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Word Association Testing

a test in which the tester gives the patient words and the patient responds with the first thing that comes to mind; used by psychoanalysts like Jung to infer subconscious thoughts or personality traits

Demand Characteristics

cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected

Cross's Nigrescence Model:

pre-encounter, encounter, immersion-emersion, internalization, and internalization-commitment

Reactivity:

"Because the observer is a participant in the activities and events being observed, it is easy to influence other people's behavior, thereby raising the problem of reactivity - influencing what is being observed."

"Cant Happen to me" Bias aka Normalcy Bias -

"causes people to underestimate both the possibility of a disaster occurring and its possible effects.

The atypical antipsychotics

(AAP; also known as second generation antipsychotics (SGAs)) are a group of antipsychotic drugs (antipsychotic drugs in general are also known as major tranquilisers). Block serotonin as well. Less likely to cause extrapyramidal motor control disability (negative symptoms increase). These have increased risk of stroke, cardiac death, blood clot and diabetes.

Social Desirability Bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.

Index of dissimilarity

0 is total segregation, and 100 perfect distributions.

Other forms of segregation:

1) Concentration - there's clustering of different groups 2) Centralization - segregation + clustering in a central area.

Receptive aphasia

A fluent aphasia. A person will be able to read or hear; however, she will be unable to understand the meaning of the communication. = Wernicke's aphasia is a fluent aphasia. The person will be able to produce language; however, the words will come out as 'word salad' or fluently connected speech that lacks meaning.

Agraphia

A form of aphasia characterized by the loss of the ability to form graphemes, which causes a loss in the ability to communicate via writing.

Anomia

A form of aphasia identified by the inability to name everyday objects.

Cialidini's Six key principles of influence

1. reciprocity 2. commitment and consistency 3. social proof 4. authority 5. liking 6. scarcity

Aversive conditioning

A behavioral conditioning technique in which noxious stimuli are associated with undesirable or unwanted behavior that is to be modified or abolished.

The McGurk effect

A categorical change in auditory perception that occurs whenever the auditory stimulus does not match the visual stimulus during speech perception

Antipsychotics

A class of psychiatric medication primarily used to manage psychosis(including delusions, hallucinations, paranoia or disordered thought) principally for schizophreniaand bipolar disorder, and are increasingly being used in the management of non-psychotic disorders. Both types block dopamine pathways and cause Parkinson like symptoms. (also treat anxiety with dementia, OCD, and anxiety disorder).

Word Association

A common word game involving an exchange of words that are associated together. The game is based on the noun phrase word association, meaning "stimulation of an associative pattern by a word" or "the connection and production of other words in response to a given word, done spontaneously as a game, creative technique, or in a psychiatric evaluation

Dependent Variable:

A dependent variable is expected to change based on the manipulation of the independent variable.

Visual agnosia

A disorder of the ventral pathway, because it is an inability to recognize an image. (acronym: Visual = Ventral)

Confounding Variable

A hypothetical or real third variable that is often not taken into account during analysis and can adversely affect the study. A confounding variable is one which is not tvpically of interest to the researcher but is an extraneous variable which is related to BOTH the dependent and independent variables. • IV is not CAUSING the confounding variable is the difference between a CONFOUNDING VARIABLE and a MEDIATING VARIABLE (In a mediating variable, the mediating variable CAUSES a confounding variable).

Heterogamy

A marriage between two individuals who are culturally different.

Face validity

A measure of how representative a research project is 'at face value,' and whether it appears to be a good project the degree to which a lay person who takes a cursory look at an experiment agrees that an experimenter is measuring what they say they are measuring.

Mediating Variable:

A mediating variable specifies a given cause (original predictor variable, independent variable) that works indirectly through a more direct cause (mediator variable) to a final effect (outcome variable, dependent variable). The mediator adds to the overall variance accounted for in the data and can explain how the dependent and independent variables are related. A mediating variable is one which explains the relationship between two other variables. "RELATIONSHIP between two variables" EXPLAINS WHY OR HOW the relationship ——Explains the relationship between and DV ——IV accounts for variations in DV ——IV variations account for variations in mediator ——Mediator variation account for variations in DV ——When mediator is added to the mode, the relationship between the IV and DV decreases

Split-Half Method

A method for assessing internal consistency by checking the results of one-half of a set of scaled items against the results from the other half.

Content Analysis:

A method for summarizing any form of content by counting various aspects of the content.

Prosopagnosia

A neurological disorder characterized by the inability to recognize familiar people based on facial information alone. (acronym: prosopagnosia = PEOPLE)

Synthestasia

A neurological phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway.

The paraventricular nucleus (PVN, PVA, or PVH)

A neuronal nucleus in the hypothalamus. It contains groups of neurons that can be activated by stressful and/or physiological changes. Many PV neurons project directly to the posterior pituitary where they release oxytocin or vasopressin into the general circulation. Other PV neurons control various anterior pituitary functions, while still others directly regulate appetite and autonomic functions in the brainstem and spinal cord.

Broca's aphasia

A non-fluent form of aphasia. A person with Broca's aphasia will be unable to produce speech, but will be able to understand verbal speech.

The fusiform gyrus

A part of the visual system in the brain, and plays a role in high level visual processing and recognition. (part of temporal and occipital lobe)

Hypochondriac

A person who is abnormally anxious about their health

Regression to the mean

A phenomenon in which, over time, scores become more average.

Opponent-process theory

A psychological and neurological model that accounts for a wide range of behaviors, including color vision.

The diathesis-stress model

A psychological theory that attempts to explain behavior as a predispositional vulnerability together with stress from lite experiences. It can take the form of genetic, psychological, biological, or situational factors. A large range of individual differences exist between persons in their vulnerability to the development of disorder.

Quasi-Experimental Design

A quasi-experimental design is similar to an experimental design but lacks random assignment. This type of design describes an effect on a specific cohort of the population 3x2 factorial design (read "three by two") - we have three levels of the first variable crossed with two levels of the second variable. Such a design gives us 3×2=6 treatment conditions in the experiment. Two independent variables, 3 of first, 2 of 2nd.

Exogamy

A social arrangement where marriage is allowed only outside a social group. The social groups define the scope and extent of exogamy, and the rules and enforcement mechanisms that ensure its continuity.

Reciprocity

A social rule that says we should repay, in kind, what another person has provided us. - That is, people give back the kind of treatment they have received from you. By virtue of the rule of reciprocity, we are obligated to repay favors, gifts, invitations, etc. in the future. If someone remembers us on our birthday with a gift, a reciprocal expectation may influence us to do the same on their birthday. This sense of future obligation associated with reciprocity makes it possible to build continuing relationships and exchanges. Reciprocal actions of this nature are important to social psychology as they can help explain the maintenance of social norms. Individuals who benefit from the group's resources without contributing any skills, helping, or resources of their own are called free riders. Both individuals and social groups often punish free riders, even when this punishment results in considerable costs to the group. So, it is unsurprising that individuals will go to great lengths to avoid being seen as a moocher, freeloader, or ingrate.

