascia?

yes. it envelopes all of the neck below the skin, like a stocking. in fact, these two muscles alone are inclosed between two layers of this fascia as it splits to completely surround them

name 2 alpha-2 adrenoceptor antagonists

yohimbine, atipamazole

where can you observe the thalamus on a brain?

you can't (buried deep within cerebral hemispheres.) however its medial edge is visible in half brain specimens

supination of forearm is controlled by which myotome?

C6

flexion of wrist is controlled by which myotome?

C6,7

adduction and medial rotation of the shoulder is controlled by which myotome?

C6,7,8

extension of elbow is controlled by which myotome?

C7,8

finger/thumb extension is controlled by which myotome?

C7,8

finger/thumb flexion is controlled by which myotome?

C7,8

name some GABA B antagonists

CGP35358

the composition of perilymph is similar to which other bodily fluid?

CSF

adductor magnus action

adducts thigh. posterior part of muscle can extend thigh

name the veins in the cubital fossa

cephalic, basilic, median cubital

2 basal ganglia diseases with hyperkinetic symptoms

huntingtons and ballism

cerebral aqueduct

CSF-filled canal that runs through the midbrain connecting the third and fourth ventricles

which roots converge to form the upper trunk of brachial plexus?

C5 and 6

flexion of elbow is controlled by which myotome?

C5,6

what are the nerve roots of the radial nerve?

C5,6,7,8,T1

principle dermatomes for referred pain from the diaphragm

C3-4

what is the root origin of suprascapular nerve?

C4,5,6 (branches from superior trunk)

abduction of the shoulder is controlled by which myotome?

C5

lateral rotation of the shoulder is controlled by which myotome?

C5

name the term for the inability to perform rapid, alternating movements. what usually causes this?

Dysdiadochokinesia. a feature of cerebellar ataxia/difficulty switching muscle agonists and antagonists on/off

1st cranial nerve is called

olfactory nerve

which kind of dopamine receptors are expressed on

D1 direct pathway, D2 indirect pathway

nerve supply of iliacus

L2 + L3

what is a collateral in neuroanatomy?

a branch of an axon

which nerve is in the *medial* wall of the cavernous sinus?

abducens

grace a dieu fascia

aka bicipital aponeurosis

vastus lateralis action

extends leg

what forms the medial boundary of the apex of the axilla?

first rib

name the immune cells of the CNS

microglia

name paralysis in both legs

paraplegia

which nerve supplies the triceps brachii proximal to the spiral groove?

radial

how many cords in the brachial plexus

3

how many fingers wide should you be able to open your mouth?

3

how many trunks in the brachial plexus?

3

purkinje cells excitatory or inhibitory?

inhibitory

insertion of obturator internus

inner surface of greater trochanter with the gemelli

which part of the brainstem enlarges the least in development?

midbrain

name cranial nerves

(Oh oh oh to touch and feel virgin girls vagina, ah hooray) olfactory, optic nerve, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, vestibular cochulea, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accesory, hypoglossal

olecranon bursitis

(students elbow) collection of bursal fluid in the elbow joint causing pain. caused by injury/always leaning on elbow

which mnemonic helps you remember the interossei

*DAB 4 PAD 3.* The 4 dorsal interossei abduct, and the 3 palmar interossei adduct

4 types of glia inPNS

1. Myelinating Schwann cells 2. Non-my elinating (Remak) Schwann cells 3. Satellite cells 4. Enteric glia

at which week of development does the thyroid become functional?

10th-12th week

how many muscles on back of the arm?

12 (6 superficial, 6 deep)

cranial nerves

12 paired nerves which emerge from skull or cranium not spinal cord

how many thoracic vertebrae/nerves are there?

12 vertebrae, 12 nerves

fibrous septa divide each breast into roughly how many lobes?

15+

describe the clinoid processes

2 anterior c.processes and two posterior, located at the cornoers of the pituitary fossa. function as attachment points for tentorium cerebelli

which transverse fissures separate the lobes of the cerebellum?

2 fissures - the primary and posterolateral fissures

extensor pollicis longus and brevis

2 muscle located dorsally on the forearm and hand which extends the thumb

what do the first 4 pharyngeal arch pouches form into?

1st = internal auditory tube + primary tympanic recess, 2nd = palatine tonsil, 3rd = parathyroid gland (inferior) and thymus. 4th = parathyroid gland (superior) and ultimobranchial body.

what forms from the 2nd, 3rd, 4th pharyngeal arch clefts?

2nd arch grows out, obscuring the clefts and trapping in a (usually) transient lateral cervical sinus.

hyoid arch

2nd pharyngeal arch. assists in forming the side and front of the neck

which ribs does the breast extend between

2nd rib superiorly, 6th rib inferiorly

spinal nerves

31 pairs of nerves emerging from each side of the spinal cord (each attached to the cord by two roots: ventral and dorsal)

how many teeth do we have?

32

how many major cartilages form the larynx?

4

what are the nuchal lines?

4 lines (inferior, median, superior and highest) across the occipital bone, to which neck muscles attach

rotator cuff

4 muscles (+ their tendons) which act to stabilize the shoulder

lumbricals

4 muscles in each palm/foot which flex the metacarpophalangeal joints and extend the interphalangeal joints.

name the 3 hypothenar muscles

Abductor digiti minimi, Flexor digiti minimi, Opponens digiti minimi

cerebellum is located above which ventricle?

4th

how many metacarpals are there?

5

how many roots are there of the brachial plexus?

5

pharyngeal arches

5 mesodermal outpouchings which grow either side of developing pharynx in weeks 4-5 of embryo. first three contribute to structures above the larynx (face/jaw), whereas the last two contribute to the larynx and trachea

which muscles are supplied by the deep peroneal nerve?

5 muscles: EDL, TIbialis anterior, EHL, EDB, peroneus tertius

how many sacral vertebrae/nerves are there?

5 vertebra (fused together), 5 nerves

all monoamines act through slow metabotropic receptors EXCEPT?

5HT3 receptor

peroneus brevis insertion

5th metatarsal, peroneal tubercle

genicular arteries

6 arteries in the leg which anastomose in the knee region; 1 branching down from the femoral artery, the rest from the popliteal artery

describe lymph node levels in the neck

6 levels. 1=under the chin, 2 3 and 4=high, mid and low jugular, 5 = posterior triangle and 6 = central neck

what does the pinna develop from?

6 mesenchymal proliferations called auricular hillocks (3 on each side of the 1st+2nd pharyngeal arches). ext aud meatus forms in cleft between these arches

how many extraoccular muscles are there?

7

how many vertebra in each region of vertebral column?

7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 (fused) sacral

how many cervical vertebrae/nerves are there?

7 vertebrae, 8 nerves

how many carpals are there?

7/8 (3/4 proximal row, 4 distal row)

difference between GABA A and GABA B receptor

A = ionotropic (for fast inhibition). B = metabotropic (for slow inhibition). A is also pentameric, whereas B is dimeric

type C nerve fibre

A sensory, unmyelinated/small/slow fibre. They include Postganglionic fibers in the ANS, and nerve fibres at the dorsal roots (IV fiber)

which 2 types of neurotransmitters are broken down in the synaptic cleft?

ACh and peptides

4 kinds of glutamate receptors

AMPAR, NMDAR, Kainate, metabotropic

which stains could you use in the fetal skull to see types of bone growth?

Alcian blue (for cartilage) and Alizarin red (for bone)

which mnemonic helps you remember the thenar and hypothenar eminences?

All For One And One For All (from thumb to pinky)

4 most prevalent NTDs

Anencephaly- Spina bifida (open or closed)- Cranio-rachischisis- Encephalocele

name thalamic nuclei

Anterior nucleus, Dorsal medial nucleus, Pulvinar nuclei, Ventral Posterior nucleus, Ventral Lateral, Ventral Anterior nuclei , Thalamic reticular nucleus, Lateral and medial geniculate nuclei , intralaminar nuclei

which cranial nerve innervates the first 4 pharyngeal arches?

