103 Pol Sci

Reserved powers

- everything that isn't specifically given to (or prohibited by) the federal gov, is the responsibility of the states the powers which are neither prohibited or explicitly given by law to any organ of government. Such powers, as well as general power of competence, are given because it is impractical to detail in legislation every act allowed to be carried out by the state.

Open primaires `

All registered voters can participate

Ba;llot initiatives and referenda

Almost half of states have an initiative or referendum process Allows citizens to bypass the legislature Ballot initiative Voters petition for signatures to have an amendment or new law placed on the ballot Colorado exercises this method frequently Referendum Citizens must approve of laws or amendments passed by the legislature

ho3w dod citizens participate in elections?

Ballot initiative Citizens place proposed measures on the ballot Popular referendum Citizens proposed a measure to either approve of or reject a law passed by the state legislature If rejected by voters, the law cannot go into effect Recall Process to vote out an elected official before the next regular election Not allowed in every state and locality

Types of ballot

California Candidates' names are listed in a random order Office group ballot (Massachusetts ballot) Emphasizes the office, rather than the party Party column ballot (Indiana ballot) Emphasizes the candidate's party affiliation, rather than the office Straight ticket voting Voters can click one button to vote for all candidates from one party, instead of voting for

role of state and local governments

Central role in American politics Employ more people than the federal government Buy more goods and services than the private sector Are directly responsible for addressing important social problems Public trust in government Citizens tend to trust state and local governments more than the federal government to make policy decisions

Ballot initiative?

Citizens place proposed measures on the ballot

Popula referendum

Citizens proposed a measure to either approve of or reject a law passed by the state legislature If rejected by voters, the law cannot go into effect

concerns about lobbying: corruption

Corruption and bribery are difficult to document and prove Some evidence that corruption occurs more often at the state level than at the national level Conflicts of interest among state legislators State requirements for registering lobbyists Ethics commission or board tracks active lobbyists

Direct democracy (avenues for citizen participation, pros and cons)

DIrect democracy in state and local politics Encourages direct participation by voters Unique to state and local governments Representative government at the federal level: not an avenue for direct democracy in the U.S. other countries, like England, have this via a referendum process Direct democracy is increasing in popularity at the state and local level Public opinion is supportive of methods such as the ballot initiative What are some of the pros and cons of direct democracy? Pros and Cons Benefits of direct democracy Direct democracy inspires political participation Makes government officials more accountable Gives citizens a stronger voice and lets them bring issues to the table that normally would not be discussed in the legislature Critiques of direct democracy Gathering signatures for a petition is an expensive process that is often taken up by moneyed interests Legislators have more expertise; ballot initiatives may not be the best policies

cause lobbyists?

Focused on a single issue rather than a specific set of clients

interest group pluralism v. elite theory

Interest group pluralism Interest groups represent a variety of public interests and compete for influence Good for democracy because multiple interests are represented Assumes that interest groups accurately represent citizens' needs Suggests interest groups compete for power. In this system of competition, pluralism theory argues that no single group will become overly powerful and a variety of interests will be represented in government. Elite theory Critical of pluralism: argues that interest groups do not compete on an even playing field and, in some cases, one or two groups will dominate politics and have unequal influence over legislators Underprivileged populations that need representation are often unable to organize effectively Interest groups represent powerful, wealthy elites and businesses Groups with connections inside government have more influence

authority

Legitimate right of individuals to exercise power based on the position they hold

lobbying

Lobbying elected and appointed officials Groups or individuals communicate with government officials in order to influence their decisions Provide valuable information about the details of policies and their possible consequences Inform government officials about members' opinions Lobbying is a broad category that includes numerous activities

What is soft money

Money that is donated to and spent by state and local political parties Cannot be used directly for a candidate's campaign Parties are supposed to use the money for general activities like advertising for the party as a whole or registering voters. Many state parties have found ways around these restrictions, though, and soft money has been difficult to regulate.

`trends in party competition

One-party control vs. two-party competition Two-party competition is increasing Example: governor is from one party, while the legislature is controlled by the other party Voters split between two parties vs. majority of voters affiliated with one party When voters are split, the parties tend to be more polarized, taking on very different policy stances When a majority of voters support one party in a state, the parties tend to be more centrist, adopting less extreme policy stances

What are grants?

Payments of funds from one level of government to another for specified purposes

Buckley v. Valeo

Supreme Court determined that political expenditure is a type of free speech; Citizens United in 2010 reaffirmed this by effectively allowing corporations and labor unions to contribute to elections

What did the VRA do?

The VRA, in part, bars jurisdictions from implementing: "voting qualification or prerequisite to voting, or standard, practice, or procedure ... in a manner which results in a denial or abridgement of the right ... to vote on account of race, color, or language minority status."

power

The ability to influence who gets what, when, and how Control over policy by certain actors or political institutions

Brief history of The Voting Rights ACT (VRA)

The murder of voting-rights activists in Philadelphia and Mississippi gained national attention, along with numerous other acts of violence and terrorism In January 1965, MLK and other civil rights leaders organize demonstrations that lead to violent clashes with police. Dr. King and protestors are arrested; Malcolm X gives a militant speech saying that King's nonviolent approach wasn't working. Tipping point = Selma, Alabama. State troopers attack peaceful marchers crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge on their way to the state capitol in Montgomery. President Johnson meets with Congress, eventually leads to VRA

ballto initiative

Voters petition for signatures to have an amendment or new law placed on the ballot Colorado exercises this method frequently

unitary systems

almost all power is vested in the national level government. In these instances, state and local governments lack autonomy and are appendages of national policy (similar to how the federal bureaucracy is an appendage of the executive branch)

Federalism (what it is, how this system happened over time, pros and cons, eras, SCOTUS role)

federalism is the structural (or constititional) relationship between the national government and the states A federalist system conjoins a national government with semiautonomous subnational govs, but allows sub-govs to retain a degree of distinct identity Both levels hold sovereign authority Local governments are not sovereign, but instead derive their powers from the states Dispersing power Increasing participation Improving efficiency Ensuring policy responsiveness Encouraging policy innovation Managing conflict Can facilitate national policy goals Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) Clean Air Act Clean Water Act Endangered Species Act No Child Left Behind Designed to create a system of accountability Gave significant power to the federal government to set education standards Criticized as an overreach of federal power Every Student Succeeds Act Places responsibility for fixing under-performing schools in the hands of states Gives states the ability to decide what types of standards schools should meet and how to improve failing schools Highlights the tension between the two levels of government. This tension is a constant ebb and flow, shaped by ideological differences in administrations and court decisions over time 5-4 rulings), SCOTUS began to back away from the nation-centered interpretation of the Constitution dominant during the era of cooperative federalism. However, the trajectory has not necessarily been linear. United States v. Morrison (1994): court strikes down federal Violence Against Women Act because the law did not deal with an activity that substantially affected interstate commerce (VAWA gave women the right to sue their attackers in federal court for gender-motivated violence) District of Columbia v Heller: Court overturn's DC's gun ban on private possession of handguns, citing 2nd Amendment Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (2012): SCOTUS upholds individual mandate requirement of ACA, but strikes down Congress' coercive requirement that states expand Medicaid coverage

traditionalistic

government's job is to maintain social order; low level of participation

confederal system

institutional structure where the national government is subject to the control of subnational, autonomous govs. Bulk of state powers are derived from their own constitutions and they enter into agreements with one another (like the EU)

