18. All Regents Chemistry Curriculum Sets | Chemistry Regents Review Book

Relative Mass

A magnitude of subatomic mass based upon comparison with the mass of a proton, which is assigned a value of one, with neutrons also receiving a value of one and electrons receiving a value of zero.

Density

A measure of how much mass matter contains per unit of volume; it can be represented using the equation d = (m/v); two pieces of material composed of the same substance will have the same general density (i.e., a gold coin and a gold brick have different weights and masses but the same density).

Addition and Subtraction with Scientific Notation

A method of configuring numbers in scientific notation in which you must make sure that the exponential value are similar and then add the mantissas.

Multiplication and Division with Scientific Notation

A method of configuring numbers in scientific notation in which you must multiply the mantissas and add the exponents.

Addition and Subtraction with Significant Digits

A method of configuring numbers with significant digits in which the operation is carried out and the answer should contain only as many decimal points as the number in the problem prompt with the least number of decimal points.

Multiplication and Division with Significant Digits

A method of configuring numbers with significant digits in which the operation is carried out and the answer should contain only as many significant digits as the least precise measurement (measurement with the least amount of singificant digits).

Cathode Ray Tube

A sealed vacuum tube that is subject to cathode rays, with a cathode or an anode at either end, that J. J. Thomson used to measure the ratio of an electron's charge to its mass.

Evaporating Dish

A shallow porcelain dish that is covered with a watch glass and heated over a low flame in the process of evaporation.

Seed Crystal

A small crystal that is added to a supersaturated solution in order to kickstart the formation of other crystals from the solution.

Pipestem (Clay) Triangle

A small item made of pieces of twisted wire and small rolls of clay that is used to hold a crucible (which fits inside) over a high flame.

Crucible

A small porcelain pot that is used in the evaporation process when strong heating over a high flame is required.

Spin Diagram

A method of labelling the spin states of the two possible electrons in an orbital by creating blank spaces for all of the sublevels available and designating those that are empty a "___", those that are half-filled a "↑", and those that are filled a "↑↓".

Stirring Rod

A glass tube that is used for stirring substances in any other piece of containing labware, typically a beaker.

Eudiometer Tube

A glass tube that is used to collect the gases produced from an experiment and measure their volumes.

Wide-Mouth Collecting Bottle

A glass with a wide-mouthed lip that is often used in conjunction to a pneumatic trough in a variety of experiments involving the transfer of gases.

Graduated Burette

A graduated glass tube with a tap at one end that is often used for measuring precise amounts of liquid; it is almost always an essential part of laboratory titration reactions.

Phase Diagrams

A graph depicting temperature and pressure, allowing one to determine in what phase a substance will be at a given temperature and pressure; when crossing over lines in the diagram, the phase of the substance will be transformed, with the direction of the change depending on whether heat is being added or removed.

Titration Curve

A graph that shows the pH of a solution as a function of the volume of titrant added to the titrand.

Solubility Curve

A graphical representation at the variations of solubilities of different solutions, varying based upon the temperatures of the solutions; they can be found in Reference Table G (page 3) of the Regents Chemistry Reference Table Packet.

Chemical Family

A grouping of elements upon the Periodic Table, arranged in a column, with all of its constituents sharing similar chemical and physical properties as a result of their similar electron configurations.

Rubber Policeman

A hard-tipped rubber scraper that fits onto a glass stirring rod and is used to transfer solids from containers and scrape precipitated solids out of a solution that has reached its saturation point.

Concentrated Solution in a Laboratory Setting

A highly-concentrated solution (as in reference to that that would be used in a laboratory), often used for storage that is too strong for most practical usages.

Suspension

A homogenous mixture that is formed by the combination of particles larger than 1000 nanometers in size and a solvent of sorts; the suspended particles will precipitate out of the solution over time.

Solution

A homogenous mixture that is formed when a solute is uniformly dispersed throughout a solvent medium; for example, saltwater.

Colloidal Dispersion

A homogenous mixture that is formed when particles of any range of sizes between 1 and 1000 nanometers are mixed within a medium; they often demonstrate properties as a result of the Tyndall effect; milk is a popular example.

Period

A horizontal row in the periodic table; as you move from the left to right of a row, the elements will move from metallic to metalloidic to non-metallic.

Concentrated (Con) Label

A labelling of a solution that indicates that the solution contains an amount of solute that is fairly close to its solubility and is thus quite strong.

Naming Binary Ionic Compounds

A method of naming ionic compounds in which they are often named by beginning with the name of cation with a positive charge (usually a metal) and then adding the anion with a negative charge (usually a metal) onto the end with the suffix "-ide".

Dilute (Dil) Label

A labelling of a solution that indicates that the solution contains an amount of solute that is quite far from its solubility and is thus rather weak.

Graham's Law of Effusion (Diffusion)

A law stating that the rate of effusion and diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to its molar mass; it can be expressed mathematically as RA/RB = √MB/MA, in which "R" represents the rate of effusion and diffusion and "M" represents the molar mass of a given substance.

Soap

A long molecule that is nonpolar at one end and ionic at the other, allowing it to form attractions with both nonpolar substances, such as organic oils and fats, and polar solvents, such as water, allowing them to emulsify within one another (detergency).

Polymer

A long, large molecule that is formed through polymerization and the combination of monomers.

Particle Accelerator

A machine that moves atomic nuclei at higher and higher speeds until they crash into one another, sometimes forming heavier elements; some famous types include the Van de Graaff accelerator, the linear accelerator, the cyclotron, the synchrotron, and everybody's favourite: the large hadron collider, or LHC.

Relative Charge

A magnitude of electric charge that is based on a rough comparison with the elementary charge, with neutrons being given a 0, protons being given a 1+, and electrons being given a 1-.

Liquid

A phase of matter that a definite volume but takes the shape of its container; its particles have a moderate amount of kinetic energy.

Solid

A phase of matter that has both a definite shape and a definite volume; its particles have a rather low amount of kinetic energy.

Gas

A phase of matter that takes both the shape of volume of its container; its particles have a high amount of kinetic energy.

Condensor

A piece of labware composed of an inner and outer tube, with a gaseous substance running through the inner tube and cold water being run through the outer tube; the cold water helps the gas to change state into a liquid distillate through condensation (hence its name).

Beaker

A plastic or glass container that is used to hold various substances, being in the form of a hollow cylinder that is open at one end with a spout on its lip; they are typically marked with regularly spaced graduations.

Cooling Curve

A plot of temperature versus time in which, as the temperature is increased, the substance transitions from a solid into a liquid into a gas.

Heating Curve

A plot of temperature versus time in which, as the temperature is reduced, the substance transitions from a gas into a liquid into a solid.

Polypeptide

A polymer (chain) of many amino acids that are linked together by peptide bonds; they are able to fold in order to form proteins.

Working Solution in a Laboratory Setting

A poorly-concentrated solution (as in reference to that that would be used in a laboratory), often used for practical uses that is made by diluting a concentrated solution that has been kept in storage.