Arch 1 - Trigeminal Arch 2 - Facial Arch 3 - Glossopharyngeal Arch 4 - Vagus

what is the inheritence pattern of treacher collins syndrome

Autosomal dominant trait with variable penetrance (60% caused by new mutations in TCOF1 gene)

name some GABA A antagonists

BICUCULLINE, (flumazenil)

subdural haematoma

Blood gathers between the dura mater and brain. Usually caused by tears in bridging veins which cross the subdural space

pronation of forearm is controlled by which myotome?

C6

damage to which nerve roots affect flexion of the wrist?

C6 C7

extension of wrist is controlled by which myotome?

C6,7

which roots converge to form lower trunk of brachial plexus

C8 and T1

lumbar cistern

CSF filled area between the end of the spinal cord and the end of the vertebral column. Cerebrospinal fluid is often sampled here (lumbar puncture)

describe the differences in spinous process of C, T and L vertebrae

Cervical = thin, bifid, directly posterior. thoracic = long, sharp, projects inferiorly. lumbar = short, blunt, rectangular and directly posterior

contents of carotid sheaths

Common carotid artery (bifurcates within sheath into external and internal). Internal jugular vein. Vagus nerve. Cervical lymph nodes

describe the neurovascularisation of pharyngeal arches

Each arch will form cartilage, muscle and artery, and will be innervated by a single cranial nerve

prolapsed medial temporal lobe

Extreme raised intracranial pressure may force the medial part of the temporal lobe of the brain down over the free edge of the tentorium cerebelli. traps the oculomotor nerve (pupil increasingly dilates)

name the nuclei of the cerebellum?

Fastigial, Globose, Emboliform, Dentate (fat girls eat donuts)

name some GABA B agonists

GABA, BACLOFEN

name some GABA A agonists

GABA, muscimol, (benzodiazepines + barbiturates)

the node of the primitive streak is an amniote organizer. what does this mean?

Grafts of prospective notochord (the node) can be added in and this node will organise differentiation to from a seperate neural plate

which cranial nerves contain only sensory fibres?

I, II, VIII (olfactory, optic, vestibulocochlear)

which cranial nerves contain only motor fibres?

III, IV, VI, XI, XII (oculomotor, trochlear, abducent, accessory, hypoglossal)

which rotator cuff muscle(s) externally rotates the shoulder?

Infraspinatus & teres minor

superior border of femoral triangle

Inguinal ligament

what is name and nerve supply of 'lifter of upper eyelid'

Levator palpebrae superioris. two supplies - part of muscle supplied by occulomotor nerve + part involuntary smooth muscle supplied by sympathetic. both needed for complete eye opening

name 2 NMDAR antagonists

MK-801, Ketamine

mneumonic for contents of femoral triangle

NAVY (femoral nerve, artery, vein, deep lymphatics)

splotch mutation

PAX3 (a gene formerly known as Splotch) is transcription factor involved in ear/eye/face development. splotch mutations cause waardenburg syndrome

neural crest contributes to which structures in the head?

Neurons and Glia of the brain, some bones of neurocranium, chondrocranium and viscerocranium, Odontoblasts of teeth, Connective tissues of face. *basically the whole anterior of head*

how is cleft palate treated?

Normally corrected surgically between 3-8 months of age

flexor hallucis longus origin and insertion

Originates: lower 2/3 posterior tibia. Inserts: base of distal phalanx of great toe

L-type Ca2+ channels in heart; which type are found in the brain?

P-, Q- and N-type

Remak schwann cells

PNS glial cells which surround smaller axons - do not myelinate the axons

describe the generic pathway of nerves from a peripheral somatosensory receptor to the cerebral cortex?

Receptor causes firing of Primary sensory neurons; these synapse within spinal cord with 2nd order neurons. These cross the midline + synapse with thalamic neurons which send info to cortex

what acronym helps you remember the stages of the brachial plexus

Red Tigers Drink Cold Beer

piriformis nerve supply

S1 + S2 (small direct branches of sacral plexus)

how do you remember the jerk relexes by counting to 8?

S1,2 achilles/ankle jerk, 3,4 knee, C5, 6 elbow flexion, C7,8 elbow extension

which acryonym helps you remember the rotator cuff muscles?

SITS

which rotator cuff muscle(s) internally rotates the shoulder?

Subscapularis

lumbosacral plexus

The anterior divisions of the 5 lumbar + 5 sacral nerves and coccygeal nerve (the first lumbar nerve being frequently joined by a branch from the twelfth thoracic)

alisphenoid

The greater wing of the sphenoid bone

neural arch

The posterior projection from the body of a vertebra that encloses the vertebral foramen; consists of paired pedicles and laminae. spinous, transverse, and articular processes arise from the arch

why do most extradural hemorrhages occur in the temporal bone region?

The pterion region which overlies the middle meningeal artery is relatively weak and prone to injury

retinaculum

a band around tendons that holds them in place; not part of any muscle

name the long flexors of the toes

Tom Dick + Harry muscles (Tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum longus, flexor hallucis longus)

what is TCOF1

Treacher Collins-Franceschetti syndrome 1 gene. encodes protein called 'treacle' found in nucleous - important in ribosome biogenesis especially neural folds/pharygeal arches of embryos. mutations in gene cause treacher collins syndrome

where is the only place in the brain which uses histamine as a neurotransmitter?

Tuberomammillary nucleus

which cranial nerves contain mixed motor and sensory fibres?

V, VII, IX, X (trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus)

name the 3 groups of descending motor pathways of the spinal cord

Ventromedial pathways, lateral pathways, corticospinal tract

optic chiasma

X-shaped structure formed below the brain (anterior to pituitary stalk) where the two optic nerves cross over each other

what could cause a ganglion cyst?

a 'one-way valve' effect, caused by arthritis/injury/no reason at all

what closes the fenestra cochleae opening?

a 2ndary tympanic membrane

function of gluteal muscles

abduct (>medius and minimus) and extend (>maximus) hip. also stabilises by contracting to balance on only that leg

what is the action of gluteus maximus and tensor fasciae latae contraction together?

abduction

name the long intrinsic muscles of the foot??

abductor hallucis, flexor digitorum brevis, abductor digiti minimi

3 long tendons of the thumb

abductor pollicis longus, extensor policis longus, extensor policis longus

action of gluteus minimus

abducts thigh

gluteus medius action

abducts thigh. can also medially rotate (anterior fibres) and laterally rotate (posterior fibres) the thigh

Hypotelorism

abnormal decrease in distance between any two organs, eg orbital hypotelorism

mastoid antrum

air space in the petrous portion of the temporal bone, communicating posteriorly with the mastoid cells and anteriorly with the epitympanic recess of middle ear

middle ear

air-filled *tympanic caivity* in petrous temporal bone. contains ear ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes). communicates with mastoid antrum posteriorly and with auditory (eustachian) tube anteriorly

what is ulnar deviation?

aka adduction - moving hand in direction of ulnar

meckel's cave

aka cavum trigeminale. arachnoidal pouch containing CSF on apex of petrous bone. contains trigeminal sensory ganglion

anterior compartment of arm

aka flexor compartmt. contains biceps brachii, brachialis and coracobrachialis, supplied by brachial artery and musculocutaneous nerve

what and where is the anterior condylar foramen?

aka hypoglossal canal. at base of skull, just above occipital condyle

what are the strap muscles?

aka infrahyoid muscles; 4 pairs of muscles in anterior neck (sternohyoid, sternothyroid, thyrohyoid and omohyoid).

circuit of papez

aka medial limbic circuit. neural circuit between hippocampus, hypothalamus + limbic lobe, for control of emotional expression/memory

name the two canals which the anterior wall of the tympanic cavity leads to

auditory tube, canal for tensor tympani muscle

2 main components of the external ear

auricle (pinna) and external auditory (acoustic) meatus

what do you call the 6 mesenchymal bumps on pharyngeal arches 1&2 which form the pinna?

auricular hillocks

the tympanic membrane can be examined in clinic using which device

auriscope

efferent lymph vessels carry lymph to what?

away from lymph nodes to greater nodes or veins

where in the limbs are lymph nodes largest and most numerous?

axilla and groin

which nerve wraps around the neck of the humerus?

axillary (labelled C)

what are the contents of the axilla

axillary artery, vein & lymphatics. parts of brachial plexus (wrapped around axillary artery). long thoracic nerve

which nerve/nerve roots supplies deltoid?