Concurrent powers

powers enjoyed by both the state and federal government. These powers may be exercised simultaneously, in the same area, and among the same group of citizens. For instance, residents of most states are required to pay both federal and state taxes.

what is centralization

reverse of devolution; empowers a national governing authority with unitary control and authority

government

set of authoritative institutions by which a geographically defined group of people organizes itself to achieve their common goals

the government

set of authoritative institutions by which a geographically defined group of people organizes itself to achieve their common goals

Sociodemographics `

the characteristics of a population including size, age, and ethnicity. Can also include poverty levels or religious beliefs of a population

how do political scientists study state and local politics?

Comparative method Allows political scientists to explain differences between states by systematically looking for variance, or differences, between comparable units of analysis This method allows researchers to compare similarities and differences between states or localities and to explain what factors might cause these similarities or differences to occur. Must use the same unit of analysis Apples to apples teaches you more about apples than apples to bananas or oranges (ex: doesn't make sense to compare education funding between Denver and Wyoming) Examples Comparing higher education funding across states Comparing voter turnout across cities Analyzing why some cities have curbside recycling, while others do not

Whta do we have a federalist system?

Confederal system under the Articles of Confederation Weak government; no national unity and little coordination among states No executive branch to enforce national laws passed by U.S. Congress Representative government Generally, the founders rejected a unitary system based on their experience under British rule (which doesn't imply they agreed on what type of system America should have) Wanted a system in which citizens had power over government

What are some disadvantages of federalism?

Confusion, complexity, and inefficiency due to different laws and policies being passed in different states Increase conflict between states and national government, or obstruct national policies Example: legalization of marijuana Example: nuclear waste disposal (NIMBYism) Duplication of services can lead to questions of accountability Lack of coordination Can increase inequality Provision of services differs greatly between states Historically protecting slavery and segregation

wedge issue

moral issues designed to cause someone to cross party Lins

One party control vs. two party competition

Two-party competition is increasing Example: governor is from one party, while the legislature is controlled by the other party Voters split between two parties vs. majority of voters affiliated with one party When voters are split, the parties tend to be more polarized, taking on very different policy stances When a majority of voters support one party in a state, the parties tend to be more centrist, adopting less extreme policy stances

What is cooperative federalism ?

a concept of federalism in which federal, state, and local governments interact cooperatively and collectively to solve common problems, rather than making policies separately but more or less equally (New Deal, WWII) Start of categorical grants (grants from the fed gov to states and cities that are for specific purposes defined by Congress) marble cake metaphor

What is Coercive Federalism

a form of federalism in which the federal government pressures the states to change their policies by using regulations, mandates, and conditions (often involving threats to withdraw federal funding) period of expansion of social welfare programs Congress starts using block grants (fixed amount federal grants allocated by formula giving state and local govs broad leeway in designing and implementing designated programs

moralistic

a postive force cieve bedst society, high level of participation, low levels of corruption

political culture

attitudes and beliefs that are shared about the role and responsibility of government Beliefs and values of citizens are formed by a state's unique history and give a state its own unique personality

individualistic

government should operate like a business to provide public services and allow individuals to achieve their goals; modest level of participation; higher corruption

politics

the process that people use to determine what their government will do

Enumered powers

those specifically named in the Constitution. They are sometimes called delegated powers or enumerated powers. Since the Framers envisioned the Congress as the most powerful branch, its powers are most clearly expressed in Article I, Section

implied powers

political powers granted to the United States government that aren't explicitly stated in the Constitution. They're implied to be granted because similar powers have set a precedent. These implied powers are necessary for the function of any given governing body.

what is ad hoc federalism

process of adopting a state or nation centered view of federalism on the basis of political convenience; no clear division between the national and state government 9/11 aftermath has shape this flow no consistent framework for the distribution of power

Constitutional revision commissi0ons

A panel of citizens is appointed to study the constitution and recommend changes to the legislature Florida has one every 20 years Legislature can decide whether or not to accept recommendations If accepted, amendments are put on the ballot Main advantage: provide citizens the opportunity to participate

What is direct lobbying

Develop relationships with legislators in order to persuade them

constitutional conventions

"An assembly convened for the express purpose of amending or replacing a constitution" State legislature proposes a convention calls for a referendum voters either approve or reject holding the convention delegates are elected delegates are responsible for amending or rewriting the constitution Approximately 230 state constitutional conventions No state held a constitutional convention during the 1990s and when three states—Alaska, New Hampshire, and Ohio—tried to hold conventions in 2012, the attempt was rejected by voters Decreasing in popularity Declining levels of trust in government Legislators are resistant to extensive change

Why do some states have active, powerful interest groups and others don't?

. There are several explanations for why this occurs: Economic diversity States with more economic diversity (multiple industries) will have many weak interest groups that compete with each other States with one dominant industry are more likely to have stronger interest groups Ex: LA oil and gas Political party strength In states with strong political parties, interest groups are weak Where parties play a strong role in fundraising for their candidates, mobilizing voters, and recruiting candidates to run for office, interest groups are less able to influence the campaign and election process through donations and support Professionalism of state legislatures Professional legislatures with full-time staff and many resources are less reliant on lobbyists for expertise, so interest groups are weaker Citizen legislatures have fewer resources, so it may be easier for interest groups to exert influence

Political party

: organization that nominates and supports candidates for elected office. Super PACs often outspend candidates Super PACs are becoming major players in state politics. They often spend more money than individual candidates and can sway elections. If a popular candidate does not have a super PAC on their side, they can be defeated by a less popular candidate with super PAC support simply because of the role of money in elections. Taking on the role of political parties Using money and staff to mobilize voters Concerns over a small number of donors controlling elections It is unquestionable that super PACs have a large influence in state-level elections. The key debate is over whether the power of super PACs is concerning and how much they should be regulated. In general, the Supreme Court has aired on the side of protecting free speech when it comes to campaign expenditures. However, citizens are concerned that super PACs might disrupt the democratic process, since a small number of wealthy donors can shape elections.