Standardized (Analyzing tests)

A standardized test is any form of test that (1) requires all test takers to answer the same questions, or a selection of questions from common bank of questions, in the same way, and that (2) is scored in a "standard" or consistent manner, which makes it possible to compare the relative performance of individual students or groups of students. While different types of tests and assessments may be "standardized" in this way, the term is primarily associated with large-scale tests administered to large populations of students, such as a multiple-choice test given to all the eighth-grade public-school students in a particular state, for example.

The Thomas theorem

A theory of sociology which was formulated in 1928 by W. 1. Thomas and D. S. Thomas (1899-1977): " If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences. " In other words, the interpretation of a situation causes the action. (acronym: if Thomas the train is defined as real, it becomes real in consequence)

Reciprocal relationship

A two-way relationship in which information and power are shared evenly. Cause <——> effect

Selection bias

A type of bias related to how people are chosen to participate

Social desirability bias

A type of bias related to how people respond to research questions.

Reconstructive bias

A type of bias related to memory. Most research on memories suggests that our memories of the past are not as accurate as we think, especially when we are remembering times of high stress

Population Validity:

A type of external validity which describes how well the sample used can be extrapolated to a population as a whole. Generalizability.

Ecological validity

A type of external validity which looks at the testing environment and determines how much it influences behavior.

Conditioned memory

A type of memory that is formed based on your associations between two things. For example, if your professor rings a bell at the end of the exam, you will remember the bell as the sign that the exam is over.

Beck's Cognitive therapy (CT)

A type of psychotherapy developed by American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. CT is one of the therapeutic approaches within the larger group of cognitive behavioral therapies (CBT) and was first expounded by Beck in the 1960s. Cognitive therapy is based on the cognitive model, which states that thoughts, feelings and behavior are all connected, and that individuals can move toward overcoming difficulties and meeting their goals by identifying and changing unhelpful or inaccurate thinking, problematic behavior, and distressing emotional responses. This involves the individual working collaboratively with the therapist to develop skills for testing and modifying beliefs, identifying distorted thinking, relating to others in different ways, and changing behavior

Moderating Variable:

A variable that specifies conditions under which a given predictor is related to an outcome. The moderator explains 'when a dependent and independent variable are related. A moderator variable is one that influences the strength of a relationship between two other variables. ———-Changing the strength or direction of the relationship between IV and DV ———-Does not explain why there is a relationship between IV and DV

Social cue

A vocal or non-vocal suggestion, which can be positive or negative. These cues guide conversation and other social interactions. A few examples of social cues include: facial expression, tone of voice and body language.

Comparative Study/Research:

According to D.E Sanga (2004) Cooperative research is a research methodology in the social sciences that aims to make comparisons across different countries or cultures. A major problem in comparative research is that the data sets in different countries may not use the same categories, or define categories differently (for example by using different definitions of poverty).

Validity

Accuracy. Items that are high in validity accurately address the construct. "ACTUALLY GETTING AN ANSWER FOR SOMETHING YOU WISH TO MEAUSRE"

Adaptation vs. Habituation

Adaptation is at the sensory level, and habituation is at the perceptive/cognitive level

Cells responsible for arousal are inhibited by

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)

Hindsight bias

Also known as the knew-it-all-along effect or creeping determinism, is the inclination, after an event has occurred, to see the event as having been predictable, despite there having been little or no objective basis for predicting it.

Absolute poverty

An absolute level at which if you go below, survival is threatened. Minimum level of resources a human being needs to survive. This level no matter where you are. • Approx. $1-2 a day, talking about developing countries. • However, someone in Arctic needs a lot more than somewhere else. There's variability absolute poverty does not consider. • The median level of income in a society can gradually rise as country gets richer. When it does, we find less people live in absolute poverty - decrease in poverty.

Posner and Snyder described

An action as automatic if the action did not affect other mental activities

Dermatome

An area of skin with sensory nerve fibers from a single posterior spinal root ganglion.

Caffeine inhibits

An enzyme that breaks down cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). The increase in cAMP increases glutamate production. This increase in cellular activity results in action potentials that are briefer and released in bursts. Just remember CAMP = ON/SIGNALLING). Broken by phospodiester to AMP (a nucleotide)

Informed Consent

An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

independent vs dependent variable

An independent variable in a study is manipulated, whereas the dependent variable is the factor in a study that is expected to change based on manipulation. The executives are manipulating price and expect to see changes in sales.

The Flynn effect

An observation regarding the growth of IQ from one generation to the next

Criterion Validity

Assesses whether a test reflects a certain set of abilities. "IS the test valid Criterion validity refers to whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome ——Concurrent validity measures the test against a benchmark test and highcorrelation indicates that the test has strong criterion validity. Concurrent validity measures how well a test matches up with a benchmark test, which is usually another valid measure of the same construct. —— Predictive validity is a measure of how well a test predicts abilities. It involves testing a group of subjects for a certain construct and then comparing them with results obtained at some point in the future. Predictive validity, or the extent to which an assessment is able to predict something it should be able to predict

The orbitofrontal cortex

Associated with the processing of both positively and negatively balanced emotions. When activity is lowered in the right hemisphere, euphoria is experienced. Conversely, when activity is lowered in the left hemisphere, depression is reported. (acronym: think of a HAPPY right handed Olivia ORBITing the FRONT of space ). Vision, taste, olfaction, and touch are all first integrated in the orbitofrontal cortex.

Avoidant-avoidant conflicts

Both options are unappealing

Phosphodiesterase decomposes

CAMP into AMP

Alcohol

CNS depressant

Nicotine

CNS stimulant by working as a acetylcholine agonist.

Confounding variables

Changes in dependent variable may be due to existence of or variations in a third variable • A confounding variable is a third variable in an experiment that could provide an alternative explanation to the relationship between the variables of interest.