axillary nerve, roots C5/6 (posterior cord)

most lymph from the breast goes to which nodes?

axillary nodes

which vein does the brachial vein run into?

axillary vein

the 5 main terminal arm branches of brachial plexus are?

axillary, radial, musculocutaneous, ulnar, median

give an important function of axons aside from AP conduction

axonal transport - passage of substances up and down the microtubules in axons

rhomboid minor

back muscle; connects the scapula with spinal vertebrae. acts with rhomboid major to keep scapula pressed against thoracic wall

as well as the carotid arteries, which arteries supply the head and neck

branches from the subclavian arteries as they pass to the arms; vertebral artery, costo-cervical trunk, internal thoracic, thyrocervical trunk

in which layer of the cerebellar neuron are purkinje cells found?

dendrites (flat, fan shaped) in *molecular layer*, with the parallel fibres. cell bodies in *purkinje cell layer* axons descend down into

premotor

denoting the anterior part of the motor cortex in the frontal lobe of the brain, which is concerned with coordinating voluntary movement

epineurium

dense fibrous layer surrounding bundle of nerve fascicles + their blood vessels

sclera

dense, fibrous outer layer of the whole eyeball. Mostly white but at the front of the eye it is transparent and called the *cornea*

hill-sachs lesion

dent in the posterolateral head of humerus (caused by forceful impact of humeral head against the glenoid rim when shoulder is dislocated anteriorly)

what does superior oblique muscle do

depends where you look; if you look towards your nose, enables you to look down simultaneously. if you look opposite way, it does virtually nothing

trochanteric fossa

depression on posterior femur supero-anterior to the intertrochanteric crest. attaches several muscles

2ndary neurulation

describes process in caudal end of embryo, where neural tube forms by not folding, but hollowing out of the interior of a solid precursor (canalisation)

primary neurulation

describes process in rostral end of embryo, where neural tube is formed by neural plate creasing inward until the edges come in contact and fuse

difference between Pharyngeal Arches, Visceral Arches, and Branchial Arches?

different names for the same thing (depending on species). Humans = pharyngeal arches

which foramen is immediately anterior to foramen spinosum?

foraman ovale

name the largest foramen in the posterior cranial fossa

foramen magnum

what forms the lower margin of the superior orbital fissure?

greater wing of sphenoid

olecranon fossa

groove in the posterior distal humerus; accomodates the tip of the ulna

bicipital groove

groove on anterior humurus separating greater and lesser tubercles. aka intertubercular groove.

raphe

groove, ridge, or seam between two parts in an organ or tissue

deltoid ligament

group of ligaments which holds together the medial ankle joint

hypothenar eminance

group of three muscles of the palm that control the motion of the little finger

difference between haemorrhage and haematoma

haemorrhage = bleeding. haematoma = tumor (lump, mass) of blood

2 most common sutures affected in craniosynostosis

half the time its sagital suture only. a quarter of time its coronal suture only. rare to have multiple sutures close

biceps femoris insertion

head of fibula

if a patient can't pronate their forearm, which nerve is suspected to be injured?

median nerve

which nerve innervates the lower flexor compartment of the forearm?

median nerve (with help from ulnar)

supracondular fracture of humerus usually leads to which characteristic signs and why?

median nerve damage. thenareminance wasting, lack of sensation in areas of hand, extended+supinated forearm (some weak flexion), hand of benediction

what important structure links the brainstem and spinal cord?

medulla

medulla can also be called what?

medulla oblongata

lambda

meeting point of sagittal and lambdoid sutures (back of skull)

ulnar styloid

projection from the medial distal ulnar; descends a little lower than the head

palatine shelves

projections of maxillary prominences which grow medially from below the tongue, to fuse above it with the nasal septum. forms the 2ndary palette

what are articular processes

projections of the vertebra which serve to connect them with adjacent vertebra

soleal line

prominant oblique ridge on upper posterior surface of the tibia.

lateral malleolus

prominence on the outer side of the ankle, formed by the lower end of the fibula

pulvinar

prominence on the posterior part of thalamus, containing the pulvinar nuclei

passavant ridge

prominence on the posterior wall of the nasopharynx formed by contraction of the superior constrictor muscle of the pharynx during swallowing/speech (cuts nasopharynx off from oropharynx)

the supinator muscle is almost the exact opposite of which muscle?

pronator teres

sialogram

radiographic examination of glands. injection of contrast medium into the salivary duct of a single gland, followed by routine X-ray projections

is the radius or the ulna on the 'thumb' side of the forearm?

radius

garrods pads

raised calluses on the dorsal finger joints. indicative of dupuytren's contracture on the palmar side of hand

optic disc

raised disk on the retina at the point of entry of the optic nerve, lacking visual receptors and so creating a blind spot

what does the intralaminar nuclei do?

receives info from brainstem reticular formation; sends many branches all over neocortex and the striatum

what position does serratus anterior have to be in to become an accessory respiratory muscle?

rotating the scapula so the glenoid faces upwards, with fixed pectoral girdle

which types of skull movements occur at the atlanto-axial joints?

rotation of the head and atlas (shaking the head "no")

weakness of shoulder joint is indicative of which disease?

rotator cuff disease

infraspinatus

rotator cuff muscle. occupies chief part of the infraspinatous fossa

deltoid tuberosity

roughened raised area on lateral humerus where deltoid attaches

condyle

round bump on a bone where it forms a joint with another bone

promontory of ear

rounded elevation on the lateral side of the bone of the inner ear, between the oval and round windows. produced by 1st turn of underlying cochloa

lingual tonsil

rounded masses of lymphatic tissue that cover the posterior region of the tongue

where can you palpate your own lingual nerve?

running just under the membrane behind your more posterior teeth, where you can rub the bone

name the 2 backward curves in the spine

sacrum + coccyx kyphosis

name the branches of central artery to retina seen in the fundus of the eye

superior + inferior macular arteries, sup + inf nasal branches (run towards the nose) and sup + inf termporal branch (towards temples)

what are the cornua of the thyroid cartilage?

superior and inferior horn-shaped projections of the posterior thyroid cartilage

pubic rami

superior and inferior; meet at the body of the pubis - border medial quarter of obturator foramen

name the 3 muscles of the pharynx

superior constrictor, middle constrictor, inferior constrictor (posterior view)

name where these muscles attach to the mandible + their function: temporalis, masseter, buccinator, pterygoid muscles

temporalis: attaches onto coronoid process of mandible; draws mandible posteriorly upwards. masseter: inserts onto zygomatic arch, elevates mandible. pterygoid muscles: attach to condyle of mandible, elevates it. buccinator arises from alveolar processes of maxilla/mandible; pulls back mouth

plantaris insertion

tendo calcaneus

gluteus medius insertion

tendon inserts into an oblique ridge that runs downward and forward on the lateral surface of the greater trochanter

gracilis action

adducts thigh, flexes knee joint, medially rotates leg

what 3 things should appear white in the brain on CT?

bone, blood, and calcification

anterior inferior iliac spine

bony eminence just below ASIS

landing hard on a heel is likely to rupture which tendon?

achilles tendon

tendo calcaneus AKA?

achilles tendon

which tendon attaches to posterior calcaneus?

achilles tendon

what are the anterior and posterior boundaries of the spinal canal?

*anterior:* vertebral body + post. longitudinal ligament. *Posterior:* adjacent laminae (vertebral arches) + ligamenta flava

pinna can also be known as?

*auricle*

which bodyparts aside from the cranium are most commonly affected in craniosynostosis

*limbs*, face, hearing

which cells migrate into the embryo head to differentiate into the cranial vault bones?

*mesenchymal cells* from cranial neural crest and occipital somites

striate nucleus is aka?

*neostriatum*, or *striatum*

what are the roots of the brachial plexus?

*ventral rami* of spinal nerves c5-t1

name the joints which fuse the bones of the pelvis

2 sacro-iliac joints and pubic symphisis

thyroid gland rests anteriorly over which tracheal rings?

2,3,4

what is the minimum number of neurons which synapse in the somatosensory pathway from peripheral receptor to cerebral cortex?