What is the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC)? What's the primary goal of ALEC

ALEC is a nonprofit organization of conservative state legislators and individuals from the private sector (the Koch brothers have been huge donors to this organization) Primary goal is to provide model legislation. Historically, ALEC has closely restricted media access, but after their legislative sessions occur, we see boilerplate bills emerge in different states that are identical, down to the typos In the 2011-2012 legislative session, 132 bills from ALEC models were introduced. 9% were successfully passed. The rate of passage in Congress is around 2%, so they pass much more often than most legislation. Model ALEC language, such as the Castle doctrine (or stand your ground laws), appears in enacted bills in 34 states. Powerful group in the creation of conservative policy; high rates of effectiveness

What is preclearance? An example

Advance approval by a federal court or the Department of Justice for changes to voting regulations in certain states under the 1965 Voting Rights Act," In 1973 (Georgia v. United States) Georgia came up with a new plan to apportion their state house districts The U.S. Attorney General found that the plan had a discriminatory impact on the voting power of African Americans (in part by drawing new districts that had irregular crossing of county lines where there were none before, diluting representation unequally) SCOTUS found GA plan was discriminatory, enjoined new elections until a plan that survived preclearance was put forth

what is included n a state constitution

All 50 states have written constitutions Variation among states on particulars, but all constitutions have common elements Separation of powers Bill of rights Taxes Limits on debt Local governments

comparative method

Allows political scientists to explain differences between states by systematically looking for variance, or differences, between comparable units of analysis This method allows researchers to compare similarities and differences between states or localities and to explain what factors might cause these similarities or differences to occur. Examples Comparing higher education funding across states Comparing voter turnout across cities Analyzing why some cities have curbside recycling, while others do not

individual rights

Although we tend to assume that all citizens have the same rights due to the protections in the U.S. Constitution, in reality, those rights are interpreted differently by the states and can even be expanded upon.

Legislative proposals?

Amendments proposed by the state legislature and then voted on by the electorate through a referendum Most common method Variation in requirements Most states require a 2/3 majority in both houses of the legislature (CO included) Some require a 3/5 majority Others only need a simple majority

Third parties

As of 2016, 42% of Americans identified as independent Although historically, very few people actually switch parties at the ballot box (~5%) This number shifted somewhat in 2016; unclear yet if this was an anomaly or a new trend in American political behavior However, minor parties still face legal and institutional obstacles to winning elections Winner-takes-all system State laws regarding ballot access In most states, minor parties must either collect a certain number of signatures or prove that they won a certain percentage of votes in a previous election in order to be listed on the ballot. Lack of access to resources provided by political parties

how were nominees selected? how are they now selected?

Before primaries became popular, nominees were selected through party conventions Primaries allow voters to select who will be on the ballot

pros and cons of direct democracy

Benefits of direct democracy Direct democracy inspires political participation Makes government officials more accountable Gives citizens a stronger voice and lets them bring issues to the table that normally would not be discussed in the legislature Critiques of direct democracy Gathering signatures for a petition is an expensive process that is often taken up by moneyed interests Legislators have more expertise; ballot initiatives may not be the best policies

Campaign finance law? Types of way to fund elections? Court case applied?

Buckley v. Valeo (1976) Supreme Court determined that political expenditure is a type of free speech; Citizens United in 2010 reaffirmed this by effectively allowing corporations and labor unions to contribute to elections Lets vote: do you think political donations are a form of free speech? Campaign finance law Most laws apply to national parties, rather than state parties Independent expenditures Funds spent by independent groups without a candidate's approval Independent expenditures are controversial among citizens and even among candidates. Independent expenditures are funds spent by independent groups on activities, such as television advertisements, that are done without the knowledge or approval of the candidate. For example, an independent group might decide to raise money to run an attack ad on a candidate's opponent, even though the candidate did not approve of that ad. Soft money Money that is donated to and spent by state and local political parties Cannot be used directly for a candidate's campaign Parties are supposed to use the money for general activities like advertising for the party as a whole or registering voters. Many state parties have found ways around these restrictions, though,

What are the two kinds of grants?

Cateogorical grants distributed for very narrow purposes, so federal government retains high level of discretion Medicare, food stamps, infrastructure/transportation Carrot (vs stick): Drinking age Block gants given for general government functions, so states have more discretion Community development block grants, TANF (welfare) Oklahoma "Forever. For Real" comes from TANF funding

Centralization

Centralization: reverse of devolution; empowers a national governing authority with unitary control and authority Outside factors are also important: war and national crises and wealth distribution efforts = calls for more centralization; specific needs or high levels of distrust = calls for more decentralization

Public Opinion

Citizens express opinions by voting, but also by other means Contacting elected officials directly, public opinion polling, social media, etc. Challenges in responding to public opinion Inaccurate polling Polls that accurately measure citizens' opinions are becoming harder to conduct. Polls are expensive, especially since pollsters now have to pay for a list of cell phone numbers, which is much more costly than calling landlines. If pollsters cannot afford to contact people by cell phone and choose to only call landlines, the results of the poll are likely to be inaccurate. Same issue with network polls Citizens only voice their opinions on controversial issues Policy decisions tend to reflect average public opinion of a particular locale This is what is meant by "incremental policy" - most folks tend toward moderate when asked policy (not party/candidate questions)

challenges of public opinion

Citizens express opinions by voting, but also by other means Contacting elected officials directly, public opinion polling, social media, etc. Challenges in responding to public opinion Inaccurate polling Polls that accurately measure citizens' opinions are becoming harder to conduct. Polls are expensive, especially since pollsters now have to pay for a list of cell phone numbers, which is much more costly than calling landlines. If pollsters cannot afford to contact people by cell phone and choose to only call landlines, the results of the poll are likely to be inaccurate. Same issue with network polls Citizens only voice their opinions on controversial issues Policy decisions tend to reflect average public opinion of a particular locale This is what is meant by "incremental policy" - most folks tend toward moderate when asked policy (not party/candidate questions)

What are the eras of federalism?

Cooperative federalism (New Deal, WWII) Start of categorical grants (grants from the fed gov to states and cities that are for specific purposes defined by Congress) marble cake metaphor Coercive federalism - period of expansion of social welfare programs Congress starts using block grants (fixed amount federal grants allocated by formula giving state and local govs broad leeway in designing and implementing designated programs States wanted federal grants in aid to pay for expansion of programs in 1970s; Reagan era devolved many of these powers back to the states - which limited the federal funding states received In the 1990s, unfunded mandates became more popular (fed established policy which sub-govs must pay for)

What is the elite theory>

Critical of pluralism: argues that interest groups do not compete on an even playing field and, in some cases, one or two groups will dominate politics and have unequal influence over legislators Underprivileged populations that need representation are often unable to organize effectively Interest groups represent powerful, wealthy elites and businesses Groups with connections inside government have more influence

Devolution? What are some constraints of devolution?