Self-Report Study:

Cheap and not labor intensive. Potential for poor reliability, vulnerable to subjective interpretation, hard to compare w/ those from other measures. A self-report study is a type of survey, questionnaire, or poll in which respondents read the question and select a response by themselves without researcher interference. A self-report is any method which involves asking a participant about their feelings, attitudes, beliefs and so on. Examples of self-reports are questionnaires and interviews; self-reports are often used as a way of gaining participants' responses in observational studies and experiments. Self-report studies have validity problems. Patients may exaggerate symptoms in order to make their situation seem worse, or they may under-report the severity or frequency of symptoms in order to minimize their problems. Patients might also simply be mistaken or misremember the material covered by the survey. • Often use semi-structured interview style with follow up questions and pre-set questions set. • Closed questions - provide guantitative data, no insights • Open questions - qualitative data - ask participant to answer in own words

Social stratification complexity

Complexity - Although stratification is not limited to complex societies, all complex societies exhibit features of stratification. In any complex society, the total stock of valued goods is distributed unequally, wherein the most privileged individuals and families enjoy a disproportionate share of income, power, and other valued resources. The term "stratification system" is sometimes used to refer to the complex social relationships and social that generate these observed inequalities. The key components of such systems are: (a)social-institutional processes that define certain types of goods as valuable and desirable, (b) the rules of allocation that distribute goods and resources across various positions in the division of labor (e.g., physician, farmer, 'housewife'), and (c) the social mobility processes that link individuals to positions and thereby generate unequal control over valued resources

The good-subject tendency

Refers to the tendency of participants to act according to what they think the experimenter wants

Practice effects

Considered a common subtype of order effects. Practice effects can be defined as influences on performance that arises from a practicing a task (Heiman, 2002). Even after practice trials are performed in/for a study, participants have a tendency to bertorm initial trials poorly because they are still not warmed up to it (Heiman, 2002). Performance can, however, improve after more trials are conducted because this allows participants to become more accurate and a lot quicker. Participants' performance may decrease again, however, because they do have a tendency to become bored and/or fatigued after a while.

Double approach-avoidant conflicts

Consist of two options with both appealing and negative characteristics, which seemed to represent the jury's dilemma. If they ruled the defendant guilty, then they could be punishing a criminal(approach) or maybe punishing an innocent(avoidant). If they ruled the defendant innocent, then they would be letting a criminal walk away unpunished(avoidant) or freeing an innocent (approach).

Reliability

Consistency in answers across participants. Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. CONSISTENT RESULTS WITH REPEATED EXPERIMENTS.

The homunculus

Cortical body map of how different areas of the skin are represented in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1)

Social reproduction can also expose you to

Cultural capital, ex. It parents exposing, you to trips abroad and earning foreign languages. Or cultural items in house you know a lot about. With this knowledge you may gain some reward • Cultural capital - The term cultural capital refers to non-financial social assets that promote social mobility beyond economic means. Examples can include education, intellect, style of speech, dress, or physical appearance. Refers to knowledge, skills, education, and similar characteristics that are used to make social distinctions and that are associated with differences in social status.

Qualitative

Data in the form of recorded descriptions rather than numerical measurements.

Longitudinal study

Data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time, can take years or decades. A longitudinal study follows variables over a long period of time to look for correlations.

Quantitative

Data that is in numbers

Neuroleptics

Decrease positive symptoms of schizophrenia but can increase negative symptoms. First generation.

Socioeconomic Status:

Defined as consisting of income (or wealth), educational attainment, and/or occupational status

The interaural level difference

Describes the difference in sound pressure level between the ears. The head dampens the overall sound to the far ear and reduces the intensity of the high frequency tones, but not the low frequency tones.

The interaural time difference

Describes the difference in time it takes a sound to reach the left vs the right ear.

Content validity

Describes the extent that the test measures the construct accurately. Is the estimate of how much a measure represents every single element of a construct. Content validity, or the extent to which an assessment measures the entire construct fully. "Does the test measure what its supposed too?" Content validity is a measure of comprehensiveness and examines whether or not a test covers every single element of a construct.

Multiple Approach-Avoidance

Describes the internal mental debate (sometimes called a conflict) that weighs the pros and cons of differing situations that have both good and bad elements. The name comes from visualizing yourself approaching and avoiding different aspects of situations at the same time. An example would be choosing between two difterent cars, each with differing pros and cons. One car gets great gas mileage and has lots of fancy stuff (approaching) but is very expensive and expensive to maintain (avoidance). The other car is cheap and cheap to maintain (approaching) but very boring and won't last long term (avoidance). Your mind will weigh these different options and eventually come to a decision based on the information you considered. As humans this is a very common internal debate that we use daily, from choosing what food to eat (healthy food vs. tasty junk food) to where we will live (country vs. city)

Sample bias

In statistics, sampling bias is a bias in which a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others. It results in a biased sample, a non-random sample of a population (or non-human factors) in which all individuals, or instances, were not equally likely to have been selected. If this is not accounted for, results can be erroneously attributed to the phenomenon under study rather than to the method of sampling.

Psychophysical Testing Methods /Psychophysics

Directly assess our perception of stimuli in relation to their true physical properties. Psychophysics quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect. Psychophysics has been described as "the scientific study of the relation between stimulus and sensation" or, more completely, as "the analysis of perceptual processes by studying the effect on a subject's experience or behaviour of systematically varying the properties of a stimulus along one or more physical dimensions".

The insula and basal ganglia are most often associated with

Disgust. (acronym: Parkinson's disease (basal ganglia) people never feel disgusted and are INSULATED) • The insula is the brain structure most associated with disgust. The anterior insula receives signals from the senses ot olfaction and gustation mouth nose are in front of body), while the posterior insula receives signals from audition and somatosensation (rear of body)

Beneficence

Doing good or causing good to be done; kindly action

Amphetamine

Dopamine reuptake blocked

Egoism:

Egoism (also known as psychological egoism) is a philosophical concept in which the motivations and instincts for an individual's behavior are based on their own selt-interest and welfare. It is the belief that all of our behaviors and actions are based on the benefit that we will receive from it. This is contrasted with psychological altruism which proposes that some human actions are based on the desire to help other people.

We have a number of ways to break down society into social layers

Ex. Classes Lower class - manual work, labour, low-pay jobs. Middle class - professionals, better paying jobs Upper class - very wealthy businessmen and family wealth —————Correlates to amount of income

Internal Validity

Extent to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warranted. Confounding factors often impact the internal validity of an experiment.

Bias:

Failure to be objective

Agoraphobia

Fear of open spaces, crowds, etc

Interventional experiment

Find

Reciprocal exchange in science

Find

Four principles are posited to underlie social stratification.

First, social stratification is socially defined as a property of a society rather than individuals in that society. Second, social stratification is reproduced from generation to generation. Third, social stratification is universal (found in every society) but variable (differs across time and place). Fourth, social stratification involves not just quantitative inequality but qualitative beliefs and attitudes about social status

Cohort study

Following a subset of population over a lifetime. A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic (ex. people born and exposed to same pollutant/drug/etc.) in period of time A retrospective cohort design looks back at events that have already taken place. A prospective cohort design follows a group of individuals over a period of time.

Melodic Intonation Therapy (MIT)

MIT works best with non-fluent forms of aphasia.

Homogamy

Marriage between individuals who are, in some culturally important way, similar to each other. Homogamy may be based on socioeconomic status, class, gender, ethnicity, or religion, or age in the case of the so-called age homogamy.