3

cerebellar peduncles

3 pairs of fibre bundles which connect the cerebellum to the brain stem; information passes on these tracts in both directions.

name the cartilagenous plates the chondrocranium is derived from

3 pairs of plates; the prechordal, hypophyseal and parachordal cartilages.

what are the nasal meatuses?

3 passages of nasal cavity; superior, middle, and inferior meatus, located beneath each of the corresponding nasal conchae (pic = coronal plane)

at which age is cleft lip usually surgically corrected?

3-8 months

what % of cleft palate cases are associated with cleft lip?

50%

sartorius origin

ASIS

inferior gluteal line

bony line from ASIS to middle of sciatic notch. gluteus minimus originates above it

name the 3 layers of meninges covering brain + spinal cord

dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

name the ligaments which turn the sciatic notches into foramina

sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments

what is the overal function of the medial thigh muscles?

adduct the hip joint (and slight medial rotation of femur at hip joint)

which G protein is the target of cholera toxin

Gs (activates adenylate cyclase)

nerve supply of psoas major

L2 + L3 (small direct branches of lumbar plexus)

root of femoral nerve

L2 - L4

root of obturator nerve

L2 - L4

flexion of hip is supplied by which nerve root?

L2 L3

root of of sciatic nerve

L4 - S3

extension of hip is supplied by which myotome?

L4 L5

which nerve root supplies sensation to webbed space between big toe and 2nd toe?

L5

describe the motor loss in median nerve damage

LOAF: Lateral 2 lumbricals, can't Oppose thumb, loose foreArm pronation and wrist Flexion

which is the most posterior of the adductor thigh muscles?

adductor magnus

name an AMPAR antagonist

NBQX

piriformis origin

sacrum (2nd 3rd 4th segments) + upper border of sciatic notch

name the small projection just superior to the medial epicondyle of femur

adductor tubercle

what shape is the origin of the deltoid from above?

U shaped from lateral clavicle, across acromion and onto spine of scapula

which causes muscle weakness WITH *vivid* reflexes, an upper or lower motoneuron lesion? why?

UMN lesion. causes a lack of descending inhibition: the corticospinal tract is glutamatergic, and excites both excitatory and inhibitory interneurons. There are more inhibitory than excitatory neurons in the spinal cord, and so if there is a loss of input, there will be a net increase in levels of excitation

what is the origin of the tibial collateral ligament

adductor tubercle of femur

what movement does the latissimus dorsi allow when it contracts?

adducts and medially rotates the humerus (eg enables climbing/doing pull ups)

adductor brevis action

adducts thigh

which structures are contained in bicipital groove?

a branch of the anterior humeral circumflex artery, and tendons of long head of biceps, pectoralis major and teres major

what usually seperates the tendons of sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus from the tibial collateral ligament?

a bursa

internal auditory meatus

a canal in the petrous temporal bone. carries nerves from inside skull towards middle + inner ear, namely cranial nerves VII and VIII

barbiturates

a class of sedative and sleep-inducing drugs (CNS depressants) derived from barbituric acid; GABA receptor agonists

what is volkmann's contracture caused by?

a compartment syndrome; obstruction of brachial artery (fracture/tourniquet/plaster cast) near the elbow causes ischaemia/necrosis of muscles of forearm - so they shorten to length of contraction

valgus

a deformity involving oblique displacement of part of a limb away from the midline

articularis genu

a few muscular fibres of the vastus intermedius which insert into upper limit of suprapatellar bursa. help prevent pinching of the bursa into the knee joint

what would you expect to cause midline swellings in the neck which move up and down during swallowing (are *fluctuant*)?

a goitre or a thyroid cyst

vallecula

a groove or furrow, eg the epiglottic vallecula, the space between the epiglottis and the back of the tongue

vestibule

a large entrance or reception room/ a chamber, channel or cavity

long term potentiation

a long-lasting signal transmission enhancement between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously

what is the name for a ganglion *within the CNS*

a nucleus

what is the lateral border of the anatomical snuffbox?

a pair of parallel and intimate tendons, of the extensor pollicis brevis and the abductor pollicis longus

confluence

a place where two rivers meet; a process of merging

what can sometimes form instead of a nose in conditions like holoprosencephaly?

a proboscis

somatosense

a sensation (eg pressure, pain, or warmth) that can occur anywhere in the body, unlike one localized at a sense organ (eg sight, balance, or taste)

subchondral sclerosis

a sign of arthritis. thickening/hardening of bone just beneath the joint cartilage (body's compensation for cartilage erosion)

the cricoid cartilage is likened to the shape of what?

a signet ring, with the narrow part in front and thick section behind

labrum

a structure corresponding to a lip, eg the 'lip' of fibrocartilage surrounding glenoid cavity

lamina

a thin plate or layer

dysplasia

abnormal development (of organs or cells)

paresthesia

abnormal sensation, typically tingling or pricking ("pins and needles"), caused chiefly by pressure on or damage to peripheral nerves

dyskinesia

abnormality or impairment of voluntary movement

at what level do the common carotid arteries divide into internal + external?

about the level of the voicebox

where is subclavian pulse palpable

above and behind the middle of clavicle

superior thyroid notch

above the laryngeal prominence the thyroid cartilage laminae are separated by a V-shaped notch

what layer covers the deep fascia of the thigh?

an outer sleeve of subcutaneous fat

polycystic kidney disease is associated with what in the head and neck?

aneurysms (especially in the circle of willis)

knee valgus angle

angle between femur and tibia

angle of inclination

angle between neck and shaft of femur

coxa vara

angle of inclination is deminise to >116 degrees

coxa valga

angle of inclination is increased to over 140 degrees

which artery do you feel as a pulse medial to your orbit?

angular artery

what is scientific name for 'loss of smell'

anosmosia

prosencephalon

another term for forebrain (the anterior part of brain)

antebrachium

another word for forearm

medial antebrachial vein

anteior central vein of the forearm, which drains venous plexus of palm into the basilic or median cubital veins

in the neck, neurovascular structures and lymph lie laterally to which compartment; anterior or posterior?

anterior

what is the most common direction of shoulder dislocation?

anterior

name the two major compartments in neck + their key contents

anterior (trachea, oesophagus, thyroid gland, neurovascular structures), posterior (cervical vertebral column + its surrounding musculature)

vastus intermedius origin

anterior + lateral femur

as it leaves the cavernus sinus, the internal carotid branches to form what?

anterior + middle cerebral arteries, posterior communicating artery and opthalmic artery

which ligament prevents slipping of the femur backwards on the tibia during extension of knee eg when walking?

anterior cruciate ligament

which nerve runs up through the cribiform plate?

anterior ethmoidal nerve

what movements can the deltoid induce?

anterior fibres alone can flex the arm and posterior fibres extend it. the middle fibres abduct the arm

is primary curvature of the spine anterior or posterior flexure?

anterior flexure

which nerve supplies the deep anterior muscles of the forearm?

anterior interosseus branch of median nerve (and ulnar nerve for half of flexor digitorum profundus)

vastus medialis origin

anterior intertrochanteric line, linea aspera + medial epicodylar line

location of glenohumeral ligament

anterior of shoulder joint, running from glenoid to anatomical neck

which region of the nose do most nosebleeds come from in young kids? how should you treat this?

anterior region of nasal septum - known as Little's area. Pinch nose + ask to lean forward

scalenous anterior arises from which tubercles on vertebrae?

anterior tubercles of transverse processes of third, fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical vertebrae

parts of cerebellum

anterior, posterior and flocculonodular lobes. vermis (a narrow midline ridge like a worm), hemisphere (lateral part), tonsil

does the coracoid process project anteriorly or posteriorly?

anteriorly

the shafts of the tibia and fibula are covered by muscles - except for where?

antero-medial aspect of tibia (lies directly beneath skin from knee to ankle)

looking through an auriscope, which quadrant of the tympanic membrane will you see a reflected cone of light?

anteroinferior quadrant

non-genetic risk factors of NTDs

anticonvulsant drugs, deficiency of folate/inostiol/vit B12/zinc, fever during pregnancy, diabetes/obesity, folate antagonists (fumonisin/trimethoprim)

if you look a skull in the eye, how can you identify the greater and lesser wing of sphenoid?