Devolution: the decentralization of power and authority from a central gov to state or local govs; thinks states can do it better. Outside factors are also important: war and national crises and wealth distribution efforts = calls for more centralization; specific needs or high levels of distrust = calls for more decentralization Starting in the 1980s, powers and responsibilities have been gradually devolving from the federal government to states and localities Exception: 2008 Recession caused the fed gov to take more control over economic policies Gives states policy autonomy over important issues Education, welfare, etc Constraints on state and local governments External constraints (eg Constitutional limitations) Internal constraints (eg wealth and health of state economy)

Types of lobbying

Direct Develop relationships with legislators in order to persuade them Indirect/grassroots Work through the media or the public in order to raise awareness of a policy and convince citizens to contact their legislators Contract lobbyists Hired by clients because of their expertise or contacts inside government Cause lobbyists Focused on a single issue rather than a specific set of clients

what is direct democracy?

Direct democracy or pure democracy is a form of democracy in which people decide on policy initiatives directly. This differs from the majority of currently established democracies, which are representative democracies.

Linkage instititions

Elections are "linkage institutions" Connect citizens to government Elected officials reflect the beliefs of the majority or plurality of citizens who elect them Majority: 50% or above For most states and localities, a full majority (or 50% of voters) is not always needed to place a candidate into office. Majority voting is, however, used for ballot initiatives. For instance, if there was an issue on the ballot asking whether your state should legalize marijuana, you would only have two choices—yes or no. In this case, if the majority of voters—over 50%—voted yes, the initiative would pass. Plurality: the highest number of votes garnered by a candidate even if it is less than 50% Hypothetically, imagine there is an election for city council members in your city and there are three candidates on the ballot. The first candidate receives 40% of the vote, the second receives 35%, and the third candidate gets 25% of the vote. Even though the first candidate did not receive a majority of the vote because they did not reach over 50%, under most state and local election laws, that candidate would still win by receiving a plurality—or the highest number—of votes

What are state and local elections used for?

Elections are "linkage institutions" Connect citizens to government Elected officials reflect the beliefs of the majority or plurality of citizens who elect them Majority: 50% or above For most states and localities, a full majority (or 50% of voters) is not always needed to place a candidate into office. Majority voting is, however, used for ballot initiatives. For instance, if there was an issue on the ballot asking whether your state should legalize marijuana, you would only have two choices—yes or no. In this case, if the majority of voters—over 50%—voted yes, the initiative would pass. Plurality: the highest number of votes garnered by a candidate even if it is less than 50% Hypothetically, imagine there is an election for city council members in your city and there are three candidates on the ballot. The first candidate receives 40% of the vote, the second receives 35%, and the third candidate gets 25% of the vote. Even though the first candidate did not receive a majority of the vote because they did not reach over 50%, under most state and local election laws, that candidate would still win by receiving a plurality—or the highest number—of votes Citizens can elect governors, state senators, and state representatives The only exception to this is Nebraska where there is no bicameral legislature, so citizens cannot elect senators and house members. Aside from these key positions, some states also have the attorney general, secretary of state, and occasionally the lieutenant governor as elected positions. In other states, these positions are appointed instead. Voters can also vote to approve or oppose judges for the state courts. In local elections, they can elect school board members, the city council, and mayors (in some cities) Most local elections are nonpartisan At the local level, there are many elected positions. Some cities allow voters to choose the mayor, while in other cities, citizens vote for each member of the city council and the council then selects one of its members to serve as mayor

Purpose of state and local elections

Elections are "linkage institutions" Connect citizens to government Elected officials reflect the beliefs of the majority or plurality of citizens who elect them Majority: 50% or above For most states and localities, a full majority (or 50% of voters) is not always needed to place a candidate into office. Majority voting is, however, used for ballot initiatives. For instance, if there was an issue on the ballot asking whether your state should legalize marijuana, you would only have two choices—yes or no. In this case, if the majority of voters—over 50%—voted yes, the initiative would pass. Plurality: the highest number of votes garnered by a candidate even if it is less than 50% Hypothetically, imagine there is an election for city council members in your city and there are three candidates on the ballot. The first candidate receives 40% of the vote, the second receives 35%, and the third candidate gets 25% of the vote. Even though the first candidate did not receive a majority of the vote because they did not reach over 50%, under most state and local election laws, that candidate would still win by receiving a plurality—or the highest number—of votes. Citizens can elect governors, state senators, and state representatives The only exception to this is Nebraska where there is no bicameral legislature, so citizens cannot elect senators and house members. Aside from these key positions, some states also have the attorney general, secretary of state, and occasionally the lieutenant governor as elected positions. In other states, these positions are appointed instead. Voters can also vote to approve or oppose judges for the state courts. In local elections, they can elect school board members, the city council, and mayors (in some cities) Most local elections are nonpartisan At the local level, there are many elected positions. Some cities allow voters to choose the mayor, while in other cities, citizens vote for each member of the city council and the council then selects one of its members to serve as mayor. (change up) llol

Controversies in voting and election

Eligibility requirements, verification, and ID laws Preventing voter fraud vs. suppressing voter turnout Little evidence for voter fraud (GW Bush and Trump created commissions - almost all of the few confirmed cases were accidental/unintentional) Parties are divided on this issue, with stricter states tending to be Rep. and those with looser requirements Dem. Voting locations and access to the polls How many polling stations should there be? Lets vote: Should all voters be allowed to vote by mail/drop off ballots?