Evaporating Dish

A porcelain dish in which small amounts of liquid can be evaporated, often having a spout upon its lip.

Battery

A portable device, consisting of two distinct electrolytic half-cells, out of which chemical energy can be converted to electrical energy over a period of time; however, as the device ages, it will approach electrolytic equilibrium and will eventually become "dead" (no longer functional) after heavy use.

Cation

A positively-charged ion; in electrolysis, it would be attracted to the cathode (negatively-ionized).

"n-" Prefix in Naming Alkanes

A prefix used in naming alkanes that often comes before the name of the longest, unbroken chain of hydrocarbons if that chain has no branches.

Scintallator

A material, such as zinc oxide (ZnS), that produces some form of visible light when excited by radiation.

Atomic Orbital

A mathematical expression describing the probability of finding an electron in a given location, known as an electron cloud.

Solubility

A measure of how much solute can dissolve within a given solute at a given temperature; it is commonly measured in grams of solute per 100 grams of solvent.

Electronegativity

A measure of the ability of an atom to attract electrons when the atom is placed within a compound; it increases as you move up and to the right of the Periodic Table.

Temperature

A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance; thermal energy.

Reaction Coordinate

A measure of the extent to which the reactants of a chemical reaction react in order to form its products.

Molarity (M)

A measure of the number of moles of solute dissolved in one litre of the solution in which it is contained; it is noted using the capital letter "___ M" and is pronounced verbally as "___ molar"; the amount of solvent used is never actually specified; it is measured using a volumetric flask and is often used in contexts for which we are more concerned about the concentration of the solute than we are about the relationship between the solute and the solvent.

Molality (m)

A measure of the number of moles of solute divided by the number of kilograms of solvent present in a given solution (almost always one kilogram); it is used when we need to know about how much solvent in present in a solution; do note that we never actually specify the volume of the solution (although we could figure it out using density conversions); its amountages are written as "___ m" and are pronounced verballs as "___ molal" (no, not "molar").

Concentration

A measure of the quantity of solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent or solution.

Entropy

A measurement representing the disorder of a system, as symbolized by the symbol "S".

Convex Meniscus

A meniscus that forms when the capillary action draws the center of a surface of water in a tube further upwards than its edges; this occurs with liquid mercury and is relatively uncommon.

Concave Meniscus

A meniscus that forms when the capillary action draws the edges of a surface of water in a tube further upwards than its center; this occurs with water and is relatively common.

Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds

A method of creating an ionic formula in which the amount of each ion is balanced so that the net charge of the molecule is 0; traditionally, the cation (usually a metal) is placed in front while the anion (usually a non-metal is placed in back). If multiples of polyatomic ions are involved, then the property of having multiple polyatomic ions is shown by surrounding the whole ion with parenthesis and adding the subscript of the multiple onto the right.

Lewis Structure of a Molecule

A method of depicting a molecule in which distinct lines represent covalent bonds and dots surrounding a kernel represent unshared pairs of electrons.

Word Equation

A method of expressing a chemical reaction using words only without the employment of molecular or ionic formulas.

Crystallization

A process that separates mixtures into their component substances by allowing solid crystals to form from a liquid when left standing, which are then removed from the dish.

Distillation

A process that separates mixtures into their component substances by boiling the mixture and collecting the resulting distillate using a condensor.

Aqueous Solution

A solution of any kind in which water ("The Universal Solvent") acts as the solvent, dissolving any given solute in order to form the respective solution.

Filter Paper

A special piece of fine paper through which a filtrate can be passed, allowing liquids to pass through it as solids are captured and held on the surface of the paper; it is often used in conjunction with a vacuum tube or a funnel.

Filter Paper

A special piece of finely-meshed paper that is used to filter out materials in a filtration process.

Burette Clamp

A specialized clamp that affixes to a ring stand in order to hold a burette.

Cobalt Glass

A specialized, blue-coloured glass usually containing cobalt oxide that is often used to distinguish between different pigments in identification tests; in particular, cobalt glass is most helpful when yellow and violet need to be distinguished between when both sodium and potassium ions are present in the solution that is being analyzed.

Monoprotic Brønsted-Lowry Acid

A species, behaving as a Brønsted-Lowry acid, that is capable of donating only one proton to a species behaving as a Brønsted-Lowry base; it has exactly one equivalence point on a titration curve.

Triprotic Brønsted-Lowry Acid

A species, behaving as a Brønsted-Lowry acid, that is capable of donating only three protons to a species behaving as a Brønsted-Lowry base; it has exactly three equivalence points on a titration curve.

Diprotic Brønsted-Lowry Acid

A species, behaving as a Brønsted-Lowry acid, that is capable of donating only two protons to a species behaving as a Brønsted-Lowry base; it has exactly two equivalence points on a titration curve.

Functional Group

A specific configuration of atoms that is commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and is often deeply involved in chemical reactions.

Dipeptide

A specific type of dimer that is formed through the condensation polymerization of two amino acids; it is fundamental in the building of peptide chains and the subsequent proteins that they form.

Hydrogen Bonding

A specific type of dipole-dipole interaction in which hydrogen forms a dipole interaction with a small, highly-electronegative atom, such as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine; they are incredibly strong and can drastically increase the boiling point of a substance.

Standard Hydrogen Half-Cell

A standard electrolytic half-cell that consists of hydrogen gas (at a partial pressure of 100 kPa) that has been bubbled into a strong solution, such as HCl, in order to produce a one molar solution of [H3O+], operating at a temperature of 298 K (25°C); it has both a standard reduction potential and standard oxidation potential of 0.00 (as -(0) = 0), making it useful for measuring the standard reaction values for unidentified substances.

Phase Equilibrium

A state in a system at which the rates of opposite phase changes, such as boiling-condensation, freezing-melting, and sublimation-deposition, equal each other out so that no net change in the physical phase of the substance is observed.

Excited State

A state in which an atom has a higher amount of potential energy than it had at its ground state; when it returns to its ground state, the electron will emit some amount of energy.

Metastable

A state in which the nucleons of an atom are in an excited state that results in an isometric transition if it becomes stable; a metastable radioisotope is denoted with an "m" after the mass number in the top-left superscript.

Supersaturation

A state of a solution in which a solvent forms a solution containing more a given solute than should be possible as a result of a unique set of temperature conditions.

Dispersing Medium

A term that is used to describe the medium that is capable of scattering the dispersed substance (the one doing the dispersing) in a colloidal dispersion.

Dispersed Substance

A term that is used to describe the solute-like particles that are the ones that are dispersed in a colloidal dispersion.

Tertiary Alcohol

An alcohol in which the carbon atom that the hydroxyl (-OH) functional group is bonded to is bonded to three additional carbon atoms.

Secondary Alcohol

An alcohol in which the carbon atom that the hydroxyl (-OH) functional group is bonded to is bonded to two additional carbon atoms.