anything below the superior orbital fissure is greater, anything above it is lesser

where can thyroid cysts occur?

anywhere along the developmental path of migration of thyroid gland

where are the apical groups of axillary lymph nodes?

apex of the axilla, near where the clavicle runs over the

what is the visible/palpable part of the axilla called?

the floor

rhomboid major

back muscle; connects the scapula with spinal vertebrae. acts with rhomboid minor to keep scapula pressed against thoracic wall

occiput

back part of skull

teres minor

back/shoulder muscle involved in LATERAL rotation and stabilisation of shoulder

teres major

back/shoulder muscle involved in MEDIAL rotation, adduction and stabilisation of shoulder

the vertebral arteries join within the cranium to form which artery?

basilar artery

what are the parts of the pons?

basilar pons (the ventral portion) and pontine tegmentum (dorsal portion)

name a vein on medial side of arm that passes through the superficial and deep fascia to join veins beside the brachial artery

basilic vein

why might certain stains colour the white matter of the spinal cord dark?

because a traditional way of staining spinal cord sections is to stain the myelin

why is the mastoid antrum clinically important?

because of the possibility of spread of infection into it from middle ear

why are microglia sometimes called a 'fake' glia?

because they don't develop in the CNS (instead related to immune cells) but migrate their during development + take up permanent residence

how does the thickness of the ulna change distally?

becomes narrower distally

how does the thickness of the radius change distally?

becomes thicker distally

where does lymph drain to in scalp infections?

behind ear, side of mandible, and under chin

where does the short saphenous vein begin?

behind the lateral malleolus

where does the cephalic vein drain into the axillary vein?

below the coracoid process, in the delto-pectoral groove (label D in picture)

where can you palpate the anterior cricoid cartilage?

below the thyroid cartilage

where would you find the radial nerve if you opened the posterior proximal arm?

between medial and lateral head of triceps

where do the ventral rami for the brachial plexus emerge?

between the scalenus anterior and medius in the neck

name the muscles of the posterior compartment of thigh

biceps femoris, semitendinosous, semimembranosus

name the hamstring muscles (posterior thigh)

biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus

middle meningeal artery

big branch of the external carotid/maxillary artery behind jaw. runs through foramen spinosum to act as nutrient artery to skull vault bones

how do P2X adenosine receptors block pain?

blocks receptor for ATP on microglia - this prevents the microglia releasing BDNF.

gracilis origin

body + inferior ramus of pubis

3 main parts of sphenoid bone

body, greater wings, lesser wings

what does high FGF activity induce in the cranial sutures?

bone differentiation

sesamoid bone

bone embedded within a tendon or a muscle, formed by strain, acts like a pulley for tendons to slide over

innominate bone

bone formed from the fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis; the hipbone

malleus

bone in the middle ear that transmits vibrations of the eardrum to the incus

the two main sources of lymphocytes of the blood

bone marrow and lymph nodes

medial wall of middle ear

bone of inner ear, including the promontory + oval and round windows

maxilla

bone of upper jaw, part of the nose and eye socket

cervical plexus contains ventral rami from which vertebrae?

c1-4

what spinal levels are the origin of musculocutaneous nerve?

c5 and c6

which ventral rami form upper trunk of brachial plexus

c5-6

brachial plexus contains ventral rami from which vertebrae?

c5-T1

which cervical vertebra doesn't have a bifidous spinous process

c7

which ventral rami form middle trunk of brachial plexus

c7

which ventral rami form lower trunk of brachial plexus

c8-t1

salivary calculi

calcified masses (stones) found in salivary glands due to infection, dehydration, hypercalcaemia in that area

how does your feeling of pain change after a prefrontal lobotomy?

can still feel pain, but won't appreciate it/it won't worry you: *pain is a construct of cerebral cortex*

which is more superior, auditory tube or canal for tensor tympani muscle

canal for tensor tympani muscle

patella retinacula

capsule-strengthening layers either side of the extensor apparatus, formed from fascia lata and fibrous expansions from vastus lateralis + medialis

what may be suspected from finding a hard lump in the axilla?

carcinoma of the breast

name the bulge at the bottom of the internal carotid artery (where is branches from common carotid)

carotid sinus

efferent nerve fibres

carry impulses out of the CNS

larynx

cartilagenous structure/*valve* which protects the entrance to the airway, also involved in phonation (aka the voice box).

what articulates with the deep surface of the patella?

catilage in the midline on the femur, and a crescentic area of catilage on the medial femoral condyle

orbit

cavity in the skull that contains the eye; the eye socket

are microglia motile cells?

cell bodies are stationary, but processes are constantly moving; Surveillance (resting) mode.

mesenchyme

cells (mainly mesodermal) which are loosely near to each other, are fairly motile, and develop into connective/ skeletal tissues

repair scwhann cellsn

cells which form from normal schwann cells (both myelinating and non myelinating) when their axons die. they alone are able to regenerate nerves

what is the only artery to supply the retina?

central artery to the retina

from which neural tube vesicle do the cerebral hemispheres grow?

the forebrain vesicle

what nerve gives sensory innervation to the skin above the medial hallux and lateral first toe

deep peroneal

extensor digitorum longus nerve supply

deep peroneal nerve

extensor hallucis longus nerve supply

deep peroneal nerve

peroneus tertius nerve supply

deep peroneal nerve

tibialis anterior nerve supply

deep peroneal nerve

where does the external carotid artery divide into its two terminal branches?

deep to the mandible, anterior to the ear, within the parotid salivary gland

nasal hemianopia

defective vision in medial half of visual field, i.e. the half nearer the nose. caused by pressure to one side of optic chiasma. can affect one eye or both (binasal)

dysmetria

deficiences in gaging movement distance

posterior triangle of neck

defined by trapezius, sternocleidomastoid, and clavicle

ethmoid bone

delicate bone at root of nose, full of air, with many perforations through which the olfactory nerves pass

which muscle abducts the arm from 15° to 90°

deltoid

which muscles are supplied by axillary nerve?

deltoid and teres minor

name the roughened raised area about a third the way down the lateral humerus

deltoid tuberosity

parietal spiders

diploic veins which can look like spiders in the parietal region

location of hypoglossal canals

directly superior and slightly anterior to each corresponding occipital condyle

carpal tunnel syndrome

discomfort + weakness in the thumb and first 2 fingers due to compression of median nerve as it passes over carpal bones

instability of the shoulder joint leads to what?

dislocations

how does the obturator artery divide?

divides into anterior and posterior branches which form arterial mesh on obturator membrane. posterior division gives branch to acetabulum

what begins to happen to the mastoid process in 2 year olds?

doesn't yet exist; begins to develop, and air cells gradually extend into it

what causes craniosynostosis?

dominant gene mutations in FIbroblast Growth Factors (FGF) receptors which *increase FGF receptor activity* driving the formation of bone in cranial sutures

when discussing the foot, which term can be used instead of superior?

dorsal

when discussing the hand, which term can be used instead of posterior?

dorsal

tibialis anterior action

dorsiflexes ankle + inverts foot

which nucleus of the thalamus relays info from the amygdala to the prefrontal cortex?

dorsomedial nucleus (seen in pic of thalamus from above)

in the anatomical postition, do the pronator muscles run diagonally downwards in medial or lateral direction?

down and lateral

what causes acromioclavicular joint separation?

downward force being applied to the superior part of the acromion, either by something striking the top of the acromion or by falling directly on it

features of thoracic vertebrae

downward pointing spinous process, rib facets found on transverse processes + vertebral bodies, coronally orientated joint facets

sulcus sign

downwards traction is applied to the humerus. If the space widens between the acromion process and humeral head to produce a sulcus, instability is confirmed.