Factors impacting voter turnout

Factors that impact turnout Socioeconomic factors Age is the best predictor of who votes It is not uncommon in state and local elections for individuals over the age of 60 to vote at three times the rate of individuals in their 20s. Income and education Higher income and higher educational attainment increase the likelihood of voting Race and ethnicity African Americans vote at high rates; Latinos vote at lower rates, unless a Hispanic candidate is on the ballot; minority voters tend to support minority candidates Political culture States with moralistic cultures have higher turnout State with more traditionalist have lower rates Variation in partisan competition In an election where there are two viable candidates and it is not clear who will win, voters have a stronger sense of political efficacy. Political efficacy An individual's belief that their participation in politics matters More likely to participate in presidential elections Citizens vote more in presidential elections than in state and local ones. In a typical presidential election, around 50% of the population votes on average. In a local election, it is not uncommon to have voter turnout somewhere between 10% and 20%. Turnout is high in "swing states" where no single party dominates Local turnout is higher when a district is split between a roughly even number of Republican voters and Democratic voters Tight contests in which a small number of votes can sway election results Legal and procedural factors How easy is it to register? Some states have same-day registration; others mandate registration 30 days prior to an election; North Dakota does not require registration at all Easier registration process results in higher turnout: states allowing same-day registration saw up to a 12% jump in turnout How easy is it to vote? Federal form: voters must sign a statement swearing to be a U.S. citizen Arizona tried to require either a passport or U.S. birth certificate before a citizen could vote, but this requirement was struck down by the Supreme Court in 2013. The Supreme Court argued that the requirement went too far beyond the federal standard and mandated that Arizona accept the federal form in which the voter swears they are a citizen. National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) classification of voting laws Strict vs. Non-strict Photo ID vs. no photo ID

independent expenditures

Funds spent by independent groups without a candidate's approval Independent expenditures are controversial among citizens and even among candidates. Independent expenditures are funds spent by independent groups on activities, such as television advertisements, that are done without the knowledge or approval of the candidate. For example, an independent group might decide to raise money to run an attack ad on a candidate's opponent, even though the candidate did not approve of that ad.

What are interest group?

Groups that seek to influence of actions of elected nd appointed officials on behalf of a specific interest or organization -Aother example of a linkage institution -Connect citizens to government give citizens an avenue to have their interests heard legislatures have busy agendas interest group-s place issues on the agenda that normally would not be a priority

interest groups

Groups that seek to influence the actions of elected and appointed officials on behalf of a specific interest or organization Another example of a "linkage institution" Connect citizens to government Give citizens an avenue to have their interests heard Legislatures have busy agendas; interest groups place issues on the agenda that normally would not be a priority Parties and interest groups both try to influence politics and policy-making How do interest groups differ from political parties? Political parties: main focus is on winning elections; try to appeal to a majority of the population Interest groups: main focus is on influencing policy-making; try to represent the interests of a minority Membership groups Organized around a common goal or concern Ex: Sierra Club Trade Associations Represent a profession or industry Ex: National Cattlemen's Beef Association Companies Large corporations hire lobbyists Ex: lobbyists hired by Google or Amazon Government lobbyists Local and state governments hire lobbyists to work at the national level Ex: State and local governments hire lobbyists to work on specific issue areas that are important to that state or locality and to lobby legislators at the national level to pass favorable policies. The executive branch of a state also hires lobbyists to persuade members of the state legislature or the national Congress to support or oppose certain policies. These interest groups are major players in politics - far outnumber elected officials Individuals Informally organized around a narrow issue or policy Interest groups play a central role in state politics Impacting the national agenda is difficult, so many interest groups focus on state-level policy first For example: the NRA often starts at the state level, finding states that are favorable to less restrictive gun policies. Changing gun laws one state at a time is much easier than impacting national policy. Interest group spending at the state level is increasing $2.2 billion in the 2013-2014 legislative session Formal vs. informal groups Formal: highly organized with a permanent office and professional staff Informal: no permanent office or staff; groups organize only when an issue arises

contract lobbyists

Hired by clients because of their expertise or contacts inside government

Variation between states

How easy is the constitution to amend and how much participation are citizens allowed? In general states that allow for more democratic means of altering the constitution, such as a ballot initiative, often have longer and more detailed constitutions. This occurs because citizens view constitutional amendments as beneficial avenues to participate in politics and to get their policy preferences translated into law. If citizens are easily able to amend the constitution, this becomes a productive avenue for making their voices heard and getting their preferred policies passed. Operating rules Age requirements, selection of judges (appointed or elected), etc. Distribution of power Balance of power between the legislature and the governor While in most states, the legislature tends to be the strongest body and is most responsible for making laws, in some states a great deal of power is given to the governor to approve or veto laws. Individual rights Some states have used the same ambiguous language in the 2nd Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, while others have clearly stated that all individuals have the right to own a gun. Although we tend to assume that all citizens have the same rights due to the protections in the U.S. Constitution, in reality, those rights are interpreted differently by the states and can even be expanded upon.

What should parties do? The responsible party model?

Ideal vision of function of political parties Parties should: Have a clearly defined platform to provide voters with policy choices Put candidates in office who will implement the party's preferred policies Voters should: Make decisions based on issues/policies, rather than on individual candidates Hold elected officials accountable if they do not follow the party's platform when in office Critiques -Voters often focus on a candidate's personality instead of their party affiliation or policy goals Many citizens now identify as independent Distrust in Democrats and Republicans Weakens the two major political parties Rise of candidate-centered elections Candidates might not rely on party organizations in their campaigns Candidates can raise their own money, run ads, etc. Parties have less control over who runs and how they campaign

what is the responsible party model? critiques of it?

Ideal vision of function of political parties Parties should: Have a clearly defined platform to provide voters with policy choices Put candidates in office who will implement the party's preferred policies Voters should: Make decisions based on issues/policies, rather than on individual candidates Hold elected officials accountable if they do not follow the party's platform when in office Does this model accurately describe parties and voters? Voters often focus on a candidate's personality instead of their party affiliation or policy goals Many citizens now identify as independent Distrust in Democrats and Republicans Weakens the two major political parties Rise of candidate-centered elections Candidates might not rely on party organizations in their campaigns Candidates can raise their own money, run ads, etc. Parties have less control over who runs and how they campaign

Felon voting rights?

In Maine and Vermont, felons never lose their right to vote, even while incarcerated] In 14 states and DC, felons lose their right to vote while incarcerated and receive automatic restoration upon release In 22 states, including CO, voting rights are lost during incarceration and for a period of time after (usually parole/probation). Automatic restoration after. In 12 states, felons lose voting rights indefinitely, require a governor's pardon, and/or have additional waiting time after sentence is served (including parole/probation) As of 2016, 6.1 million people in U.S. couldn't vote because of felonies 77% of these people were no longer incarcerated These numbers most dramatically impact black males, who experience felon disenfranchisement at 6x the national average

SCOTUS role in federalism? and examples of cases

In a series of narrow decision in the 1990s (most were 5-4 rulings), SCOTUS began to back away from the nation-centered interpretation of the Constitution dominant during the era of cooperative federalism. However, the trajectory has not necessarily been linear. United States v. Morrison (1994): court strikes down federal Violence Against Women Act because the law did not deal with an activity that substantially affected interstate commerce (VAWA gave women the right to sue their attackers in federal court for gender-motivated violence) District of Columbia v Heller: Court overturn's DC's gun ban on private possession of handguns, citing 2nd Amendment Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (2012): SCOTUS upholds individual mandate requirement of ACA, but strikes down Congress' coercive requirement that states expand Medicaid coverage

interest groups and lobbying in a democratic society: two perspectives?