Requirements for generalizability

For generalizability we require a study sample that represents some population of interest - but we also need to understand the contexts in which the studies are done and how those might influence the results. Suppose you read an article about a Swedish study of a new exercise program for male workers with back pain. The study was performed on male workers from fitness centres. Researchers compared two approaches. Half of the participants got a pamphlet on exercise from their therapist, and half were put on an exercise program led by a former Olympic athlete. The study findings showed that workers in the exercise group returned to work more quickly than workers who received the pamphlet. Assuming the study was well conducted, with a strong design and rigorous reporting, we can trust the results. But to what populations could you generalize these results? Some factors that need to be considered include: How important is it to have an Olympian delivering the exercise program? Would the exercise program work if delivered by an unknown therapist? Would the program work if delivered by the same Olympian but in a country where he or she is not well-known? Would the results apply to employees of other workplaces that differ from fitness centres? Would women respond the same way to the exercise program? To increase our confidence in the generalizability of the study, it would have to be repeated with the same exercise program but with different providers in different settings (either worksites or countries) and yield the same results.

The two aspects of generalizability

Generalizing to a population Generalizing to a theory

The amygdalae

Golf ball shaped groups of nuclei located within the temporal lobes of the brain. They serve to assist in the processing of memory, decision-making, and emotional reactions.

Residential segregation

Groups of people separate into different neighbourhoods. • Can mean race or income Where we live affects our life chances, because it affects our politics, healthcare, availability to education, etc.

Clinical trial

Highly controlled interventional studies

Homophilous social network is similar to

Homophilous social network is similar to reference group

Strength of a correlation is based on

How close the correlation coefficient is to 1 or -1. Correlations can only range between 1 and -1. • Negative Correlation: <0, >-1, -1 = strong negative correlation. A negative correlation is a relationship between two variables in which one variable increases and the other decreases. • Positive Correlation >0, <1, +1 = strong positive correlation. A positive correlation is a relationship between two variables: as one increases, the other also increases. • A correlation coefficient that is below -1 is likely the result of an error by the experimenter when computing the correlation between developmental dyslexia and illiteracy.

Preferred-mixing indicates

How there are high levels of contact among people who share similar attributes. Antecedent predisposition Social subjectivity Deviance theory

Regression to the mean

If first measurement is extreme, second measurement will be closer to the mean

2. Commitment and Consistency -

If people commit, orally or in writing, to an idea or goal, they are more likely to honor that commitment because of establishing that idea or goal as being congruent with their self-image. Even if the original incentive or motivation is removed after they have already agreed, they will continue to honor the agreement. Cialdini notes Chinese brainwashing on American prisoners of war to rewrite their self-image and gain automatic unenforced compliance. See cognitive dissonance

Observational Study

In an observational study, the researcher is unable to control the assignment of groups.

Relative Poverty

In developed countries. use a different marker - a % level below the median country of the country. Ex. In Us, instead of $1-2 a day, median income is above $80/day. • <60% of the median income. • If a country's income rises up, absolute poverty line won't change, median income level would. • Relative poverty is not about survival, its people whose incomes are so low in their own society they're being excluded from society.

Participant observation:

In participant observation the observer participates in ongoing activities and records observations. Participant observation extends beyond naturalistic observation because the observer is a "player" in the action.

Proximal Stimulus:

In perception, the proximal stimulus refers to physical stimulation that is available to be measured by an observer's sensory apparatus. It can also refer to the neural activity that results from sensory transduction of the physical stimulation are the patterns of stimuli from these objects and events that actually reach your senses (eyes, ears, etc.)

Methods of Limits

In the ascending method of limits, some property of the stimulus starts out at a level so low that the stimulus could not be detected, then this level is gradually increased until the participant reports that they are aware of it. For example, if the experiment is testing the minimum amplitude of sound that can be detected, the sound begins too quietly to be perceived, and is made gradually louder. In the descending method of limits, this is reversed. In each case, the threshold is considered to be the level of the stimulus property at which the stimuli are just detected. In experiments, the ascending and descending methods are used alternately and the thresholds are averaged. A possible disadvantage of these methods is that the subject may become accustomed to reporting that they perceive a stimulus and may continue reporting the same way even beyond the threshold (the error of habituation). Conversely, the subject may also anticipate that the stimulus is about to become detectable or undetectable and may make a premature judgment (the error of anticipation).

Illness anxiety disorder

Individuals diagnosed with illness anxiety disorder are often more concerned with illness or the idea of being ill and often lack or have minimal somatic symptoms.

Method of Constant Stimulation

Instead of being presented in ascending or descending order, in the method of constant stimuli the levels of a certain property of the stimulus are not related from one trial to the next, but presented randomly. This prevents the subject from being able to predict the level of the next stimulus, and therefore reduces errors of habituation and expectation. For 'absolute thresholds' again the subject reports whether he or she is able to detect the stimulus. For 'difference thresholds' there has to be a constant comparison stimulus with each of the varied levels.

All of the points on the cone of confusion have the same

Interaural level difference and interaural time difference.

In psychology, the Stroop effect is a demonstration of

Interference in the reaction time of a task. When the name of a color (e.g., "blue", "green", or "red") is printed in a color not denoted by the name (e.g., the word "red" printed in blue ink instead of red ink), naming the color of the word takes longer and is more prone to errors than when the color of the ink matches the name of the color.

Internal vs. External Validity:

Internal validity describes the extent that a study is able to show a cause-effect relationship between the variables tested in the study. External validity describes the extent that the results of a study can be generalized or repeated in multiple settings.

Ethnographic Research:

Involves observing social interactions in real social settings. For example: studying the experience of role strain through observation can increase our understanding of how physicians cope with the challenging demands of extending life with interventions while accepting the reality of death. Ethnography is the systematic study of people and cultures.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

It plays the principal role in reducing neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system and is found in decreased levels in patients with anxiety disorders. There are three basic molecules, known chemically as monoamines, which are thought to play a role in mood regulation: norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine. The hypothalamus uses these neurotransmitters as it manages the endocrine system

Median

Less susceptible to variation (when compared to mode)

Cross-sectional study

Look at a group of different people at one moment in time

Couterbalancing:

Method to control for any effect that the order of presenting stimuli might have on the dependent variable

Serotonin also has many functions but is most often associated with

Mood, appetite, social behavior, and memory

Generalizing to a theory

More broadly, the concept of generalizability deals with moving from observations to scientific theories or hypotheses. This type of generalization amounts to taking time- and place-specific observations to create a universal hypothesis or theory. For instance, in the 1940s and 1950s, British researchers Richard Doll and Bradford Hill found that 647 out of 649 lung cancer patients in London hospitals were smokers. This led to many more research studies, with increasing sample sizes, with differing groups of people, with differing amounts of smoking and so on. When the results were found to be consistent across person, time and place, the observations were generalized into a theory: "cigarette smoking causes lung cancer."

The buildup of acetaldehyde causes symptoms such as

Nausea, headache, flushing of the face, and internal organ damage.