Primary Alcohol

An alcohol in which the carbon atom that the hydroxyl (-OH) functional group is bonded to is only bonded to either zero or one additional carbon atoms.

Trihydroxy Alcohol

An alcohol molecule containing three hydroxyl (-OH) functional groups.

Dihydroxy Alcohol

An alcohol molecule containing two hydroxyl (-OH) functional groups.

Torr

An alternate name for millimeters of mercury (mmHg) in pressure measurements; named after Evangelista Torricelli.

Bond Energy

An alternative (and simpler!) term for bond dissociation energy.

Acetylene

Another name for ethyne, the simplest alkyne.

Stock Solution in a Laboratory Setting

Another term for a concentrated solution (in a laboratory setting).

Polyprotic Brønsted-Lowry Acid

Another term for a multiprotic Brønsted-Lowry acid.

Galvanic Cell

Another term for a voltaic cell.

Amphoteric Species

Another term for an amphiprotic species.

Induced Radioactivity

Another term for artificial transmutation.

Vapour Pressure

Another term for equilibrium vapour pressure.

Potential Difference

Another term for potential electrical energy difference and voltage.

Electron-Dot Diagram

Another term for the Lewis structure of an atom.

Semimetals

Another term for the metalloids of the Periodic Table.

Oxidant

Another term for the oxidizing agent.

Lewis Acid-Base Adduct

Another, less common term for a Lewis acid-base product.

Florence Flask

Another, less common term for a boiling flask.

Triangle Pipestem

Another, less common term for a clay triangle.

Condensation Column

Another, less common term for a condenser.

Medicine Dropper

Another, less common term for a dropper pipette.

Redox Reactions

Another, more colloquial and more common term for reduction-oxidation reactions.

Hot Plate

Any electrical device that is used to heat substances, with electrical power being used to warm up a surface so that it is capable of heating any flask or beaker that is placed upon it.

Magnetic Stirrer

Any electrical device that is used to stir substances, with electrical power being used to power an electromagnet that is capable of rotating a magnetic stir rod within a beaker or flask.

Ion

Any electrically-charged atom that has resulted due to a change in the number of electrons in an atom.

Free Element

Any element that can occur in nature in a molecule composed of only its own atoms; there are seven of these elements upon the Periodic Table that can form diatomic (or triatomic) molecules: hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine in addition to those that can be found as monatomic molecules (the noble gases: helium, neon, argon, xenon, radon, and oganesson).

Representative Elements

Any elements in Groups I (1), II (2), and XIII (13) through XVIII (18); essentially all elements upon the periodic table excluding the transition metals, actinides, and actinides.

Dry Gas

Any gas that contains no water vapour interspersed within it, meaning that the partial pressure of a water vapour component does not need to be considered.

Alkenes

Any hydrocarbons containing exactly one single covalent bond; they are always unsaturated hydrocarbon compounds.

Alkynes

Any hydrocarbons containing exactly one triple covalent bond; they are always unsaturated hydrocarbon compounds.

Alkanes

Any hydrocarbons containing only single covalent bonds; they are always saturated hydrocarbon compounds.

Lewis Acid-Base Product

Any molecule that results from the combination of a Lewis acid (the electron "acceptor") and the Lewis base (the electron "donor"); it is often composed of two distinct units, one from the the acid and one from the base, that are joined together through a coordinate covalent bond; it is sometimes also known as an "adduct".

Coefficient

Any number that is placed in front of any of the molecules or ions of a chemical reaction in order to balance it so that it obeys the three Laws of Conservation.

Half-Cell of an Electrochemical Cell

Any of the two distinct half-units of a given electrochemical cell, which often undergo separate reduction or oxidation reactions; the combined effect of both of them occurs through the connection of the cathode and anode and the inclusion of a route for ion transportation, such as a porous barrier or a salt bridge.

Clamp

Any of the various devices that is commonly used in a laboratory to support a piece of glassware (e.g., an Erlenmeyer flask) upon the skeleton of a ring stand, allowing for the creation of a number of different set-ups in chemistry.

Isotope

Any of two or more forms of a chemical element that have the same number of protons but differing numbers of neutrons.

Seperation of Mixtures

Any one of multiple techniques that are used to separate mixtures, be they homogeneous or heterogeneous, into their distinct component substances.

Organic Nitrogen Compounds

Any one of three types of organic compounds containing nitrogen: amines, amides, and amino acids; they can be distinguished by the noticeable similarity of the prefix "ami-".

Half-Filled Orbital

Any orbital that contains one electrons out of two potential electrons at maximum capacity.

Filled Orbital

Any orbital that contains two electrons out of two potential electrons at maximum capacity.

Empty Orbital

Any orbital that contains zero electrons out of two potential electrons at maximum capacity.

Organic Alcohol

Any organic compound in which a hydroxyl group is joined with another set of atoms; it can be expressed through the formula "R-OH"; they are named by adding the suffix "-ol" to that of the parent hydrocarbon.

Rust

Any physical formation of various reddish-brown iron oxides that forms on corrodes iron and steel; the most common chemical compound forming this is iron(II) oxide, or Fe2O3.

Triangular File

Any piece of rough, textured metal that can be used to saw away on materials, particularly thin glass rods and tubes.

Polyatomic Ion

Any ion composed of more than one atom that has a cumulative charge that is the sum of the oxidation numbers of each of its constituent atoms; aside from this, they behave almost entirely like monatomic ions.

Reversible Reaction

Any kind of chemical reaction in which it is possible for the products to form back into the reactants under certain conditions; if the forward and reverse reaction are occuring at the same rate, then the substance is said to be in dynamic equilibrium; noted using a "⇌".

Reactants (Reagents)

Any substances that are used at the beginning of a chemical reaction; the two terms can be used relatively interchangeably.

Graduated Cylinder

Any tall glass or plastic tube in which a specific volume of a liquid can be measured, using small graduations that are marked on the side of the cylinder with regular spacings in between them.

Gas Collecting Tube

Any tall glass or plastic tube in which gases are collected and occasionally measured using small graduations that are marked on the side of the tube with regular spacings in between them.

Burette

Any tall, thin glass tube that is capable of measuring out volumes of various liquids, often through a stopcock, for a number of laboratory procedures, namely titration.

Infrared Thermometer

Any thermometer that operates when the user activates it at a distance from a substance or object in order to analyze its average heat energy; typically, as a basic result of its operation, it tends to be less accurate than an immersion thermometer, although (unlike an immersion thermometer) it can be used when a given substance is particularly hazardous or generally distant.

Immersion Thermometer

Any thermometer that operates when the user plunges the physical thermometer it into the substance in order to analyze its average heat energy; in order to operate, it requires direct contact with the substance, meaning that although it may be more accurate than an infrared thermometer, it cannot be used when a given substance is particularly hazardous or generally distant.

Test Tube

Any thin glass tube, closed at one end, that is commonly used to hold small amounts of liquids in a laboratory setting.

Volumetric Pipette

Any thin plastic or glass tube, with a large bulb in it, that can be used alongside a pipette bulb in order to accurately measure an incredibly precise amount of a liquid.