Interest group pluralism Interest groups represent a variety of public interests and compete for influence Good for democracy because multiple interests are represented Assumes that interest groups accurately represent citizens' needs Suggests interest groups compete for power. In this system of competition, pluralism theory argues that no single group will become overly powerful and a variety of interests will be represented in government. Elite theory Critical of pluralism: argues that interest groups do not compete on an even playing field and, in some cases, one or two groups will dominate politics and have unequal influence over legislators Underprivileged populations that need representation are often unable to organize effectively Interest groups represent powerful, wealthy elites and businesses Groups with connections inside government have more influence

interests group in state and local politics

Interest groups play a central role in state politics Impacting the national agenda is difficult, so many interest groups focus on state-level policy first For example: the NRA often starts at the state level, finding states that are favorable to less restrictive gun policies. Changing gun laws one state at a time is much easier than impacting national policy. Interest group spending at the state level is increasing $2.2 billion in the 2013-2014 legislative session Formal vs. informal groups Formal: highly organized with a permanent office and professional staff Informal: no permanent office or staff; groups organize only when an issue arises

What is interest group pluralism ?

Interest groups represent a variety of public interests and compete for influence Good for democracy because multiple interests are represented Assumes that interest groups accurately represent citizens' needs Suggests interest groups compete for power. In this system of competition, pluralism theory argues that no single group will become overly powerful and a variety of interests will be represented in government.

how can state consititons be changed?

Legislative proposals Amendments proposed by the state legislature and then voted on by the electorate through a referendum Most common method Variation in requirements Most states require a 2/3 majority in both houses of the legislature (CO included) Some require a 3/5 majority Others only need a simple majority Constitutional conventions "An assembly convened for the express purpose of amending or replacing a constitution" State legislature proposes a convention calls for a referendum voters either approve or reject holding the convention delegates are elected delegates are responsible for amending or rewriting the constitution Approximately 230 state constitutional conventions No state held a constitutional convention during the 1990s and when three states—Alaska, New Hampshire, and Ohio—tried to hold conventions in 2012, the attempt was rejected by voters Decreasing in popularity Declining levels of trust in government Legislators are resistant to extensive change Constitutional revision commissions A panel of citizens is appointed to study the constitution and recommend changes to the legislature Florida has one every 20 years Legislature can decide whether or not to accept recommendations If accepted, amendments are put on the ballot Main advantage: provide citizens the opportunity to participate Ballot initiatives and referenda Almost half of states have an initiative or referendum process Allows citizens to bypass the legislature Ballot initiative Voters petition for signatures to have an amendment or new law placed on the ballot Colorado exercises this method frequently Referendum Citizens must approve of laws or amendments passed by the legislature

Describe local party organization?

Less professional; few resources Very few local party organizations have full-time paid staff; rely on volunteers to reach out to potential voters Most are only active during an election Assist candidates in their efforts to attract voters Voter registration events, distribute political signs and buttons, door-to-door canvassing

liberal and conserative/

Liberal and conservative are ideological predispositions Examining policy in a locality can provide insights into its ideological stance Liberalism tends to expand welfare benefits, regulate business, adopt progressive state income taxes, and generally use the resources of government to achieve social change Conservatism tends to limit welfare benefits, deregulate business, keep taxes low, and generally place less reliance on government and more reliance on individuals and the market to achieve social goals

types of interest groups

Membership groups Organized around a common goal or concern Ex: Sierra Club Trade Associations Represent a profession or industry Ex: National Cattlemen's Beef Association Companies Large corporations hire lobbyists Ex: lobbyists hired by Google or Amazon Government lobbyists Local and state governments hire lobbyists to work at the national level Ex: State and local governments hire lobbyists to work on specific issue areas that are important to that state or locality and to lobby legislators at the national level to pass favorable policies. The executive branch of a state also hires lobbyists to persuade members of the state legislature or the national Congress to support or oppose certain policies. These interest groups are major players in politics - far outnumber elected officials Individuals Informally organized around a narrow issue or policy

tactics and functions

Monitoring bills Track what types of bills are being considered by state legislatures Research which legislators support or oppose certain bills Monitor changes to provisions in bills that might impact an interest group's members or goals Closely monitor a small number of important bills Lobbying elected and appointed officials Groups or individuals communicate with government officials in order to influence their decisions Provide valuable information about the details of policies and their possible consequences Inform government officials about members' opinions Lobbying is a broad category that includes numerous activities

Campaign finance law

Most laws apply to national parties, rather than state parties

Why does federalism matter? What are some examples of public education

No Child Left Behind Designed to create a system of accountability Gave significant power to the federal government to set education standards Criticized as an overreach of federal power Every Student Succeeds Act Places responsibility for fixing under-performing schools in the hands of states Gives states the ability to decide what types of standards schools should meet and how to improve failing schools Highlights the tension between the two levels of government. This tension is a constant ebb and flow, shaped by ideological differences in administrations and court decisions over time

closed primaries

Only voters belonging to that party can participate

what factors cause decentralization and centralization?

Outside factors are also important: war and national crises and wealth distribution efforts = calls for more centralization; specific needs or high levels of distrust = calls for more decentralization

What are super PACs? What do they do?

Political action committees that can spend unlimited funds on behalf of political candidates, but cannot directly coordinate with those candidates

Describe State party organizations

Parties decentralized and relatively distinct National, state, and local parties are loosely organized; have their own constituencies to serve and their own elections to focus on State party organizations Party officials and employees serve on party committee, reach out to voters, update the party's website, etc. Most have full-time professional staff to help candidates gain access to the media, do opposition research, and provide contact information of potential voters or contributors Most have a permanent locatio

Grant in aid

Payments of funds from one level of government to another for specified purposes Two kinds: Categorical grants - distributed for very narrow purposes, so federal government retains high level of discretion Medicare, food stamps, infrastructure/transportation Carrot (vs stick): Drinking age Block grants - given for general government functions, so states have more discretion Community development block grants, TANF (welfare) Oklahoma "Forever. For Real" comes from TANF funding

Grants-in-aid

Payments of funds from one level of government to another for specified purposes Two kinds: Categorical grants - distributed for very narrow purposes, so federal government retains high level of discretion Medicare, food stamps, infrastructure/transportation Carrot (vs stick): Drinking age Block grants - given for general government functions, so states have more discretion Community development block grants, TANF (welfare) Oklahoma "Forever. For Real" comes from TANF funding

Types of political culture

Political culture: attitudes and beliefs that are shared about the role and responsibility of government Beliefs and values of citizens are formed by a state's unique history and give a state its own unique personality Three types of culture (Daniel Elazar: argues these are a result of how and by whom states were originally settled) Moralistic Government is a positive force to achieve the best society, high levels of participation; low levels of corruption Individualistic Government should operate like a business to provide public services and allow individuals to achieve their goals; moderate levels of participation; higher corruption Traditionalistic Government's job is to maintain social order; low levels of participationfin

how do interest groups differ from political parties?