Socioeconomic gradient

Negative correlation between socioeconomic status & health risks

Neuropeptide Y

Neuropeptide Y in humans inhibit the feeding circuit blocking satiety. The inhibition caused by peptide Y may cause the inhibition of other neurotransmitters such as cholecystokinin (CCK), which limits meal size by sensing the distention of the duodenum. This may cause eating without being sensitive to the signals that the individual is full.

Distal stimuli

Objects and events out in the world about you. The distal stimulus is an object which provides information for the proximal stimulus.

Case-control study

Observational study where 2 groups differing in outcome are identified and compared to find a causal factor. Ex. comparing people with the disease with those who don't but are otherwise similar.

Active touch

Occurs when a person uses haptic perception to actively inspect an object.

Minority influence

Occurs when a smaller group over time is able to persuade the majority to join their side. A type of social influence, this topic was researched in depth by Moscovici. Minority influence uses conversion as a means for the minority group to be influential- conversion is convincing someone who originally doesn't agree with your views that you are right. • Examples of minority influence include the Suffragette and Civil Rights movements in the United States. These originated within a smaller group who over time were able to convince the majority to sympathize and agree with their side. When a new idea arises, it is automatically a minority opinion. This idea can then be spread through the influence of the minority on others accepting this view.

Attrition bias

Occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study.

Interference

Occurs when the participant takes longer to read a word because it is emotionally charged than a neutral word.

Repeated testing that leads to extreme measurements becoming more normal is called

Regression toward the mean

Functional neuroimaging

One type of 'brain scanning', involves the measurement of brain activity. The specific technique used to measure brain activity depends on the imaging technology being used (see fMRI and PET for examples). Regardless of which technology is used, the scanner produces a 'map' of the area being scanned that is represented as voxels. Each voxel typically represents the activity of a particular coordinate in three-dimensional space. The exact size of a voxel will vary depending on the technology used, although fMRI voxels typically represent a volume of 27 mm cubed (a cube with 3mm length sides).

5. Liking -

People are easily persuaded by other people that they like. Cialdini cites the marketing of Tupperware in what might now be called viral marketing. People were more likely to buy if they liked the person selling it to them. Some of the many biases favoring more attractive people are discussed. See physical attractiveness stereotype.

Randomized Controlled Trial

People studied randomly given one of treatments under study, used to test efficacy/side effects of medical interventions like drugs. Gold standard for a clinical trial.

1. Reciprocity -

People tend to return a favor, thus the pervasiveness of free samples in marketing. In his conferences, he often uses the example of Ethiopia providing thousands of dollars in humanitarian aid to Mexico just after the 1985 earthquake, despite Ethiopia suffering from a crippling famine and civil war at the time. Ethiopia had been reciprocating for the diplomatic support Mexico provided when Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935. The good cop/bad cop strategy is also based on this principle.

3. Social Proof

People will do things that they see other people are doing. For example, in one experiment, one or more confederates would look up into the sky; bystanders would then look up into the sky to see what they were seeing. At one point this experiment aborted, as so many people were looking up that they stopped traffic. See conformity, and the Asch conformity experiments.

4. Authority -

People will tend to obey authority figures, even if they are asked to perform objectionable acts. Cialdini cites incidents such as the Milgram experiments in the early 1960s and the My Lai massacre.

6. Scarcity -

Perceived scarcity will generate demand. For example, saying offers are available for a "limited time only" encourages sales. While conveying scarcity, in general, can influence others, in the case of an opinion, the more people that agree, the more likely others are to follow, so scarcity is not desirable.

Short-term maturation effects are

Physiological changes that can affect outcome measurements

Schizophrenia

Positive symptoms are delusions, neologisms, and hallucinations Negative symptoms describe loss of emotional affect and social withdrawal. MesolimbIc - positive eftects of schizophrenia Mesocortical - negative effects of schizophrenia Dopamine release in the tuberoinfundibular pathway inhibits prolactin release in the pituitary. The nigrostriatal pathway is associated with motor planning and purposeful movement The mesolimbic pathway is associated with reward, motivation, and many of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

Psychophysical discrimination testing (Psychophysics):

Psychophysics quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect.

Ambiguity in questions

Questions which can be interpreted in various ways. They can mean different things to different people.

A participant's role demands

Refers to the expectations of the participant regarding what an experiment necessitates him or her to do.

Validity:

Refers to the extent to which a measure reflects the phenomenon being studied. Should not use proxy measurements (should be direct). Should measure construct directly.

Reliable (Analyzing tests)

Reliability is one of the most important elements of test quality. It has to do with the consistency, or reproducibility, or an examine's performance on the test. For example, if you were to administer a test with high reliability to an examinee on two occasions, you would be very likely to reach the same conclusions about the examine's performance both times. A test with poor reliability, on the other hand, might result in very different scores for the examinee across the two test administrations. If a test yields inconsistent scores, it may be unethical to take any substantive actions on the basis of the test. There are several methods for computing test reliability including test-retest reliability, parallel forms reliability, decision consistency, internal consistency, and interrater reliability. For many criterion-referenced tests decision consistency is often an appropriate choice.

Ethical Research:

Requires that all participants voluntarily participate in the study. At any point, participants should be able to freely withdraw their participation and their data can then no longer be used.

The temporal lobes

Responsible for processing auditory signals, interpreting visual stimuli, and language recognition.

The parietal lobes

Responsible for spatial reasoning and receiving somatosensory information.

Dopamine has many functions but is most often associated with

Reward, learning, and attention

Subjective Bias:

Self-reported information is always vulnerable to subjective bias.

Test-retest reliability

Shown by a high positive correlation between the first and second administration of a test. Retest reliability, or consistency when a measure is taken multiple times.

Social group

Social group has been defined as two or more people who interact with one another, share simIlar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity. Other theorists disagree however, and are wary of definitions which stress the importance of interdependence or objective similarity."collection of people with common identity and regular interactions, is not as specific as a reference group"

Social stratification- social mobility

Social mobility is the movement of individuals, social groups or categories of people between the layers or strata in a stratification system. • Open stratification systems are those that allow for mobility between strata, typically by placing value on the achieved status characteristics of individuals. Those societies having the highest levels of intra-generational mobility are considered to be the most open and malleable systems of stratification. Those systems in which there is little to no mobility, even on an intergenerational basis, are considered closed stratification systems. For example, in caste systems, all aspects of social status are ascribed, such that one's social position at birth is the position one holds for a lifetime. (MARX)

Network analysis:

Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of network and graph theories.

Generalizing to a population

Sometimes when scientists talk about generalizability, they are applying results from a study sample to the larger population from which the sample was selected. For instance, consider the question, " What percentage of the Canadian population supports the Liberal party?" In this case, it would be important for researchers to survey people who represent the population at large. Therefore they must ensure that the survey respondents include relevant groups from the larger population in the correct proportions. Examples of relevant groups could be based on race, gender or age group.