Tripod

Any three-legged stand that is often used as a support in a variety of laboratory procedures, particularly whenever a substance is being burned.

Test Tube Holder

Any twisted piece of wire (forming an effective spring) that can be used to hold a thin test tube from a distance, making it useful in the boiling of any substance contained within said test tube.

Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs

Any two substances, represented as conjugate acids and bases, that differ only by the presence or absence of a single hydrogen ion (H+ ion).

Brine

Any water that has been saturated or is nearly-saturated with sodium chloride salt (NaCl).

Laboratory

Any workplace or setting that is the site of scientific research; a general variety of pieces of labware can be found in most of those that are properly stocked.

Periodic

Anything that repeats at regular intervals in a predictable pattern; trends characterize the Periodic Table.

Spontaneous Reaction

Any kind of chemical reaction that can occur at a given set of conditions without the application of external work; any reaction that is spontaneous in one direction must be non-spontaneous in the other direction.

Wire Gauze

Any lattice of wires with gauze layered upon it in its center (often in the form of a circle) that is meant to distribute the heat applied to it by a flame more evenly and prevent the bottoms of Erlenmeyer flasks or beakers from burning.

Glass Tubing

Any length of tubing, made of glass, that extends into and out from a stopped flask with a hole within the stopper; it often connects to rubber tubes conjoining involved stopped flasks.

Rubber Tubing

Any length of tubing, made of rubber, that is used to connect together any of the segments of an apparatus when one is dealing with gases; it often connects into glass tubes extending outwards from stopped flasks.

Mixtures

Any matter that is composed of two or more distinct substances with potential variances in composition.

Laboratory Jack

Any mechanism consisting of two surfaces, with the elevation of the upper surface being adjustable through the means of a rotating handle.

Porous Barrier

Any medium, typically used in a voltaic cell that does not incorporate a salt bridge, through which some species (typically small ions) are selectively allowed to pass.

Electrode

Any metal strip that is capable of conducting electricity in any given electrochemical cell; it is further subdivided into the anodes and cathodes, which each have different assigned charged depending upon the circumstances.

Corrosion-Irresistant Metal

Any metal that is not resistant to corrosion, as it flakes when corroded initially, exposing the pure metal below to further degradation; metals such as iron and non-stainless steel often occupy this realm.

Corrosion-Resistant Metal

Any metal that is resistant to corrosion, as it forms a protective coating around it when exposed to the elements that shields the pure metal underneath from further corrosion; metals such as zinc, aluminum, and titanium often occupy this realm.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Exceptions to the rule that all atoms try to fill themselves with eight electrons that arise when considering elements such as hydrogen and helium (need 2), beryllium (can need 4), and boron (can need 6), nitrogen (can need 7; one electron is unpaired); phosphorus (can need 10), and sulfur (can need 12).

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbon chains containing at least one double or triple bond; the term "saturated" is derived from the fact that unsaturated molecules in organic chemistry (alkenes, alkynes, etc.) contain less hydrogen atoms per carbon atoms than saturated alkanes.

Saturated Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbon chains containing only single bonds; the term "saturated" is derived from the fact that saturated molecules in organic chemistry (alkanes) contain more hydrogen atoms per carbon atoms than any other molecule.

Seperation of a Mixture

The many procedures by which the separate components of a mixture can be separated and made distinct; often, this involves pouring the mixture through a funnel lined with filter paper.

Molar Mass (Gram-Formula Mass)

The mass of one mole of a pure substance expressed in units of g/mol; commonly express as 𝓜; how many grams would we have in a mole of this substance?

Percent Concentration

The mass the of particles of solute that exist in the mass of a given 100 particles of the solution in which it is contained; it is calculated by dividing the mass of the solute by that of the solution and then multiplying by 100.

Ethyne

The simplest alkyne, having two carbon atoms and two hydrogen atoms; note that there is no methylyne molecule; this molecule is known commonly as acetylene.

Methane

The simplest hydrocarbon and simplest alkane, having only a single carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms; it has a tetrahedral molecular structure in which carbon forms four sp3 hybridized orbitals.

Six Steps for Creating the Lewis Structure of a Molecule

The six steps for creating the Lewis structure of a molecule in which you must 1) count the total number of valence electrons in the molecule or ion, 2) add or remove valence electrons to agree with the molecule's total charge, 3) draw a skeleton in which all of the atoms are single bonds (it is advised to draw a symmetrical structure first), 4) complete the structure by adding unshared electrons if necessary, 5) add in double and triple bonds, if necessary, until the formal charges all agree, and 6) check over your work by counting the number of electrons and comparing them to the value calculated in Step 2.

Group XVI

The sixteenth group of the Periodic Table containing elements having six valence electrons that tend to form 2- anions and are somewhat reactive; they do not usually occur as free elements in nature.

Rate-Limiting Step

The slowest step in a given reaction that thus limits the rate of progress of the entire reaction to a particular speed; it serves as a "bottleneck" for the reaction.

Anode Mud

The sludge, formed of ions that were capable of oxidizing at the anode but were too negative to reduce at the cathode, that collects below the anode in any electrolytic purification procedure.

Collar of a Bunsen Burner

The small metal piece located towards the base of a Bunsen burner that can be rotated in order to adjust the inflow of air into the creation of the flame.

Molecule

The smallest identifiable sample of a distinct substance.

Elementary Charge

The smallest unit of electric charge that can possibly be represented in ordinary matter; it is roughly equivalent to 1.6022 by 10^-19 coloumb, or the mass of a single electron (very small).

Smallest Whole-Number Coefficients

The smallest whole-number coefficients that can possibly be used to balance a chemical reaction so that it obeys the three Laws of Conservation.

Titrant

The solution of a known concentration and known volume (a "standard solution") that is used to titrate a solution of an unknown concentration in a titration reaction.

Titrand

The solution of an unknown concentration and known volume that has a titration performed upon it (it is titrated) in a titration reaction.

Fuel Rods

The sources of energy of a fission reactor, which usually use uranium-235 as a source of heat energy.

Principal Energy Levels

The specified levels, each of which is associated with a distinct energy value, that surround the nucleus, with distance and energy demonstrating a direct relationship; they are designated by the letters K, L, M, and so forth or the numbers 1, 2, 3, and so forth.

Natural Transmutation

The spontaneous decomposition of the nucleus of an atom without the introduction of any artificial forces or masses; this results in a change in the atom's identity (a change in the number of protons).

Radioactive Decay

The spontaneous release of matter from the nucleus of an unstable radioisotopic atom in order to become more stable by improving its ratio of protons to neutrons.

Standard Oxidation Potential

The standard electrode potential that measures the tendency of a given species to be oxidized by the voltage of electricity that it produces when forming an electrolytic cell with a hydrogen half-cell; the more positive that this amount is, the more likely that species will be to oxidize when connected to that hydrogen half-cell; their values can be found by taking the negative of the values in Reference Table Z of Appendix 2, which is located in the very back of the review book; it is often represented mathematically as "𝓔[superscript]°[subscript]oxidized"; it is equivalent to the negative of the standard reduction potential.

