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Why is "all" a grammatical morpheme?

"All" is grammatical bc it's a quantifier

Why is "to" a grammatical morpheme?

"to" denotes locative relationship, directionality, not something that actually exists in the world

What is closed class?

(grammatical morphemes): rarely add (or change) words to this class. Like we wouldn't say "googleZD" and say it's a new way of saying past tense, there is rarely innovation like this. It can happen but it takes more time and effort

What is open class?

(lexical morphemes): can add words to this class all the time. We can even make up words and they are interpretable

What are common derivational morphemes that don't change part of speech but change meaning of stem?

-er (comparative) Ex. try to be friendlier Re- (do again) Ex. the old friends were happy to reunite Pre- (before) Ex. she's taking prenatal vitamins In-, un- (not) Ex. he's intolerable, she's unassuming -ish (sort of) Ex. the fruit was a reddish color

What are common derivational morphemes that change part of speech?

-ly (Adjective to adverb) Ex. he sings beautifully -er, -or (verb to noun) Ex. he's a baker, she's a director -en (adjective to verb) Ex. how to blacken the fish -able (verb to adjective) Ex. that's understandable -ment (verb to noun) Ex. the management -less (without; noun to adj) Ex. it's hopeless! En- (noun or adj to verb) Ex. enable him -ing (verb to noun) Ex. smoking is bad for your health

Grammatical (functional)/closed class have what words?

-preposition (of) -determiner (the) -conjunction (and, /) -pronoun (she, I) -auxiliary verb (is, have, am, are, go, what)

Clicker. Persian data. What type of affix does Persian have? What is its function? Dana 'wise' Danai 'wisdom' Xub 'good' Xubi 'goodness' Darošt 'thick' Darošti 'thickness' Bozorg 'big' Bozorgi 'size' Širin 'sweet' Širini 'sweetness'

/-i/ is the suffix, it creates nouns from adjectives. This is a derivational morpheme because it is changing the category of the stem.

Bontoc (Phillippines) data. What is derivational morpheme? /fikas/ 'strong' /fumikas/ 'he is becoming strong' /kilad/ 'red' /kumilad/ 'he is becoming red' /bato/ 'rock' /bumato/ 'he is becoming rock' /fusul/ 'enemy' /fumusul/ 'he is becoming an enemy'

/-um-/ is a derivational morpheme meaning "to become again." It is an infix and it adds "he is becoming" so it changes category of stem, changing adjective into verb and also changes something inherent about meaning ("strong" is different in meaning from "to become strong")

Speakers need to subconsciously know what 2 basic principles in order to construct proper sentences in their language?

1. Acceptable linear order of words (what words come after another in strong, what can be next to each other) 2. Constituency and hierarchical structure (not just words in linear order but also words can be themselves grouped together in meaningful ways)

What are 6 major ways to form new words from old words?

1. compounding 2. acronym 3. back-formation 4. abbreviation 5. eponym 6. blending

Clicker. What type morpheme is the "-ing" in "this is a building?"

A: derivational because it changes verb into a noun (changes category of stem) and meaning is different, you can build many things but not be able to build a building

What are the lexical morphemes in the sentence: Bill watches his favorite shows on Mondays?

BILL WATCHes all his FAVORITE SHOWs on MONDAYs (capitalized are all lexical morphemes)

What is blending?

Combining parts of words into one Ex. smog (smoky fog), blog (web vlog), podcast, brexit, mocktail, affluenza, bashtag, cronut, dramedy, chillax, jeggings, Bennifer (ben affleck and jennifer), brangelina (we don't say angelad, we combine celebrity names in a principal way, systematic and follow patterns, they are rule-based and follow rules of our language), brunch, linner

What is compounding?

Compounds are a combination of free morphemes Ex. hotdog, speed-date, binge-watch, buzzword, hotspot, cyberbully, meet-cute, facebook (started off as noun and we can turn it into verb and be creative/innovative with it and use it as a verb)

What is eponym?

Created from proper nouns (names) Ex. achilles (comes from name, but we say it's our weakness), freudian, scrooge, biebered (bieber fever)

What is back-formation?

Created from removing what is mistakenly considered to be an affix Take something that wasn't decomposable then break it up Where we don't know what cran is, but we know what berry is, so cran must mean something. Ex. cran-apple (origin of cranberry; cran had no meaning on its own when it was first introduced into language but now it does), whelmed ("underwhelmed"), tamale (tamales, Sp. tamal) like Watergate was name of hotel and Watergate scandal so "gate" is being back-formed to mean a scandal like PizzaGate

What is acronym?

Derived from the initials of words Ex. bae, radar, dvd, scuba, fomo, lol, fyi, diy, TV

Some lexical categories are common, some are less common. Give example?

Ex. Nouns are common, but definite articles are less common

What are grammatical morphemes?

Grammatical (or functional) morphemes serve a function in the utterance

What are grammaticality judgments?

Grammaticality judgments are a reflection of a speaker's mental and implicitly learned knowledge of a language.