Haptic perception

The exploration of objects through touch, most often by the hand or fingers.

Generalizing to a population.

Sometimes when scientists talk about generalizability, they are applying results from a study sample to the larger population from which the sample was selected. For instance, consider the question, "What percentage of the Canadian population supports the Liberal party?" In this case, it would be important for researchers to survey people who represent the population at large. Therefore they must ensure that the survey respondents include relevant groups from the larger population in the correct proportions. Examples of relevant groups could be based on race, gender or age group.

Data stratification

Sort or categorize data, including payments, journal entries, surveys, or employee data.

Survey:

Surveys provide a way to sample and measure

Temporal Monotocity:

Temporal monotonicity assumes that adding pain at the end of a painful experience (in this case extending the paintul experience will worsen the retrospective evaluation of the experienced pain and adding pleasure at the end will enhance the retrospective evaluation

Operational Span Testing

Test to see the general capacity of working memory tasks, patients are asked to read and verify a simple math problem (is 4/2 -1 = 1?) then read a word after such as SNOW, after doing a series of problems and words they are asked to recall the word that followed each operation. -Predicts verbal abilities and reading comprehension even though the subject is solving a math problem. Argues that it implies a general pool of resources that is used in every type of working memory situation

Convergent Validity:

Tests that constructs that are expected to be related are, in fact, related.

Discriminant validity

Tests that constructs that should have no relationship do, in fact, not have any relationship. (also referred to as divergent validity)

DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)

The DSM-5 describes paraphilia as any intense and persistent sexual interest other than genital stimulation or fondling in phenotypically normal, physically mature, and consenting human partners. Paraphilias include sexual sadism (inflicting humiliation, bondage, or suffering), masochism (being humiliated, bound, or suffering), transvestic (sexually arousing cross-dressing, in addition to voyeurism (spying on others and frotteurism touching or rubbing genitals against a non-consenting individual), and pedophilia (sexual focus towards children). •A teratogen is a substance or environmental factor that can disrupt normative fetal development. • Phenylketonuria is a genetic problem; consumption of diet soda during pregnancy would not directly cause phenylketonuria. •Polycystic kidney disease is a genetic problem. •Autism spectrum disorder is not a birth defect. •Fetal alcohol syndrome is directly related to the consumption of alcohol during pregnancy.

Spatial Discrimination

The ability to perceive as separate points of contact the two blunt points of a compass when applied to the skin

Emotional intelligence

The ability to understand emotions present in oneself and how those emotions motivate oneset and others.

Excessive sleepiness, which can be caused by a large sleep debt, is a consequence of

The accumulation of adenosine

Distal stimulus

The actual stimulus or object in the real world that you end up sensing and then perceiving, which results in the proximal stimulus.

Implicit bias

The attitudes or stereotypes that affect an individual's understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner. These biases, which encompass both favorable and unfavorable assessments, are activated involuntarily and without an individual's awareness.

Fairness

The fairness of an exam refers to its freedom from any kind of bias. The exam should be appropriate for all qualified examinees irrespective of race, religion, gender, or age. The test should not disadvantage any examinee, or group ot examinees, on any basis other than the examinee's lack of the knowledge and skills the test is intended to measure. Item writers should address the goal of fairness as they undertake the task of writing items. In addition, the items should also be reviewed for potential fairness problems during the item review phase. Any items that are identified as displaying potential bias or lack of fairness should then be revised or dropped from further consideration

Most perception of warmth occurs in

The insula. (Acronym: Warm is insulated) The cingulate cortex may be important in the perception of annoyance.(acronym: Sad Single Collosal)

Anger has been associated with

The left superior temporal sulcus. (acronym: ANGRY budda w/ LEFT toe missing @ The SUPERIOR TEMPLE Sucks/sulcs" • Damage to the basal ganglia causes problems recognizing angry facial expressions.

Method of Adjustment (method of average error)

The method of adjustment asks the subject to control the level of the stimulus, instructs them to alter it until it is just barely detectable against the background noise, or is the same as the level of another stimulus. This is repeated many times. This is also called the method of average error. In this method the observer himself controls the magnitude of the variable stimulus beginning with a variable that is distinctly greater or lesser than a standard one and he varies it until he is satisfied by the subjectivity of two. The difference between the variable stimuli and the standard one is recorded after each adjustment and the error is tabulated for a considerable series. At the end mean is calculated giving the average error which can be taken as the measure of sensitivity.

Prevalence

The number or proportion of cases of a particular disease or condition present in a population at a given time.

A confidence level refers to

The percentage of all possible samples that can be expected to include the true population parameter. For example, suppose all possible samples were selected from the same population and a confidence interval were computed for each sample A 95% confidence level implies that 95% of the confidence intervals would include the true population parameter

Phantom pain

The perception of pain in an area of the body, which has been removed or lost due to injury.

Endogamy

The practice of marrying within a specific ethnic group, class, or social group, rejecting others on such a basis as being unsuitable for marriage or for other close personal relationships.

The neurotransmitter, GABA, works as

The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter

Operationalization /operationalized

The process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors. The process defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured, empirically and quantitatively. Allows for the establishment of a causal relationship between variables. You want to manipulate the variable at varying levels for this to occur.

Spreading activation

The process through which activity in one node in a network flows outward to other nodes through associative links. Spreading activation finds the shortest circuit. Asymmetry occurs because of STD (Spike Time Dependent Plasticity); the synapse that fires regularly is strengthened in that direction, while the other synapse direction is weakened.

A global aphasia

The result of damage to a large portion of the left hemisphere. This person will have difficulty producing speech, understanding speech, and will likely be unable to read or write.

Tonotopy

The special mapping of sound frequencies that are processed by the brain, also called the tonotopic map.

Proximal stimulus

The stimulation that actually occurs when your sensory receptors are activated.... the neural activity.

The recognition of tacial expressions associated with sadness have been linked to

The subcallosal cingulate. (mnemonic: think of SUBway loving "Better CALLOSAL (a SINGLLEulate man)" as being sad)

Homophily

The tendency for people to choose relationships with other people who have similar attributes. people often prefer mixing with those who are similar to themselves.

Cognitive bias

The tendency to think in certain ways. Cognitive biases often cause deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgment.

Sensory stimulus is more referring to

The type of information being received by your receptors which elicits a response... i.e.: light, heat, touch, sound, etc.

Embedded field study

This study would occur if the researchers posed as patients, for example.