Standard Reduction Potential

The standard electrode potential that measures the tendency of a given species to be reduced by the voltage of electricity that it produces when forming an electrolytic cell with a hydrogen half-cell; the more positive that this amount is, the more likely that species will be to reduce when connected to that hydrogen half-cell; their values can be found in Reference Table Z of Appendix 2, which is located in the very back of the review book; it is often represented mathematically as "𝓔[superscript]°[subscript]reduced"; it is equivalent to the standard oxidation potential.

Standard Laboratory Conditions for the Construction of an Electrochemical Cell

The standard laboratory conditions under which an electrochemical cell is meant to be industrially produced; they have a temperature of 298 K (25°C) and a pressure of 100.000 kPa (approximately 1 atmosphere, or atm, which is equivalent to approximately 103.325 kPa).

Standard Thermodynamic Conditions

The standard thermodynamic conditions under which thermodynamic problems should be set to occur; 100.000 kPa and all of the products being used in their pure states are frequently used.

Thermal Equilibrium

The state at which two substance with the possibility to exchange heat thermally no longer do so as a result of being at equivalent temperatures.

Stationary State

The states in which an electron never radiated nor never absorbed any amountage of energy.

Organic Chemistry

The study of all chemical compounds containing carbon; it lays the groundwork of biochemistry and is fundamental to the transition between chemistry and biology.

Inorganic Chemistry

The study of all chemical compounds that do not contain carbon or have distinct inorganic properties (despite containing carbon atoms).

Reducing Agent

The substance that is oxidized in any redox reaction and must therefore be combined alongside an oxidizing agent in order for the reaction to occur; it donates electrons, thus leading to a subsequent increase in its oxidation number; the best of this classification of participants in an oxidation reaction are elements such as lithium and magnesium (those that can be found in the bottom left corner of the Periodic Table are the best of this type).

Oxidizing Agent

The substance that is reduced in any redox reaction and must therefore be combined alongside a reducing agent in order for the reaction to occur; it accepts electrons, thus leading to a subsequent decrease in its oxidation number; the best of this classification of participants in an oxidation reaction are elements such as fluorine and lead (those that can be found in the top right corner of the Periodic Table are the best of this type).

Formula Mass (Molecular Mass)

The sum of all of the average atomic masses of all of the atoms in a given formula; for example, water's would be eighteen (sixteen from oxygen and one from each of the hydrogens).

Mass Number

The sum of all of the particles with mass of an atom; in almost every case it is essentially equal to the sum of the number of protons and neutrons, given that electrons have no significant mass.

Mass Number

The sum of the number of neutrons and protons in an atom's nucleus, with the mass contributed by the electrons in orbit outside of the nucleus being negligible.

The IUPAC System for Naming Alkanes

The system established by the IUPAC for naming alkanes in which one most go through the following steps in order to name an alkane hydrocarbon: 1) find the longest, unbroken chain (it does not have to be straight!) in the compound, 2) name that chain using its proper numerical prefix and the suffix "-ane", 3) find any "branches" coming off of that main chain and identify them using their proper prefixes, 4) find the numerically-determined locations of those branches going off of the side of the molecule that gives the shortest number, and 5) write out the name of the molecule beginning with the numbers that you just identified respectively followed by the name of the branching groups (make sure to use "di-", "tri-", etc. if you have multiples of one group and separate the locations using commas), with everything separated by hyphens ("-") and terminating in the name of the longest unbroken chain that was established in Step 2.

Brønsted-Lowry Acid-Base Classification System

The system of classifying acids and bases in which substances are categorized based upon their ability to either give ("donor") protons to or receive ("acceptor") protons from other species.

Hybridized Orbital Notation

The system of notation that is used to classify hybridized orbitals, in which the coefficient in front identifies the common principal energy level that both of the pre-hybridized orbitals were at, the two or more letters identify the types of orbitals that have been mixed, and the upper right coefficients upon each of the letters identifies the quantity of that kind of orbital in the hybridized formation (assume a value of 1 if no superscript is given).

System of Naming Newly-Discovered Elements

The system that is used to name newly-discovered elements until a trivial name is formalized by IUPAC in which the elements is identified by its Latin name, coming from its atomic number, and a three-letter symbol that is derived from its Latin name.term-48

Critical Temperature

The temperature above which a gas or vapour cannot be liquified, regardless of its pressure, as the kinetic energy of the molecules is too high for them to settle into a liquid phase.

Critical Point

The temperature and pressure at which the gas and liquid phases of a substance can no longer be distinguished from each other, forming a supercritical fluid.

Dynamic Equilibrium

The temperature and pressure at which the rates of condensation and evaporation in a liquid become equivalent so that no overall change occurs in the substance.

Triple Point

The temperature and pressure at which the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of a pure substance can all coexist.

Boiling Point

The temperature at which the vapour pressure equals that of the surrounding atmosphere.

Equilibrium Temperature

The temperature at which thermal equilibrium occurs; it can be calculated by setting their "q" values equal to one another and then solving for the value of T[subscript]f.

Beta (+) Decay

The type of beta decay in which a positron and a neutrino are released from the parent nucleus and the daughter nucleus has an atomic number one less and a mass number no greater than those of the parent nucleus.

Beta (-) Decay

The type of beta decay in which an electron and an antineutrino are released from the parent nucleus and the daughter nucleus has an atomic number one more and a mass number no less than those of the parent nucleus.

Covalent Bonding

The type of bonding that occurs in which atoms share common electrons by joining their orbitals, helping to make both of them stable; these kinds of bonds typically occur between nonmetallic atoms.

Volts (V)

The unit of measurement for voltage, which is often abbreviated as "V".

Pascal (Pa)

The unit of pressure in the Système International that represents a force of one Newton per square meter of surface; common derivatives include the kilopascal (kPa).

Joule

The unit of work in the Système International.

Conservation of Electric Charge

The universal principle stating that electric charge can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only change form and move between systems and their surroundings.

Conservation of Energy

The universal principle stating that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only change form and move between systems and their surroundings.

Conservation of Mass

The universal principle stating that mass can neither be created nor destroyed., it can only change form and move between systems and their surroundings.

Maximum Standard Cell Voltage

The value, more commonly known by its mathematical representation "𝓔[superscript]°[subscript]cell", that is equivalent to the difference between the standard reduction potentials of the reduced species and that of the oxidized species; for this reason, it is also equivalent to the difference between the standard reduction potentials of the reaction occurring at the cathode and the anode; both of these mathematical relationships can be represented as "(𝓔[superscript]°[subscript]cell) = (𝓔[superscript]°[subscript]reduced) - (𝓔[superscript]°[subscript]oxidized)" and "(𝓔[superscript]°[subscript]cell) = (𝓔[superscript]°[subscript]cathode) - (𝓔[superscript]°[subscript]anode)", respectively.