Political parties: main focus is on winning elections; try to appeal to a majority of the population Interest groups: main focus is on influencing policy-making; try to represent the interests of a minority

What about federalism Is mentioned in the constitution?

Powers given to the federal government Enumerated powers Implied powers ("necessary and proper" clause) Powers given to the states Reserved powers (10th amendment) - everything that isn't specifically given to (or prohibited by) the federal gov, is the responsibility of the states Concurrent powers Example: taxation

elements and functions of state constitutions

Powers given to the federal government Enumerated powers Implied powers ("necessary and proper" clause) Powers given to the states Reserved powers (10th amendment) - everything that isn't specifically given to (or prohibited by) the federal gov, is the responsibility of the states Concurrent powers Example: taxation

Differences between the U.S. Constitition and state constitition

Powers given to the federal government Enumerated powers Implied powers ("necessary and proper" clause) Powers given to the states Reserved powers (10th amendment) - everything that isn't specifically given to (or prohibited by) the federal gov, is the responsibility of the states Concurrent powers Example: taxation

What are primaries?

Primaries allow voters to select who will be on the ballot

Recall

Process to vote out an elected official before the next regular election Not allowed in every state and locality

What is the three main functions of political parties

Provide choices for voters by narrowing down possible candidates In most elections, the choices are narrowed to a Democrat and a Republican in recent years, we've seen high levels of distrust and "outsider" candidates do well at the national level(eg Trump and Bernie) Give cues to voters Voters have a sense of what policies a candidate will support based on their party affiliation Organize state legislatures Legislative leaders are selected from the majority party For example, if Republicans hold the majority of seats in a state legislature, members of that party can select leadership positions, such as the house speaker or committee chairs. Whichever party holds a majority of seats in a state's legislature automatically possesses more power through legislative leadership positions. This structure stems from the idea that if voters favor one party over the other, this party should have control in the legislature. If voters put more Republican legislators into office, it makes sense that Republicans, as the majority party, should occupy leadership positions.

what functions do state consititoons serve?

Purpose of limiting government and establishing "rules of the game" Delineates what government can and cannot do; lays out basic rights Establishes rules for how policies should be made; determines the structure of government Substantive policy change can also take place through constitutions Interest groups, legislators, citizens, etc. Policies that are included in the constitution are harder to change than other avenues, such as EOs Example: limits on taxation (California's

Key differences among states?

Sociodemographics Sociodemographics: the characteristics of a population including size, age, and ethnicity. Can also include poverty levels or religious beliefs of a population Shape the priorities and actions of state and local governments Present different challenges for governments Example: states with a younger population might prioritize funding for higher education, while states with an older population might have other priorities or if a state has a large number of citizens living in poverty, the state government might feel more pressure to implement welfare programs that would provide assistance to impoverished residents Political culture Political culture: attitudes and beliefs that are shared about the role and responsibility of government Beliefs and values of citizens are formed by a state's unique history and give a state its own unique personality Three types of culture (Daniel Elazar: argues these are a result of how and by whom states were originally settled) Moralistic Government is a positive force to achieve the best society, high levels of participation; low levels of corruption Individualistic Government should operate like a business to provide public services and allow individuals to achieve their goals; moderate levels of participation; higher corruption Traditionalistic Government's job is to maintain social order; low levels of participation Economic factors Size and health of the economy GDP varies significantly across states Resources to solve problems Economic characteristics impact policies, budgetary priorities, and regulatory decisions Example: West Virginia and the coal industry Geography The physical environment differs greatly across states Leads to different priorities and challenges for governments Example: natural disaster preparation or infrastructure planning These issues are important to understand because they can shape how states behave, what types of laws and policies are passed, and which issues are prioritized in a state's budget.

trends in government: devolution

Starting in the 1980s, powers and responsibilities have been gradually devolving from the federal government to states and localities Exception: 2008 Recession caused the fed gov to take more control over economic policies Gives states policy autonomy over important issues Education, welfare, etc Constraints on state and local governments External constraints (eg Constitutional limitations) Internal constraints (eg wealth and health of state economy)

state constitution vs. US. constitution

States have plenary power U.S. Constitution does not clearly describe what a state can and cannot do Any power not granted to the federal gov can be taken up by the states, as long as it isn't directly prohibited by the U.S. Constitution Permanence U.S. Constitution is infrequently amended, state constitutions are routinely amended Length/Specificity State constitutions tend to be longer, as they detail certain types of policies, whereas the U.S. Constitution is meant to broadly lay out the basic structure and function of gov NV's details gambling laws Approach to democracy Numerous state constitutions have provisions for direct democracy, while the U.S. Constitution adheres to representative government. Financing Gov The federal government has few restrictions on the amount of debt it can incur. Most states, however, are subject to stricter limits. State constitutions also have stricter rules for where funding should be appropriated, so some state constitutions might specify what percentage of the budget must be allocated to certain programs, such as public education, which can force states to limit spending in other areas.

States, ballot, and parties

States regulate parties' access to the ballot Most states try to restrict minor parties from the ballot Petition for signatures from voters in some states Other states, such as California and Washington, allow only the two candidates receiving the most votes in the primary election to have their names on the ballot for the general election. Win primaries before being placed on the ballot for the general election Can be a big obstacle for minor parties, which often have fewer resources and less widespread support than the two major parties

`types of control states can have over elections

States regulate parties' access to the ballot Most states try to restrict minor parties from the ballot Petition for signatures from voters in some states Other states, such as California and Washington, allow only the two candidates receiving the most votes in the primary election to have their names on the ballot for the general election. Win primaries before being placed on the ballot for the general election Can be a big obstacle for minor parties, which often have fewer resources and less widespread support than the two major parties

What explains voter turnout?