CSF rhinorrhea

drainage of CSF through the nose; sign of dangerous basal skull fracture

median aperture

drains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the fourth ventricle into the subarachnoid space/cisterna magna

lactiferous duct

ducts which carry milk from each lobe in the breast to a *lactiferous sinus* in the nipple

pathology of concussion

due to the stretching of the brainstem caused by movements of the brain during impact on the head. brainstem may stop consciousness

motor nerve fibres

efferent fibres which carry impulses to muscles for contraction

crura cerebri

either of two symmetrical tracts of nerve fibers at the base of the midbrain, linking the pons and the cerebral hemispheres (aka cerebral peduncles)

the auricle is made from what?

elastic fibrocartilaginous framework with skin firmly attached

ultimobranchial body

embryological structure that gives rise to the calcitonin-producing cells— parafollicular cells aka C cells—of thyroid gland. derivative of the ventral recess of the fourth pharyngeal pouch

quinsey

emergency complication of tonsillitis. a abscess of pus beside the tonsil in the peritonsillar space - can obstruct airway

annular ligament

encircles the head of the radius, and retains it in contact with the radial notch of the ulna. part of the proximal radioulnar joint

pretrachial fascia

encloses most of the anterior compartment of the neck

which is the more ancient way of producing bone, endochondral or intramembranous ossification?

endochondral

describe the course of the ulnar nerve in the hand

enters palm through Guyon's canal going just lateral to pisiform. splits in two: a superfical branch splits off to palmaris brevis + palmar digital nerves to last two fingers. deep branch innervates the 3 hypothenar muscles, medial 2 lumbricals, all the interossei, adductor pollicis + deep head of flexor pollicis brevis

contents of spinal canal

epidural fat pad (with internal venous plexus), meninges, and spinal cord itself

what is the scientific word for bleeding from the nose?

epistaxis

conjunctiva

epithelial mucous membrane that covers sclera and lines the inside of the eyelids

name the tube which runs from the anterior middle ear to the back of the nose

eustachian tube

other names for the auditory tube

eustacian or pharyngotypanic tube

peroneus tertius action

everts foot, dorsiflexes ankle

peroneus brevis action

everts foot, plantarflexes ankle

why is too much glutamate in neurons dangerous?

excitotoxicity - enables Ca2+ to build up in cell, which inactivates proteins, leading to cell death + neurodegeneration

describe the passage of lymph

exits blood capillary walls, supplies tissues, drained by lymph capillaries, into lymph vessels, primary lymph node, vessels to 2ndary then tertiary lymph node, enters great veins in neck

the common peroneal nerve exits the popliteal fossa in which direction? what does it meet?

exits it laterally to meet and curl around (anteriorly) the neck of the fibula

frontonasal prominence

expansive facial process in the embryo that develops into the forehead and bridge of the nose

what is the major function of the muscles on the front of the thigh?

extend the knee joint

sacrospinous ligament

extends from ischial spine to lateral margins of the sacrum, deep to the sacrotuberous ligament

extensor hallucis longus action

extends great toe, dorsiflexes ankle

extensor digitorum longus action

extends interphalangeal + metatarsophalangeal joints of toes. dorsiflexes foot

to where does the greater wing of sphenoid extend?

extends laterally to contribute to a piece of the wall of the cranium

vastus intermedius action

extends the leg

vastus medialis action

extends the leg

tentorium cerebelli

extension of the dura mater that separates the cerebellum from the inferior portion of the occipital lobes

which is stronger, the flexor or extensor muscles of the neck? why?

extensor -because the head naturally falls forwards onto chest when upright, so they have to combat this

what forms from the 1st pharyngeal cleft?

external auditory tube

the lower extemity of the breast lies on the origin of which muscle?

external oblique

which name is also used for the lateral pterygoid muscle?

external pterygoid

is middle meningeal artery subdural or extradural?

extradural (hence rupture causes extradural haemorrhage)

calcific tendonitis

extremely painful. deposits of calcium apatite in a tendon (ommonly tendons of the rotator cuff)

how is the cranial dura attached to the periosteum of the vault?

extremely strongly; completely fused wherever the dura is directly in contact (though not at sinuses or places where dura folds into fibrous brain septa)

what are the two sets of muscles of the tongue

extrinsic (have origin from bone) and intrinsic (have no bony origin/attachment)

which nerve supplies stapedius muscle

facial nerve (VII)

functions of cranial nerve VII

facial nerve: facial sensation/expression, blinking, smiling, frowning, taste, lacrimation and salivation

what causes cleft lip?

failure of maxillary prominances to fuse with intermaxillary processes - due to genetics/smoking/phenytoin (used to treat epilepsy)

is the maxilla a strong or weak bone? why?

fairly frail, as most of its inside is excavated by the large maxillary air sinus (maxillary antrum)

each muscle group that surrounds the cervical vertebral column is covered with....?

fascia

what strengthens the anterior knee joint capsule either side of the extensor apparatus?

fascia lata and fibrous expansions from vastus lateralis + medialis; the *patella retinacula*

if you press a cyst, does it feel hard or soft?

feels squashy/fluid filled, like a sack

is cleft palate more common in males or females?

females

posterior divisions of nerves from L2-4 become which nerve?

femoral

pectineus nerve supply

femoral (occasionally obturator) nerve

which artery passes through the adductor hiatus to enter the popliteal fossa?

femoral artery, turning into the popliteal artery as it does so

what does the femoral sheath contain?

femoral artery, vein, lymphatics, canal (NOT NERVE)

sartorius nerve supply

femoral nerve

what is the nerve supply of the quadriceps group of muscles?

femoral nerve

which nerve supplies sartorius muscle

femoral nerve

rectus femoris nerve supply

femoral nerve (L2,3,4)

vastus lateralis nerve supply

femoral nerve (L2,3,4)

vastus medialis nerve supply

femoral nerve (L2,3,4)

name the two openings in the bony medial wall of the middle ear

fenestra vestibuli (oval window) and festra cochleae (round window)

the external auditory meatus + external tympanic membrane have sensory innervation from which nerves?

fibres from vagus and trigeminal

what are intervertebral discs made from?

fibrocartilage which attaches firmly to the vertebra above nad below

quadrangular membrane

fibroelastic membrane running between the anterolateral aspects of the epiglottis, anteriorly down to the thyroid laminae / posteriorly down to arytenoid cartilages

distall tibiofibular joint is what kind of joint?

fibrous

what kind of joints are sutures?

fibrous

what joins the two origins of the soleus muscle?

fibrous arch

ligamentum patellae

fibrous band in knee, running over the patella and down onto the tuberosity of the tibia, forming part of the extensor apparatus

iliotibial tract

fibrous band/reinforcement of the fascia lata on lateral side. runs from iliac tubercle to tibia/patella. aka iliotibial band

long plantar ligament

fibrous bundle on base of foot, from calcaneus posterior tubercle to heads of the central 3 metatarsals

radial groove

oblique depression, on posterior humeus, for the radial nerve + deep brachial artery

anatomical neck of humerus

oblique groove; divides the head of humerus from the tuberosities, gives attachment to the articular capsule

anatomical neck of humerous

oblique ring surrounding the head of humerous

anterior divisions of nerves from L2-4 become which nerve?

obturator

which muscle in medial (adductor) compartment of thigh has no adducting action?

obturator externus

obturator externus origin

obturator membrane (medial half outer surface) + adjacent pubis + ischium (lower part of obturator foramen)

adductor brevis nerve supply

obturator nerve

most adductors of the hip joint are supplied by which nerve

obturator nerve

what is the nerve supply of the medial thigh muscles?

obturator nerve EXCEPT pectineus (femoral nerve)

nerve supply obturator externus

obturator nerve L2,3,4

nerve supply adductor longus

obturator nerve anterior division (L2,3,4)

nerve supply adductor magnus

obturator nerve posterior division. small posterior part of muscle supplied by sciatic nerve

the principal bones which form the cranium

occipital bone, parietal bones, temporal bones, sphenoid bones, frontal bone

lambdoid suture is continuous with which suture

occipitomastoid suture

what is the time difference for fusion of the palatine shelves between male and female embryos

occurs 1 week earlier in males

how would you test cranial nerve III

oculomotor nerve: ask subject to look side to side, then look up and down with eye in medial, then lateral position

describe cranial nerve III

oculomotor nerve; supplies all but *3* extrinsic eye muscles. passes from anterior midbrain, between posterior + superior cerebral arteries, to enter cleft of dura between free edge of tentorium/over petroclinoid ligament. runs lateral wall cavernous sinus through superior orbital fissure into orbit

odontoid peg

odontoid process; toothlike projection from the C2 vertebra on which the first vertebra pivots

ethmoid bone is formed by fusion of prechondral cartilages and what?