Equilibrium Constant

The value, represented as "K[subscript]eq", that indicates the relative amounts of products and reactants that are present.

Groups

The vertical columns upon the Periodic Table, with elements in the same group sharing many chemical and physical characteristics between them.

Subatomic Particles

Protons, neutrons, electrons, and any other particles that compose atoms.

Lewis Structures of Monatomic Ions

The Lewis structure of charged atoms in which they are written within brackets ("[__]") with their ionic charge placed in the upper right superscript.

Lewis Structures of Polyatomic Ions

The Lewis structure of charged molecules in which they are written within brackets ("[__]") with their ionic charge placed in the upper right superscript.

Heat of Vaporization

The amount of energy that must be absorbed in order to change an amount of a substance (usually one gram and measured in J/g) from a liquid into a gas phase or must be released to change a substance from a gas phase into a liquid phase; noted as "H[subscript]v"; reference values can be found in Reference Table B. It is comparable to the boiling point or the condensation point.

Heat of Fusion

The amount of energy that must be absorbed in order to change an amount of a substance (usually one gram and measured in J/g) from a solid into a liquid phase or must be released to change a substance from a liquid phase into a solid phase; noted as "H[subscript]f"; reference values can be found in Reference Table B. It is comparable to the melting point or the freezing point.

Central Atom of a Molecule

The atom of a molecule around which the other atoms (the peripheral atoms) are attached; it is usually an atom that can form a large number of bonds, such as carbon or sulfur; see the phosphorus atom (P) in the diagram.

Ionic Radius

The atomic radius of a given ion; if an atom becomes a negative anion, then its radius increases, while if it becomes a positive cation, then its radius decreases.

Peripheral Atoms of a Molecule

The atoms of a molecule that are attached surrounding the central atom; it is usually an atom that can form one or two bonds, such as fluorine, chlorine, bromine, oxygen, or hydrogen; see the white atoms (probably hydrogen or a halogen) in the diagram.

Intermolecular Forces

The attractions that exist between molecules or between molecules in ions; they are heavily related to the phase of a given substance.

Intramolecular Forces

The attractions that exist within molecules or within ions; they are heavily related to the nature and chemical reactivity of a given substance.

Ion-Dipole Forces

The attractive forces that occur between an ion and a polar molecule; this explains the nature of water as the "Universal Solvent", as it's prominent polar charges allow it to easily break down crystal lattices and surround the ions through hydration.

Atomic Mass

The average atomic mass of all of the isotopes of an atom.

Octet Rule

The tendency of an atom to want to lose, gain, or share electrons in whatever way possible in order to have eight valence electrons (making it the most stable); hydrogen and helium, on the contrary, strive to have two valence electrons.

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)

The theory stating that the shape of a molecule can be predicted based upon the premises that electrons like to repel each other; it is based in the four principles of 1) shared and unshared electrons repel each other, with 2) unshared electrons having strong repulsion forces than shared electrons, 3) single, double, and triple bonds are all assumed to be the same in this model, and 4) the shape of a molecule or ion is the direct result of the shared and unshared pairs of electrons attempting to be as far away from one another as possible; we must consider the number of bonds that the central atom forms (single, double, and triple bonds all count as one; it is essentially the number of peripheral atoms plus the number of unshared electrons).

Enthalpy

The thermodynamic quantity that is equal to the total heat content of a system at a constant pressure; the standard enthalpy change is often represented as ΔH°.

Oxidation Number (State)

The charge that an atom takes on in a molecular compound; in a whole molecule, the sum of these values should be zero and in a polyvalent ion, the sum of these values should be the net charge of the polyvalent ion.

Peptide Bond

The chemical bond that forms between the carboxyl (organic acid) group of one amino acid and the amino group of another, with the removal of a water molecule (condensation polymerization (hydration)) forming a link through the creation of a new amide group that involves atoms from both molecules, joining them together.

Ionic Bond

The chemical bond that is formed when atoms give electrons to one another, forming two distinct ions that are electrostatically attracted to one another; they form crystal lattices and cannot exist as individual molecules; these types of bonds usually occur between a metal and a nonmetal.

Electrolysis

The chemical process by which an introduction of the electrical energy between two distinct electrodes submerged within a substance splits those molecules into separate compounds; it can be achieved through the use of an electrolytic cell; this process is not spontaneous, explaining why external energy needs to be applied in order to force it (a nonspontaneous reaction) to occur.

Electrolysis of Water

The chemical process by which an introduction of the electrical energy between two distinct electrodes submerged within liquid water splits its molecules (H2O) into hydrogen and oxygen gas; due to the nature of the water molecule, it produces one part or mole oxygen gas (O2) for every part or mole hydrogen gas (H2).

Representative Elements

The elements within the s- and p-blocks of the Periodic Table; those within Groups I (1), II (2), and XIII (13) through XVIII (18).

Successive Ionization Energies

The energies required to remove electrons beyond the first electron; the further you progress, the more difficult the process of removing electrons is, as they are held more tightly to the nucleus.

Kinetic Energy

The energy associated with motion at the current time.

Chemical Energy

The energy associated with the chemical bonds and attractions between the particles of a system; it is often altered through chemical changes.

Thermal Energy

The energy associated with the random molecular motions of a substance that is related to its temperature; it is often altered through physical changes.

Electron Affinity

The energy change (expressed as a negative number) that occurs when an atom gains a single electron and form a negative anion; the more energy that is released when an atom becomes an anion, the more stable it becomes; some elements have no tendency to gain an electron and the electron affinity is reported as zero; on the Periodic Table; it increases as you go up and to the right.

Energy Content of Hybridized Orbitals

The energy content of hybridized orbitals, in which their energy levels are proportional to the levels that compose them; for example, a 2sp3 hybridized orbital has four orbitals that are composed of 75% p "character" (more energy) and 25% s "character" (less energy).

Chemical Equation

A "recipe" for understanding the way in which a chemical reaction is carried out; it notes the reactants or reagents and the products.

Julius Lothar Meyer

A German chemist who is often credited with the study and publishment of a Periodic Table similar to Mendeleev's; he is less commonly known in the sciences, as his predictions for future elements were less accurate than those that were forecasted by Mendeleev's table.

Dmitri Mendeleev

A Russian chemist who is often credited for the creation of the Periodic Table, given its superiority in predicting elements beyond those that had been discovered at the time.

Svante Arrhenius

A Swedish chemist who was the first to propose a theory as to how solutions of electrolytes are able to behave electrolytically and conduct electric currents; he gave precise definitions for both Arrhenius acids and Arrhenius bases.

Mortar

A bowl-shaped vessel, typically made of porcelain, in which substances can be ground and mixed with a wood or porcelain pestle, occasionally having a spout upon its lip.

Percent Error

A calculation of how closely the taken measurement agrees with the accepted value of a measurement; it is equivalent to the difference between the accepted value and the measured value divided by the accepted value and multiplied by 100.