Temporal confounds

Time related confounding variables

The primary role of hypocritin also called orexin in the CNS

To control sleep and arousal

social reproduction

Transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next People with rich parents end up wealthy themselves - social reproduction. Means we are reproducing social inequality across generations. ————They have financial capital, and can invest it to obtain social capital - building up reliable, useful social networks. • Social Capital: the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively. • Social Networks provide a valuable resource. Social capital is believed to result in various health benefits for the individual, including reductions in the health risk of chronic inflammation. Partly related to social support, social capital emphasize the tangible resources provided by network members (whereas social support tends to focus on emotional resources). Both social support and social capital suggest that social contracts will be beneficial to individual health and well-being. Social Network -> Health Social Network: types include: Peer network Family network Community network

Approach-approach conflicts

Two options are both appealing

Error types

Type I error: False Positive. Saying results are significant when they actually are not. Signif level too lenient. Type II error: False negative. Saying results aren't significant when they actually are. Signif level too stringent. Power Alpha: two variables. Alternative Hypothesis Confidence Interval Variance Beta Null Hypothesis: A null hypothesis is a statement that suggests there is no relationship between

Typical Antipsychotics

Used to treat psychiatric conditions.

"An order effect is an influence on a particular trial that arises from its position in a sequence of trials" (Heiman, 2002).

Usually when one provides a series of questions for participants in a study, they run at risk for having an order effect. Practice effects usually occur when the participants find the questions to be either novel or have great reactivity. However, if there is a long list of questions, an increase in boredom is most likely to occur (Heiman, 2002). The same occurs for carry-over effects, when participants respond in a more biased manner to later questions because of any earlier questions. Response sets can also occur over repeated closed-ended questions (Heiman, 2002).

The link system

Utilizes order and connections (links) to facilitate memory recovery, but is not a chunking technique.

Validity (Analyzing tests)

Validity is arguably the most important criteria for the quality of a test. The term validity refers to whether or not the test measures what it claims to measure. On a test with high validity the items will be closely linked to the test's intended focus. For many certification and licensure tests this means that the items will be highly related to a specific job or occupation. If a test has poor validity then it does not measure the job-related content and competencies it ought to. When this is the case, there is no justification for using the test results for their intended purpose. There are several ways to estimate the validity of a test including content validity, concurrent validity, and predictive validity. The face validity of a test is sometimes also mentioned

Unidirectional Relationship

Variable A influences variable B but not vice versa Cause —-> effect

Means of production

Way we produce goods, ex. Factories and farms. Owned by fairly wealthy individuals, which hire a large amount of workers which offer their labour, without owning any of the means of production. There's a class divide, a hierarchy of upper/lower class.

Independent Variable:

What is manipulated

An approach-avoidance conflict

When one option has both aspects, but here there are two options.

Inter-rater reliability, or consistency

When two different people measure the same thing

External validity

Whether results of the study can be generalized to other situations and other people. To protect external validity, sample must be completely random, and all situational variables must be tightly controlled.

Theory by Karl Marx

Workers in working class don't realize they're being exploited and oppressed by this capitalistic model of working • Workers can develop class consciousness, and realize they have solidarity with one another and struggle to overcome this oppression and exploitation. Involves seizing and obtaining means and redistributing the means of production among the workers. • False consciousness - unlike class consciousness, instead of seeing they have solidarity with one another, they're unable to see their oppression. And owners can promote this false consciousness by controlling classes, making it more difficult for workers to see their oppression.

Experimental Study

Would involve manipulation of variables, which was not present in this study. Would have independent and dependent variables.

Implicit Association testing

a measure within social psychology designed to detect the strength of a person's automatic association between mental representations of objects (concepts) in memory.

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide) Serotonin neurotransmission

Leading Questions

a question that suggests the answer the interviewer seeks

Test validity

an indicator of how much meaning can be placed upon a set of test results

Risk factor

anything that increases the likelihood of injury, disease, or other health problems

Protective factors

conditions that shield individuals from the negative consequences of exposure to risk

Retrospective chart study

examine past charts

Glutamate is associated with

increased cortical arousal

Ca2+ =

indicator of chelation. This positively charged ion is extremely versatile. A rise in this ion, postsynaptically, in dendritic spines is essential for activity-dependent plasticity. This ion is an important second messenger in the neuron. Abnormal amounts of signaling in this ion has been implicated in disease states such as Huntington's, Alzheimer's and schizophrenia.

Prospective chart study

look at charts as they come

Connectome

map of neural connections in the brain

Etiology

study of the cause of disease

Concurrent Validity

the extent to which two measures of the same trait or ability agree

Response rate

the number or percentage of surveys completed by respondents and returned to researchers

Ethics

the principles of right and wrong that guide an individual in making decisions

Environmental Justice

—Where we live plays a huge role in environmental benefits and risks we're exposed to. —Areas with high poverty and lots of racial minorities, often have few environmental benefits (green spaces, parks, recreation). They also get a lot of environmental burden compared to wealthier parts. Includes waste facilities, manufacturing/factories, energy production, airports. At risk because they often have few alternatives, little awareness of risks they face, and other pressing issues. More health problems like asthma, obesity, etc. —Wealthier population society has much higher benefits. More politically and economically powerful, and able to demand beneficial facilities are placed close to them and burdening facilities far way. Also better represented in environmental/lobbying groups. —Big concept is environmental justice - looks at the fair distribution of the environmental benefits and burdens within society across all groups.

Social Exclusion

———Being an integral member of society has lots of advantages - access to good social networks, housing, educational resources, and resources in community. But certain individuals can be excluded to the peripheries of society, and are prevented from participating in society. Reduced right and access to resources/opportunities ———Some can drag people into the periphery of society The poverty magnet can drag people away from the core part of society, and experience a greater degree of social exclusion. The ill heath magnet can also drag people away, can't participate in society. Certain groups may face discrimination, based on their race/gender/sexual orientation/etc. - the discrimination magnet. Education, housing, employment all important factors. With lack of any of these they can be relegated to fringes. • People in periphery often have many of these magnets combined, have tremendous forces pushing them away. They may also have greater consequences like ill health and criminal activities.

Distal stimulus vs proximal stimulus

• The distal stimulus is an object which provides information for the proximal stimulus. The proximal stimulus registers, via sensory receptors, the information given by the distal stimulus. • An example would be a person looking at a shoe on the floor. The shoe itself is the distal stimulus. The image recorded onto the person's retina (sensory receptor) is proximal stimulus • Another example would be a telephone ringing. The ringing of the telephone is the distal stimulus. The sound being recognized and understood as the ringing of a telephone, by our sensory receptors, is the proximal stimulus.