olfactory capsules

describe cranial nerve I

olfactory nerve; considered an extension of the brain. from the olfactory bulb, ~20 nerve bundles pass through cribiform plate to innervate upper nasal cavity

where are the superior orbital fissures located from the intercranial view?

on either side between the greater and lesser wings of sphenoid bone. lateral to the anterior clinoid processes of the sella turcica

where can you observe the hypothalamus on a brain?

on the base, between the optic chiasm and cerebral peduncles

contralateral

on the opposite side of the body

ipsilateral

on the same side of the body

when and where do the secondary curvatures of the spine develop?

one in cervical region as children begin to hold their head up. one in lumbar region as children learn to balance on their feet

name the thick, internal portion of the temporal bone

petrous part

which bone contains the organs of hearing/balance within its substance

petrous temporal

fractures involving which bone can easily injure the organs of hearing/balance

petrous temporal bone

which bone forms the structure of the bony labyrinth

petrous temporal bone (labyrinth is 'excavated' out of it

ectoderm + endoderm form what inbetween each pharyngeal arch?

pharyngeal clefts (ectoderm) and pharyngeal pouches (endoderm)

which nerves supply the pharynx?

pharyngeal plexus (mixing of nerves from the vagus, glossopharygeal, accessory CNs and sympathetic fibres)

which meningeal layer covers the surface of the CNS?

pia mater

what does the posterior division of obturator nerve do?

pierces obturator externus to lie between middle + deep strata of adductor muscles (supplies ob. externus + adductor magnus)

inferior and superior nerves are separated either side of which muscle?

piriformis

which muscle passes through the greater sciatic foramen?

piriformis

name the muscles of the deep group of gluteal region

piriformis, gamellus superior, obturator internus, gamellus inferior, quadratus femorus

sella turcica is another name for

pituitary fossa (because supposedly turkish saddle shaped?!)

adduction of foot

pivot toes inwards

abduction of foot

pivot toes outwards

which pathway is essential to begin closure of the neural tube?

planar cell polarity signalling

acromioclavicular joint

plane synovial joint at top of shoulder

pharyngeal tubercle

point of attachment of the superior pharyngeal constrictor and its raphe on the inferior surface of the basilar part of the occipital bone

asterion

point on exposed skull, just behind ear, at the junction of the lamboid, occipitomastoid, and squamosal sutures

ischial spine

pointed projection from the posterior border of body of ischium, just below the greater sciatic notch and above lesser sciatic notch

which part of the cerebellum influences the ventrolateral nucleus of thalamus (& hence M1 + PMC)?

pontocerebellum

what is the deepest structure of the popliteal fossa?

popliteal artery

name the neurovascular structures of popliteal fossa from medial to lateral

popliteal artery, popliteal vein, tibial nerve, common peroneal nerve

insertion popliteus

popliteal line on posterior tibia

name the small muscle in the region of the soleal line

popliteus

which muscle enables the unlocking of the knee from the close packed position? how?

popliteus muscle. it laterally rotates femur on the tibia

axillary tail of the breast

portion of the breast that extends into the arm-pit. Tenderness here without any other breast soreness indicates ovulation

which cords of the brachial plexus are destined to supply extensors?

posterior cord

which intercranial fossa does the hypoglossal canal open into?

posterior cranial fossa

which ligament prevents slipping of the femur forwards on the tibia, for example when weight bearing on a flexed knee?

posterior cruciate ligament

name the thickening produced by the expansion of semimembranosis at the back of the knee joint capsule

posterior oblique ligament

which bones form the posterior cranial fossa?

posterior of both petrous temporal bones, occipital bone

internal acoustic meatus is a foramen located in which bone? which part?

posterior part of petrous temporal bone

what is the mastoid antrum related to medially?

posterior semicircular canal. pic is superior view

the 3 muscles of the posterior thigh run down to the knee in a 'gutter' formed by what?

posterior surface of adductor magnus (medially) and lateral intermuscular septum (laterally)

which structures form the extensor apparatus of the knee

quadriceps, patella, and ligamentum patellae

zygomatic bone

quadrilateral bone; forms the prominence of the cheek, the lateral wall and margin of the orbit, and the anterior zygomatic arch

which nerve would be most at risk of damage from a midshaft humeral fracture?

radial

which should be lower/more distal on the wrist, the radial or ulnar styloid process?

radial

name the 3 ligaments which reinforce the elbow joint

radial + ulnar collateral ligament, annular ligament

where is the origin of the cephalic vein?

radial border of the dorsal venous network of the hand

which nerve supplies extensor muscles all the way down the arm

radial nerve

which nerve supplies virtually all of the posterior upper limb?

radial nerve

treacher collins syndrome

rare autosomal dominant disease affecting tissues from pharyngeal arches 1&2; downward slanting eyelids, hypoplasia of mandible, cheekbones, ear, sparse eyelashes, high/cleft palate. intelligence unaffected

bifid nose

rare birth defect caused by incomplete fusion of medial nasal prominences. may show as notched/divided nasal tip, deficit in midline frontal bone, broad nasion, wide-spaced eyes

frey's syndrome

rare neurological disorder. caused by parasympathetic nerve damage to/near parotid glands / from damage to facial nerve often from surgery. flushed + sweating area due to abnormal parasympathetic regrowth

which muscle flexes the hip and extends the knee?

rectus femoris

which nerve supplies nearly all of the larynx?

recurrent laryngeal nerves

crural

relating the leg from the knee to the foot

'volar' means what?

relating to palm of hand or sole of foot

thenar

relating to the ball of the thumb

peroneal

relating to the fibula or the outer part of the leg below the knee

what does 'coxal' mean?

relating to the hip

pollicis

relating to the thumb

when sphincter muscles within ciliary body contract, what happens?

relaxes suspensory ligaments, lens assumes globular shape

why do damaged sensory neurons cause pain?

release neuregulin

which sides of the brain innervate which eye?

right and left sides of the brain *each* give branches to both eyes (hence upper motoneuron lesions you can usually still control both eyes)

common tendinous ring

ring of fibrous tissue surrounding the optic nerve at its entrance at the apex of the orbit; origin for the rectus muscles

palate

roof of the mouth; separates the oral and nasal cavities

name the squiggly 'lines of fusion' between the bones of the cranium

sutures

meningism

symptom triad of nuchal rigidity (neck stiffness), photophobia (intolerance of bright light) and headache. may or may not involve the actual meningeal inflammation

proximal tibiofibular joint is what kind of joint?

synovial

TCN joint

talocalcaneonavicular joint. synovial ball and socket joint for the rounded head of the talus. socket is formed by posterior navicular surface, anterior articular surface of the calcaneus, and upper surface of the calcaneonavicular (spring) ligament

jugular foramen lies between which two bones

temporal and occipital

petrous temporal bone helps support which brain lobe?

temporal lobes

which part of the rotator cuff is most often damaged in a rotator cuff tear?

tendon of supraspinatus, where it inserts onto the greater tubercle humeral head

what is the medial border of the anatomical snuffbox?

tendon of the extensor pollicis longus

what fills the anterior gap in the fibrous capsule of the knee joint

tendon of the quadriceps, patella, and ligamentum patellae

tensor fasciae latae action

tenses iliotibial tract; pulls it superior + anteriorly (locks knee). helps flex, abduct and medially + laterally rotate thigh

which superficial gluteal region muscles are innervated by the superior gluteal nerve?

tensor fasciae latae and gluteus medius + minimus

what forms a tent roof over the posterior cranial fossa?

tentorium cerebelli

what separates the occipital lobe from the cerebellum?

tentorium cerebelli

aside from genetic defects, what can easily kill neural crest cells?

teratogens (eg alcohol)

which is more inferior, teres minor or major?

teres major

extensor hallucis longus insertion

terminal phalanyx, great toe

name the division between the anterior 2/3rds of tongue and the posterior 1/3

terminal sulcus of tongue

allen's test

test for poor hand circulation - colour should return in 5 -15 seconds. if result *negative* then the ulnar artery supply to the hand is not sufficient, so radial artery cannot be safely pricked/cannulated

how can you test cranial nerve IV

test trochlear nerve by asking patient to look towards their nose + then downwards (tests superior oblique muscle)

are the jawbones part of the neurocranium or viscerocranium?