What are the closed class/grammatical morphemes in the sentence: I googled the totally hip ipod on my computer.

I googlED THE totally hip ipod ON MY computer (take note that the "I" is also closed class)

What is grammaticality?

Important piece of data used to understand syntactic structure in a language; a speaker's knowledge of syntax

Ex. the dog bit the cat vs the cat bit the dog

In English, grammatical subject (S) is "the dog" it is the first thing in the utterance coming before the verb. Then "bit" is verb (V) and "object" (O) is "the cat."

Ex. Exercise: What is the word order of Japanese? John-ga Mary-ni hon-o ageta John-NOM Mary-DAT Book-ACC gave This translates to: John gave book to Mary.

In Japanese, linear order is SOV (John is Subject, Mary is Object, and gave is Verb), subject comes before object and verb is at the end. A: SOV

Why is Japanese more flexible in word order than English?

It differs from English because there is a suffix attached telling you whether it's subject or object and that is inflectional. Japanese has inflectional morphology called case (special inflectional morphemes telling you grammatical relationships of the nouns in the utterance is used NOM, ACC, DAT that English doesn't have..). Because there is inflectional morphology on the nouns in the phrase coding grammatical relationships, word order can be flexible unlike English. Because nouns are marked, Japanese sentence can both be grammatical even if it's SOV or OSV. In English, that wouldn't work. Because we don't have inflectional morphemes denoting case, telling you what's subject and object. In Eng, we can say John gave the book to Mary but we can't vary that and say *Mary John the book gave. Why in English are we so rigid with the word order? Because the nouns are not marked NOM or ACC like in japanese so Eng is not flexible with position since position is only thing we have to show grammatical relationships b/w nouns in sentence. SOV is preferred in Japanese but not 100% only thing they use since they have case markers. But restriction in Japanese is you can only have verb at the end.

What are the grammatical morphemes in the sentence: John is going to the store for the third time?

John IS goING TO THE store FOR THE third time.

What are lexical morphemes?

Lexical (or content) morphemes have a core meaning

How can we identify lexical categories? aka how do we know what word class a made-up word is in?

Lexical categories are identified by their patterns Different lexical categories have different patterns

What is abbreviation?

Or clippings are shortening longer words Ex. phone (telephone), gym (gymnasium), fax (facsimile), ad (advertisement), exam, totes, mos def, app (application), obvs, deets, info, fo'sho

Are prescriptive rules part of grammaticality judgments?

Prescriptive rules like "don't end a sentence with a preposition" do not count Where are you coming from? (grammatical) *Where are you from coming? (ungrammatical)

What is the preferred word order of Japanese?

SOV (although there's some flexibility

Clicker. What is the word order of English?

SVO

English has what kind of syntax?

SVO (subject-verb-object)

What is syntax?

Set of grammatical structures which allow for the combination of words into sentences

What are loanwords?

We can also borrow words from other languages (loanwords) Happens when 2 speech communities come into contact and share culture Ex. pizza, blitz, czar, bagel, taco

In syntax why is it that.....

We can't always produce or understand a new word in our language, but... We can spontaneously produce and understand new sentences?

How does syntax differ from morphology/phonology?

We have hard time producing new sounds and can't use words productively until we know there meaning but we can absolutely understand produce new sentences we haven't said or heard before. This illustrates the creative capacity of syntax!

Is a numeric quantifier like "3" grammatical?

Yes since you can't make up numbers... wait a second but "third" wasn't grammatical in the sentence "John is going to the store for the third time.... whaat?"

What is neologism?

creating a completely novel word out of nothing We can make a new word, but it has to be accepted and caught on by speech community, the collective HAS to understand it for it to be a new word Ex. zany, grovel (shakespeare) scrumdiddlyumptious (Roald Dahl) Ex. Woke, boo, fleek

Clicker. What type morpheme is the "-er" in "she is a runner?"

derivational because it changes from verb to noun (changes lexical category and changes stem); like a runner doesn't necessarily have to run in years, it denotes agency but doesn't have to be connected to that event

Do derivational affixes have predictable meaning?

do not necessarily add predictable meaning (bc it adds meaning to stem, it can't be applied across board, it changes something inherent about the word it attaches to. Like it attaches to adjectives but not all adjectives like unhappy but not unblue* and we say re-paint but not re-eat* or re-die*

Ex. John-ga Mary-ni hon-o ageta Ex. Mary-ni Jogn-ga hon-o ageta Both of these sentences above mean "John gave the book to Mary."

flexible!

What are the next categorizations/classifcations of morphemes that we never got to?

grammatical vs lexical open vs closed class

Is syntax creative?

heck yea

What are the open class/lexical morphemes in the sentence: I googled the totally hip ipod on my computer.

i GOOGLEd the TOTALLY HIP IPOD on my COMPUTER

What is syntactic analysis?

identifying and describing patterns of language at a level larger than just single words (at the phrasal level, how words combine into utterances)

What does dative mark?

indirect object

Clicker. What type of morpheme is the /-z/ in "dogs are cute"?

inflectional because dog is just becoming plural

Clicker. What type morpheme is the "-ing" in "they are walking?"

inflectional because it's still a verb, it just changes tense (walk, walked, walking) this is called an "aspect" whether action is completed or ongoing and that "-ing" can be added to verbs across the board

What does "*" mean in linguistics?

it means it's ungrammatical (native speakers don't accept it, don't say or understand it)

In English, word order is flexible or not?

it's less flexible. We say John gave the book to Mary, and not *the book gave John to Mary.