Chemical Shift

A change in the preference of a reversible chemical reaction to an increased rate of production of either the forwards or backwards reaction; they are often categorized as being "to the left" or "to the right".

Molecular Formula

A chemical formula giving the precise kinds of atoms in a molecule and the quantity of each of those kinds of atoms; it does not indicate how the atoms are linked together.

Methyl Group

A chemical group of hydrocarbons, often acting as a "branch" to a parent chain, that is composed of one carbon atom and three hydrogen atoms, with the remaining bond needed on the carbon atom being used to link up to the rest of the molecule.

Propyl Group

A chemical group of hydrocarbons, often acting as a "branch" to a parent chain, that is composed of three carbon atoms and seven hydrogen atoms, with the remaining bond needed on the first carbon atom being used to link up to the rest of the molecule.

Ethyl Group

A chemical group of hydrocarbons, often acting as a "branch" to a parent chain, that is composed of two carbon atoms and five hydrogen atoms, with the remaining bond needed on the first carbon atom being used to link up to the rest of the molecule.

Acid-Base Neutralization Reaction

A chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react in order to form a salt and a water molecule; these reactions often result in a change in pH and are thus readily evident in titrations.

Reversible Reaction

A chemical reaction in which both the conversion of the reactants into the products as well as the conversion of the products into the reactants are both simultaneously possible; it is often represented using a double-arrow symbol, which can be written as "⇌".

Forward Reaction

A chemical reaction in which the molecule(s) or ion(s) on the left change(s) into the molecule(s) or ion(s) on the right.

Reverse Reaction

A chemical reaction in which the molecule(s) or ion(s) on the right change(s) into the molecule(s) or ion(s) on the left.

Formation Reaction

A chemical reaction that starts with one or more elements and forms one mole of a specific substance; the heat of reaction of a formation reaction is equivalent to the standard heat of formation of the product substance.

Burette / Test Tube Clamp

A clamp that affixes itself to the support of a ring stand, allowing for places for the fashioning and attachment of either a test tube or a burette.

Clamp Holder

A clamp that allows for the attachment of another clamp onto a ring stand; very simply, it is a "clamp for other clamps", serving the purpose of affixment between another clamp and a ring stand at a distance.

Ring Clamp

A clamp that attaches onto the support of a ring stand in order to support a glass container that can fit within it.

Pinch Clamp

A clamp that is capable of holding together rubber connectors for the assemblage of various tubing apparatuses.

Double Burette Clamp

A clamp that is used to attach at most two burettes to the support of a ring stand; it is commonly used in titration procedures, where the support of a burette is necessary.

Screw Clamp

A clamp that is used to restrict the flow of a fluid liquid or solid through an elastic piece of tubing by contracting the area through which the fluid can flow.

Crucible Cover

A clay or porcelain cover, fitted onto a crucible, that is used to close off the substance from the surrounding environment as it was heated.

Pestle

A club-shaped hand tool, typically made of wood or porcelain, with which substances can be ground and mixed in a porcelain mortar.

Kilopascal (kPa)

A common derivative of the pascal (Pa) equaling 1000 Pa.

Bunsen Burner

A common piece of laboratory equipment that provides a single open flame, as created by the inflow of various combustible gases; the character of its flame can be adjusted by rotating the collar that lies upon its base.

Standard Atmosphere Pressure (atm)

A common unit of pressure in the scientific world that is exactly equivalent to 101.325 kPa or 101325 Pa; commonly used in gas behavior problems.

Nuclear Model of the Atom

A conceptual model of the atom that was first proposed as a result of Rutherford's experiments with alpha particles and gold foil.

Polyamide

A condensation polymer in which the respective monomer units are joined through the creation of amides; amino acid chains (which become proteins) are a notable example of such.

Dynamic Equilibrium

A condition in where there is a continuous, random movement of particles but no net gain or loss in either the reactants or products of a chemical reaction or physical reaction; at this state, the rates of the opposing reactions are equal, although the equilibrium constants of the reactants and products need not be equal; they are never spontaneous in nature.

Static Equilibrium

A condition in which a given body is stationary, exhibiting no movement, as a result of the forces acting on it balancing each other out; for example, a book sitting on a table does not move as the gravitational force and the normal force cancel each other out.

Ionization Constant of Water

A constant of ten to the negative fourteenth power that equals the product of the molar hydrogen ion concentration and the molar hydroxide ion concentration; it is often represented mathematically as "K[subscript]w".

Single Covalent Bond

A covalent bond in which one pair of electrons (two total) is shared between atoms.

Nonpolar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond in which the bonding electrons are shared equally by the bonded electrons; the bond creates no dipoles; all covalent bonds between two like atoms are of this type.

Polar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond in which the bonding electrons are shared unevenly, given a difference in electronegativity between two of the electrons, meaning that one had a greater attraction for them.

Triple Covalent Bond

A covalent bond in which three pairs of electrons (six total) are shared between atoms.

Double Covalent Bond

A covalent bond in which two pairs of electrons (four total) are shared between atoms.

Metallic Crystal

A crystal structure that is formed from metals in which the positively-charged kernels of each of the metal atoms is surrounded by delocalized electrons, which are equivalently shared by all of the kernels.

Rectangular Hyperbola

A curve that is characteristic of inverse relationships in physics, such as the one between gas pressure and volume in accordance with Boyle's Law; its two asymptotes are perpendicular to one another.

Watch Glass

A curved piece of glass that is used for a variety of purposes; solid powders can be collected in it, small amounts of liquids can be evaporated and small amounts of solids can be melted in it, or it can be used as a cover for a beaker that is being heated.

Watch Glass

A curved piece of glass that is used, among a variety of other purposes, to prevent some substances from spattering when it is placed over an evaporating dish in the process of evaporation.

Crucible

A deep clay or porcelain pot, fitted with a crucible cover, that can be supported over a flame using a clay triangle in order to heat solids to high temperatures.

Pneumatic Trough

A deep trough containing a shelf in which a variety of experiments requiring underwater conditions can be set up, including a series of gas collection procedures.

Operational Definition

A definition of something that is derived from the way in which it functions and interacts with other related entities.

Système International d'Unités

A derivative body of the metric system that defines seven basic units of measurement for length, mass, temperature, time, number of particles, electric current, and luminous intensity.

Accuracy

A description of how well a measurement agrees with an accepted value; the smaller the difference, the more accurate the measurement.

Precision

A description of how well a measuring device can reproduce a measurement; the limit for a measuring device should be plus or minus one-half of its smallest division.

Fission Reactor

A device that is meant to be used to produce electrical energy through the means of a controlled fission reaction; more commonly known as nuclear power plants.

Voltmeter

A device that is used to measure the voltage of an electric current (the difference in electric potential); it is often most readily useful for the analysis of the electrical energy production content of voltaic cells; one might also know it by the name "multimeter".

Stopcock

A device that is used to regulate the flow of fluid through tubing, often a titrant through a graduated burette, in order to carry out precise reactions that may occur quickly when a small amount of solution is added or removed.