textbooks may say either; however their origin is more similar to the neurocranium

what is the largest component of the diencephalon?

thalamus

why are the 3 cords of the brachial plexus called the lateral, medial and posterior?

that is how they are arranged around the axillary artery

head of humerous

the 'ball' of the ball and socket joint in the shoulder

which nerve supplies obturator internus?

the 'nerve to obturator internus' (NOT obturator nerve)

ischial tuberosity

the 'sit bones'. posterior inferior part of ischium; attaches many muscles

name the two bony ridges which extend from the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus

the *crests* of the greater and lesser tubercles

scientifically, what is the adams apple?

the *laryngeal prominence* formed by the angle of meeting point of the two laminae of the thyroid cartilage

which part of the sphenoid is the foramen spinosum located on?

the *spine* of the sphenoid (on the greater wing)

what articulates with the lateral end of the clavicle?

the acromion

which structures divide the thigh into flexor and extensor compartments?

the adductor mass (which form a thick muscular septum). the shaft of femur. the lateral intermuscular septum (sheet of fascia). *together these 3 form a musculo-osseofascial partition across thigh*

what is the wing of the ilium known as?

the ala of iliump

what do the pharyngeal arch *cartilages* form into?

the alisphenoid (a small bone of the orbit), elements of the jaw skeleton (Meckel's cartilage), Maleus, Incus, Stapes, and the hyoid and laryngeal skeleton

free edge of tentorium

the anterior U shaped border of tentorium cerebri

what forms the medial cord of the brachial plexus?

the anterior division of the lower trunk

what forms the lateral cord of the brachial plexus?

the anterior divisions of of the upper trunk and middle trunk

name the joints which connect the atlas vertebra with the bones above and below it

the atlanto-occipital joints and the atlanto-axial joints

which vertebrae are not connected by inter-vertebral discs?

the atlas and axis. (synovial joints instead for greater movement)

basioccipital

the basilar process of the occipital bone. runs from in front of foramen magnum to join the sphenoid

what should you palpate for to easily find the brachial artery (eg for taking blood presure)?

the biceps tendon, solid when elbow is flexed (artery is immediately medial to it)

squamous part of temporal bone

the biggest, superior part of temporal bone

why is the ethmoid easily fractured?

the bone is very frail like eggshell

mandible

the bone that is hinged to open the mouth; the lower jaw

malleoli

the bony prominences either side of the ankle

limbus

the border/margin of a structure, especially the junction of the cornea and sclera in the eye

what is the mastoid antrum related to superiorly?

the brain

most cranial nerves come from what part of the brain?

the brainstem

why is more lymph produced in active/inflamed tissues?

the capillary endothelium becomes excessively permeable

which is more sharply curved, the cornea or the sclera?

the cornea (it bulges forwards)

why do babies show a positive babinski sign?

the corticospinal pathways are not fully myelinated until age 1-2 yrs, so the reflex is not inhibited by the cerebral cortex

mesenchymal cells from neural crest+occipital somites become *interposed between surface ectoderm + neural ectoderm* to form what?

the cranial vault bones

what attaches the lower border of the thyroid cartilage to the cricoid in the midline?

the cricothyroid ligament

what lies inferior to the slit-like gap below the vestibular ligament?

the cricovocal membrane

name the bone in front of the calcaneus

the cuboid bone

upper lateral cutaneous nerve of the arm

the cutaneous branch of the axillary nerve, supplying skin over the deltoid

what lies beneath the superficial fascia?

the deep fascia

what does the 'base' of the breast rest on?

the deep fascia of pec major

where does the serratus anterior arise from?

the digitations of muscle arise from the front of first 8 ribs

a fracture at which end of the humerus is most dangerous to the radial nerve? why?

the distal third. the nerve is much tighter and less mobile here than it is up higher.

the *aditus* connects the anterior wall of the mastoid antrum with what?

the epitympanic recess

what do the dorsal rami supply?

the erector spinae muscles + their overlying skin (segmental supply)

what does the linea aspera divide into superiorly?

the spiral line medially, and the gluteal tuberosity laterally

why doesn't the 5th pharyngeal arch form?

the structure it forms in fish isn't present in humans

what is the proximal border of the anatomical snuffbox?

the styloid process of the radius

name the two bony prominances either side of the wrist

the styloid processes of the ulna and radius

posterior to the temporal styloid process, the facial nerve passes through which passage?

the stylomastoid foramen

what attaches to the pharyngeal tubercle?

the superior constrictor muscle

petrous crest

the superior margin of the petrous part of temporal bone. runs obliquely

name the membrane which covers tendons and secretes synovial fluid

the synovium / synovial sheath

the condyle of the mandible articulates to what?

the temporal underside surface of the zygomatic arch

what 2 key structures help form the arches of the foot?

the tendons of TD&H muscles, and the ligaments within the foot

the semitendinosus insertion lies behind the insertions of which 2 muscles?

the tendons of gracilis and sartorius

what is the innervation of the hamstrings?

the tibial part of sciatic nerve EXCEPT short head of biceps (fibular nerve)

cauda equina

the true spinal cord has ended at L2, but nerves still branch down (like a horses tail) and come out at different levels

pterygoid plates

the two legs of each right and left pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone

where do the arytenoid cartilages attach to the larynx? by what kind of joint?

the upper border of the lamina of the cricoid cartilage. synovial joint

what surrounds the cranial cavity?

the vault bones (at sides + above) and cranial base bones (below)

which veins form the popliteal vein?

the venae comitantes of the tibial arteries (anterior and posterior), the short saphenous vein (comes from the lateral leg)

which part of cerebellum controls adjusting ongoing movement of the whole body?

the vermis + pars intermedia

the body and arch of a vertebra enclose which hole?

the vertebral foramen

lymph passes out of what to get into the tissues?

the walls of blood capillaries

what are the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments named after?

their origin on the *tibia*

how do glial cells in the brain control blood flow?

their processes cover synapses and blood vessels. v. active synapses are detected by astrocyte, which releases glial-derived signalling molecules, causing vasodilation of nearby vessel

flexor pollicis brevis

thenar muscle in anterior hand which flexes the thumb

abductor pollicis brevis

thenar muscle in hand which abducts the thumb

name an antagonist CNS neurotransmitter

there are inhibitors, but no antagonists

name the vessels within the cornea

there are no blood vessels/lymphatics

name the branches of the internal carotid artery

there are none - first branches arise inside the skull

viewing a tibia bone from above, how can you tell which is the anterior side?

there is a triangular point - because of the tibial tuberosity - on the anterior surface (at the bottom of this photo)

why are there so many alternative routes for blood (anastomoses) around the shoulder joint?

there is so much movement in that joint that often muscles may compress arteries in certain postures - provides alternative routes

why are fibres from the septal nuclei to the hippocampus important?

they are cholinergic (help speed up processing) so if damaged, they will have detrimental affect on memory

how do dural venous sinuses differ from veins?

they are lined only with endothelium, not a full set of vessel layers (e.g. tunica media). also lack valves

what clinical problems do Lumbar Ribs cause?

they are small + don't usually cause any dangerous symptoms

can ligaments contract and flex?

they can stretch to a limit but not actively contract like muscle

after being released as a neurotransmitter, how can peptides be recycled?

they can't - must be remade in presynaptic neuron

how do granule cells exist in the molecular layer of cerebellum?

they disperse into parallel fibres

why is the laryngeal prominence larger in men?

they have larger voiceboxes; at puberty the angle between the laminae of the thyroid cartilage becomes much more acute for men as their voices deepen)

simply put, why are the lower vertebrae more stout than the upper?

they have more weight to bear

why don't pharyngeal cartilages contribute much to the fetal/adult head?

they've been replaced in human evolution by membrane bones

which bones articulate with the maxilla?

zygomatic bone, sphenoid bone

how many turns does the cochlea have

~2.75 turns

what value should the angle of femoral torsion be?

~20°