The U.S. Constitution gives states the right to determine the "times, places, and manner of holding Elections" Most people do not vote consistently Voters often skip local elections or only vote when they feel strongly about a candidate or issue A typical election for a state legislature generates less than 40% turnout of eligible voters, while local elections typically achieve less than 20% unless there is a particularly controversial issue on the ballot, but even then local-level turnout rarely goes above 30%. Factors that impact turnout Socioeconomic factors Age is the best predictor of who votes It is not uncommon in state and local elections for individuals over the age of 60 to vote at three times the rate of individuals in their 20s. Income and education Higher income and higher educational attainment increase the likelihood of voting Race and ethnicity African Americans vote at high rates; Latinos vote at lower rates, unless a Hispanic candidate is on the ballot; minority voters tend to support minority candidates Political culture States with moralistic cultures have higher turnout State with more traditionalist have lower rates Variation in partisan competition In an election where there are two viable candidates and it is not clear who will win, voters have a stronger sense of political efficacy. Political efficacy An individual's belief that their participation in politics matters More likely to participate in presidential elections Citizens vote more in presidential elections than in state and local ones. In a typical presidential election, around 50% of the population votes on average. In a local election, it is not uncommon to have voter turnout somewhere between 10% and 20%. Turnout is high in "swing states" where no single party dominates Local turnout is higher when a district is split between a roughly even number of Republican voters and Democratic voters Tight contests in which a small number of votes can sway election results Legal and procedural factors How easy is it to register? Some states have same-day registration; others mandate registration 30 days prior to an election; North Dakota does not require registration at all Easier registration process results in higher turnout: states allowing same-day registration saw up to a 12% jump in turnout How easy is it to vote? Federal form: voters must sign a statement swearing to be a U.S. citizen Arizona tried to require either a passport or U.S. birth certificate before a citizen could vote, but this requirement was struck down by the Supreme Court in 2013. The Supreme Court argued that the requirement went too far beyond the federal standard and mandated that Arizona accept the federal form in which the voter swears they are a citizen. National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) classification of voting laws Strict vs. Non-strict Photo ID vs. no photo ID

State and local elections?

The United States holds more elections than any other country, but has less turnout than other democracies Election laws are set and controlled by states Secretary of State can determine when elections are held and how often, where they are held, which candidates are eligible to participate, which parties are eligible to participate, and the type of ballot that is used. The Secretary of State is also responsible for printing and counting ballots. iClicker: what if the Secretary of State is running in an election, say for Governor, should they still have these responsibilities? (a. yes; b. no) Local elections are often held in odd-numbered years so they do not overlap with national elections This keeps voters more focused on local issues But turnout tends to be lower

History of Voting rights Act? What did it do?

The murder of voting-rights activists in Philadelphia and Mississippi gained national attention, along with numerous other acts of violence and terrorism In January 1965, MLK and other civil rights leaders organize demonstrations that lead to violent clashes with police. Dr. King and protestors are arrested; Malcolm X gives a militant speech saying that King's nonviolent approach wasn't working. Tipping point = Selma, Alabama. State troopers attack peaceful marchers crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge on their way to the state capitol in Montgomery. President Johnson meets with Congress, eventually leads to VRA The VRA, in part, bars jurisdictions from implementing: "voting qualification or prerequisite to voting, or standard, practice, or procedure ... in a manner which results in a denial or abridgement of the right ... to vote on account of race, color, or language minority status." When localities that have a history of discrimination try and implement new voting laws, they must get preclearance = A covered jurisdiction has the burden of proving that the change does not have the purpose or effect of discriminating on the basis of race or language minority status; if the jurisdiction fails to meet this burden, the federal government will deny preclearance and the jurisdiction's change will not go into effect.

role of religion in state political culture

Wedge issues: Moral issues designed to cause someone to cross party lines In many cases, a person's religious views can be a stronger voting cue than party affiliation, but often the two are strongly related. Religious views vary widely across the U.S. ~57% of Vermont residents say religion is "very important" or "somewhat important" to their daily life. In Alabama, ~90%. Examples of wedge issues with strong religious correlations are: Same-sex marriage Contraceptive coverage Gambling Marijuana legalization Abortion

what are super pacs?

What are super PACs? Political action committees that can spend unlimited funds on behalf of political candidates, but cannot directly coordinate with those candidates Super PACs often outspend candidates Super PACs are becoming major players in state politics. They often spend more money than individual candidates and can sway elections. If a popular candidate does not have a super PAC on their side, they can be defeated by a less popular candidate with super PAC support simply because of the role of money in elections. Taking on the role of political parties Using money and staff to mobilize voters Concerns over a small number of donors controlling elections It is unquestionable that super PACs have a large influence in state-level elections. The key debate is over whether the power of super PACs is concerning and how much they should be regulated. In general, the Supreme Court has aired on the side of protecting free speech when it comes to campaign expenditures. However, citizens are concerned that super PACs might disrupt the democratic process, since a small number of wealthy donors can shape elections.

The teeth of the VRA?

When localities that have a history of discrimination try and implement new voting laws, they must get preclearance = A covered jurisdiction has the burden of proving that the change does not have the purpose or effect of discriminating on the basis of race or language minority status; if the jurisdiction fails to meet this burden, the federal government will deny preclearance and the jurisdiction's change will not go into effect.

What is indirect/grassroots lobbying?

Work through the media or the public in order to raise awareness of a policy and convince citizens to contact their legislators

referendum

citizens must pprove of laws or amendments passed by the legislature

Public policy

consists of a government's decisions and actions that are designed to achieve the common goals identified by the political process for that jurisdiction

public policy

consists of a government's decisions and actions that are designed to achieve the common goals identified by the political process for that jurisdiction

Laboratories of democracy (aka policy diffusion)

describe how a "state may, if its citizens choose, serve as a laboratory; and try novel social and economic experiments without risk to the rest of the country. This concept explains how within the federal framework, there exists a system of state autonomy where state and local governments act as social "laboratories," where laws and policies are created and tested at the state level of the democratic system, in a manner similar (in theory, at least) to the scientific method. An example today would be the legalization of marijuana in Colorado despite the fact that it is illegal federally.

what impacts does federalism have? `

disperses power Increases participation Improves efficiency Ensures policy responsiveness Encourages policy innovation Managing conflict Can facilitate national policy goals; such Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) Clean Air Act Clean Water Act Endangered Species Act

What is federalism

federalism is the structural ( orconstitional) relationship between the nati0onal government and states A federalist system conjoins a national government with semiautonomous subnational govs, but allows sub-govs to retain a degree of distinct identity Both levels hold sovereign authority Local governments are not sovereign, but instead derive their powers from the states In our system, American states aren't administrative appendages of the federal government. They have (U.S.) constitutionally-derived discrete powers, as well as their own constitutions and laws.

What powers does the constitution give states and the federal government? (Federalism)

powers given to the federal government -enumerated powers -implied powers (necessary and proper clause) Powers given to the States -Reserved powers (10th amendment) everything that isn't specifically given to (or prohibited by) the federal gov, is the responsibility of the states Concurrent powers example taxation

what is devolution

the decentralization of power and authority from a central gov to state or local govs