Heath and Healthcare Disparities in the US

• A lot of disparities we see in US are result of poor economic and environmental conditions. Social-economic status is a pyramid. As we go up social pyramid, access and quality of healthcare improves. Opposite is true for those at bottom of pyramid - more disease, less high quality healthcare, substandard housing, poor diet, dangerous jobs, can't afford expensive treatments • Race can play a role - Hispanics and African-Americans have higher morbidity and mortality rates, worse access to healthcare and lower quality healthcare. Even though some can be attributed to SES reasons, doesn't explain everything. Minorities less likely to receive everyday healthcare and treatments for life-threatening conditions. • Gender differences - men typically use fewer preventative services like vaccines/check-ups. Women require reproductive services, and access is reduced due to local laws. Studies for treatments for diabetes/heart disease don't always include women, and can suffer from lack of research. • LGBT community - might face discrimination, which can limit clinics they feel comfortable seeking help from. Transgender especially face discrimination, and have a hard time finding someone who has experience working with transgender individuals. Leads them to be reluctant to seek services when they really need them.

Theory of Intersectionality

• Asks us to consider all the different levels of discrimination. Intersectionality calls attention to how identity categories intersect in systems of social stratification. For example, an individual's position within a social hierarchy is determined not only by his or her social class, but also by his or her race/ethnicity. o Originally coined in 1989 by Crenshaw as a feminist theory, but has since expanded out and use it to explain oppression in all parts of society. •The theory of intersectionality proposes that we need to understand how all these discriminations double or triple jeopardy can simultaneously exist

Various types of social constructs that allow for social mobility.

• Caste system - very little social mobility, because your role is determined entirely by background you're born to and who you're married to. A lot of social stability. Ex. The Hindu caste system. • Class system - allows for degree of social mobility, combination of background and movement, often by education. Less stability. • Meritocracy - concept that people achieve social position solely based on ability and achievements. Highly idealized. Birth/parental background doesn't matter. Extreme social mobility. Equal opportunity. "Social rewards, status, position are awarded to individuals based on their own ability to work (merit). In order for a meritocracy to operate, everyone within the society would need the same opportunity to succeed, so that rewards are actually based (primarily) on merit." It is not necessary for everyone to have the same talent or skill level or outcome. It just means everyone has the same opportunity to achieve. It means achievement is not prescribed at birth (like in a caste system). It means there is a high degree of mobility. Meritocracy is a system under which individuals are rewarded on the basis of individual skill, talent, or achievement.

Educational system and social reproduction

• Doesn't educational system allow poor people to gain capital too? Our educational system doesn't value cultures of low classes. It doesn't value the culture and social networks of the poor population ——Education system can reinforce this social stratification. Social Stratification - Social stratification is a society's categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power (social and political). As such, stratification is the relative social position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region, or social. In modern Western societies, social stratification typically is distinguished as three social classes: (i) the upper class, (ii) the middle class, and (iii) the lower class; in turn, each class can be subdivided into strata, e.g. the upper-stratum, the middle-stratum, and the lower stratum. Moreover, a social stratum can be formed upon the bases of kinship or caste, or both.

Many types of discrimination, like sex/gender/culture/race, but what if someone experiences multiple forms at same time?

• Ex. Female who is African American and practices Buddhist teachings, causing her to be discriminated against in 3 different areas. Why is it important to consider intersection? Because multiple different categories of potential discrimination/oppression that compounds in one individual, and put her at disadvantage in society.

Inter-Generational and Intra-Generational Mobility, Social Mobility

• If change in social class happens in a person's own lifetime - intra-generational mobility. • Intergenerational mobility - change in social class between generations, ex. Parent is working class and son is working class

Why is residential segregation important?

• Political isolation - Communities segregated are politically weak because their political interests don't overlap with other communities - become political vulnerable, don't have the political influence to keep their own needs addressed. • Linguistic isolation - Communities who are isolated may develop own language, even in same city. May limit jobs. • Lower access to quality education/heath • Spatial mismatch - opportunities for low-income people in segregated communities may be present but farther away and harder to access. Gap between where people live and where opportunities are.

Statistics

• Regression - all variables examined are continuous • LInear regression - degree of dependence between one variable and another. Data is on scatter plot, one-way influence of one variable on another. • Correlation - all variables examined are continuous. Unlike regression makes no assumptions about which variable is influencing the other. If correlation coefficient is 1, perfect. If -1, opposite. 0, random. • Chi-square - when all variables are categorical, looks at if 2 distributions of categorical data differ from each other. Null hypothesis vs. alternative hypothesis. • T-test - compares mean values of a continuous variable (dependent) between 2 categories/groups, ex. comparing mean of a group to a specific value. Can also compare means of 2 groups. Two-tailed = possibility of relationship in both directions, one-tailed = one direction. • ANOVA - similar to t-test, compare distributions of continuous variable between groups of categorical variable, but can be used for 3+ groups. If value doubles. 100% increase

Global Inequality

• The world is extremely uneaual. Life expectancy is Congo Is 51 vs. France Japan Is 84. Tremendous range. Access to clean water - in Africa, very difficult. In US/Europe very easy. • Champagne glass can help explain inequalities in wealth we see. It represents the distribution of wealth. Top 1/5th have 82.7% of the global income. Poorest 1/5th have 1.4% of global income. Richest 85 people in world have more wealth than the poorest 3.5 billion people in the world. • Inequalities in individual countries as well, ex. very poor countries can have a few extremely rich people. • Maternal mortality rate is a marker for healthcare svstems. In NA and Europe 10-20 people per 100 000 die of childbirth. In SA 75/100 000 SE Asia, 170/100 000. Central Africa 700+/100 000.

Types of Control

• Vehicular control - what experimental group does without the directly desired impact • Positive control - treatment with Known response • Negative control - group with no response expected

When we think of social positions, can there be movement?

• Yes. Various ways. • Individual can move horizontally / horizontal mobility- move within the same class. Ex. Accountant switches job to different accounting company. • Vertical movement /mobility - move up or down the social hierarchy. Ex Manager at restaurant becomes CEO of fast food restaurant. But if he gets demoted to serving food, fall downwards.

Construct validity

•Construct validity describes the extent to which the theory is supported by the data or results of the research. "Does the test have results that's supported by what is expected" construct validity- how the terms are defined.

Overview of Social Inequality

•The resources in a society are unevenly distributed. Ex. Wealth in US, top 20% have 72% of the wealth of the country and bottom 20% only control 3% Upper, middle, and lower class. Based on incomes. As you go up the social ladder, have better access to education, healthcare, and housing • Groups of population disproportionality affected - ethnic/ racial minorities have greater degrees of inequality as manifested by lower incomes, lower education, and reduced access to healthcare. • Those in poverty also face considerable barriers to obtaining the same healthcare, education, and other resources as others. • Gender does too. Females experience differences in pay (gender-pay gap), and the glass ceiling effect (poorly represented in higher position in companies) • People may feel increasingly socially excluded, live in segregated neighbourhoods, and feel politically disempowered. Can lead to civil unrest, and tempt people into criminal activities. •Ways to help: government schemes (ex. Food stamps), improve access to education/healthcare, and figure out social interventions that allow integration to society. • Health Disparity: Difference in health outcome that is closely related to social and economic factors. Social inequality causes the difference, not a biological one.