What is derivation?

morphology that create new lexical items

What are 2 others ways to add new words?

neologism and loanwords

Are lexical categories universal?

no, Ex. Korean and Japanese and Russian don't have definite and indefinite articles (such as "the" and "a" in English)

Do we learn/memorize specific sentences?

no. Instead, we learn certain subconscious patterns that allow us to produce and understand an infinite # of sentences. We call those subconscious patterns SYNTAX.

Clicker. What type morpheme is the "-er" in "letter?"

not a morpheme because "lett" is not a stem that can stand alone, we can't decompose the word "letter"

Lexical (content)/open class have what words?

noun, verbs, adjectives, adverbs

What does accusative mark?

object

Ex *Furiously ideas green sleep colorless. This is an ill-formed (*) English sentence Just a string of words It doesn't follow any rules in either semantics or syntax. It's nonsensical and also syntactically ill-formed as well.

okay

Ex. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. Semantics: sentence has no real meaning Syntax: but it is a well-formed English sentence (that is perfectly syntactically grammatical sentence in Eng, follows implicit rules of how we are allowed to string words together, it just has no real meaning).

okay

Ex. Sally likes Bob -> grammatical in English (aka speakers of Eng can understand and produce this sentence w/o problem, accepted) *Likes Bob Sally -> an ungrammatical phrase (native speaker would not say, and they would have hard time interpreting it, all these words are in our lexicon but the order of words doesn't follow subconscious patterns of English) It means that structure of sentence #1 that speakers know something about but sentence #2 is not our knowledge

okay

Ex. we all are children and we hear "dacks!" and we have to figure out what "dacks" refers to. It could be an object or an action/event, we don't know as a child. But if we hear "I'm dacksing" then we could say it's a verb, it refers to action. How do we know? Because we've heard utterances and constructions before like "I'm ____ing" because the word occurs in that context of morphemes that generally refer to events and actions. So we would say "dacks" is a new lexical item to store in lexicon that's a verb and we can say "she dackses" and we associate meaning with it that it's an event. Or if instead we heard "Look, a dacks!" then we'd come to different conclusion that dacks is a noun or objective since nouns come after "a _____"

okay

Note for "/": we don't often add closed class words to our language but sometimes we do like for Halloween a new conjunction is "/" we'd say we are a zombie/unicorn or rider/runner... that slash is an innovative conjunction

okay

Note that lexical (content) are part of open class. Grammatical (function) are part of closed class.

okay

So the same form can be a different morpheme like "-ing" depending on how it's used

okie dokie artichokie

Take-Away: we have a lot of what looks like "-er" morphemes in English words but they're not always actual morphemes

okie dokie artichokie

Generally, words will be added to what?

open class (they can be creative)

What does nominative morphology mark?

subject

Ex. cats, books, cups, pens, monkeys (all of these things are nouns taking plural morpheme but adjectives can't in English as seen below) *olds (as in *these books are olds)

that's just ungrammatical

T/F. Words can be added to the lexicon all the time.

true!

We can describe a language's syntax based on what?

what the preferred linear order of the grammatical relations is.

Derivational affixes can change what?

word class of a lexical item or meaning of stem

Lexical categories are determined by what?

words and categories that can occur together in phrases Ex. a monkey, the pen (determiners come before nouns but not adjectives by themselves or before pronouns) * a tall, a she

What is linear order?

words usually occur in a particular sequence in order to convey a desired meaning

"Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe All mimsy were the borogoves And the mome raths outgrabe" Can we figure out lexical category of slithy toves?

yes derivational suffix -y tells us that slithy could be an adjective. Also it occurs between "the" and a noun. The inflectional suffix -s tells us that toves could be a plural noun. And also "the _______ _______" could denote that it's noun Presence of 'the" (a determiner) tells us that there is a noun phrase. When there are two phrases in a noun phrase, we know that the first one modifies the second one

Does preferred linear order across languages vary?

yes!

Is there more to a sentence than just connecting a string of words together?

yes!

In English, do we rely on linear order?

yes, we rely on linear order to understand the event. Ex. Who did what to whom

Can word order in Japanese be flexible? Why or why not?

yes. The preferred word order in Japanese is SOV, but because there is inflectional morphology on the nouns in the phrase coding grammatical relationships, word order can be flexible.

Is there dissociation/independence between syntax and semantics?

yes. They are related but at some level they're different. The way we string words together follows rules and the way those words create meaning is something different. Syntax, aka rules we know of how to put words together in sentence, is its own level separate from semantics (meaning)