Geiger Counter

A device that uses a gas-filled metal tube in order to detect ionizing radiation that is often the result of nuclear decay; if radiation is detected, the machine will produce a characteristic "crackle" or "click".

Potential Energy Diagram

A diagram that graphically depicts the changes in potential energy occurring during any kind of reaction, involving potential energy on the y-axis and the reaction coordinate on the x-axis.

Laboratory

A facility in which scientific experiments can be conducted, often fitted with various pieces of hardware (e.g., a fume hood) that are essential for completing these experiments; following standard laboratory procedures is always essential in such an environment.

Volumetric Flask

A flask, formed of a large bulb at its base and a thin neck atop, that is commonly used for the measurement of a particular volume of liquid, making it notably useful and extremely popular in creating dilute solution.

Ceramic Square

A flat, square piece of ceramic that is often used as a surface (think of it as a coaster of sorts) onto which hot pieces of glassware can be placed as to not damage a surface.

Plastic Wash Bottle

A flexible plastic bottle into which a straw is affixed that allows for the easy dispensation of distilled water, often for the washing of other pieces of labware or the forced movement of various substances from a distance using a jet of water.

Amides

A functional group in which an amino group (-NH2) replace the hydroxyl group (-OH) in a carboxyl group; amines are named by dropping the "-oic" suffix from the name of the acid from which they are formed and adding the suffix "-amide" in its place; the polyamides that these molecules form (also known as peptides) are of incredibly importance in biology.

Carbonyl Group

A functional group that consists of a carbon atom that is double bonded to an oxygen atom, with the carbon atom being able to bond with two other atoms through single bonds; they are responsible for the creation of aldehydes and ketones.

Carboxyl Group

A functional group that consists of a carbon atom that is joined to an oxygen atom through a double bond and another oxygen atom through a double bond, with the second oxygen atom having a hydrogen atom affixed to it; they are responsible for the creation of organic acids; in order to demonstrate their structure, they are often noted as "COOH".

Amino Group

A functional group that consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms (-NH2); they are responsible for the creation of amines, amides, and amino acids.

Hydroxyl Group

A functional group that consists of an oxygen atom bonded to a hydrogen atom (-OH); it makes an organic compound an alcohol.

Noble (Inert) Gas

A gas on the periodic table for which the next element will begin a new sublevel; located in Group XVIII (18) of the periodic table.

Agar

A gel-like polysaccharide that can be used to create the gel in a salt bridge throughout which the ions of an electrolyte are dispersed.

Diamond

A gemstone that is one of the popular allotropes of carbon in the form of a network solid (all of the carbon atoms are bonded together covalently three-dimensionally).

Nuclide

A general term describing any specific isotope of an element.

Acidic

A general term that is used to describe any substance that behaves as an acid.

Basic

A general term that is used to describe any substance that behaves like a base.

Immiscible

A general term that is used to describe any two liquids for which there is a given proportional between them at which they will be insoluble within one another.

Miscible

A general term that is used to describe any two liquids that can dissolve within one another in any condition, regardless of proportion to one another; all gases exhibit this property, as do many liquids.

Primary Reason as to Why a Given Solute and Solvent will Form a Solution

A given solute and solvent will often form a solution only if they both experience the same sorts of intermolecular attractions; generally, ionic and polar covalent substances can only dissolve in one another, and nonpolar covalent substances can only dissolve within like nonpolar covalent substances.

Erlenmeyer Flask

A glass or plastic bottle with the potential to be stoppered that can be used for a wide variety of laboratory procedures; they are typically marked with regularly spaced graduations.

Graduated Pipette

A glass or plastic tube that can be used alongside a pipette bulb in order to deliver a precise quantity of liquid to any container; the volume of the liquid contained within can be measured through the reading of various regularly-spaced graduations that fall along the sides of the glass tube.

Naming Ionic Compounds with Polyvalent Metals

A method of naming ionic compounds involving polyvalent metals (metals with the capacity to take on more than one charge) in which the positive oxidation number of the metal is written directly after it in Roman numerals and parentheses; for example, Fe2O3 is known as iron(III) oxide.

Molecular Formula

A method of representing a molecule (usually consisting of combinations of non-metallic elements with covalent bonds) in which the exact quantity of each type of atom is listed as they appear in the molecule.

Particle Diagram

A method of representing a molecule in which each of the different types of atoms is represented as a different color of shape (almost always a circle) and are then joined together to create a coherent molecule; likewise to a structural formula, this may demonstrate something vital about the shape of a molecule.

Chemical Formula

A method of representing a molecule in which elemental symbols and various subscripts are used to give an accurate representation of said molecule.

Empirical Formula

A method of representing a molecule in which the number of molecules of each type of atom present is equivalent to the smallest ratio at which they can be truthfully expressed; this formula may not exist in the world and may even represent a completely distinct molecule.

Structural Formula

A method of representing a molecule that shows the ways in which the atoms of a molecule are bonded to one another; lines are often used to represent chemical bonds and dots are often used to express unshared pairs of electrons; it may also show something about the shape of a molecule.

Ionic Formula

A method of representing an ionic compound in which the positive and negative constituent ions of the compound are listed (usually metallic cations first and non-metallic anions second) in order to demonstrate the ratio of ions present in the compound; remember that these formulas do not represent individual molecules!

Electron Configuration Notation

A method of writing the occupied orbitals of an electron configuration in which a coefficient is followed by a lowercase letter which is followed itself by a superscript number; the coefficient represents the principal energy level, the letter represents the type of orbital, and the superscript number represents the total quantity of electrons occupying that orbital (a maximum of two for the s-orbital, six for the p-orbital, and so on).

Graphite

A mineral that is one of the popular allotropes of carbon in the form of a network solid (all of the carbon atoms are bonded together covalently two-dimensionally and are joined with simple, straight bonds forming the third dimension); "two-dimensional sheets".

Heterogeneous Mixture

A mixture in which the composition is not uniform and the substances are not divided evenly throughout.

Homogeneous Mixture

A mixture in which the composition is uniform and the substances are divided evenly throughout.

Bohr Model

A model of a hydrogen atom in which electrons move rapidly around the nucleus in set orbitals, representing different energy levels.

Kinetic-Molecular Theory (KMT)

A model that attempts to explain the behaviour of an ideal gas, in which it is composed of a collection of particles that have mass but negligible volume, move randomly in straight lines, are not subject to any attractive or repulsive intramolecular forces, and collide in a perfectly elastic fashion (no energy is lost during a collision).

Colloid

A more general term that is used to describe colloidal dispersions; they (practically) mean the same thing.

Anion

A negatively-charged ion; in electrolysis, it would be attracted to the anode (positively-ionized).

Molecular Prefix

A notation that comes before the name of an element as a prefix ("_-") in the IUPAC System in order to signify the number of that type of atom that is occuring in the molecule; note that "mono" is never used when there is one of the first element listed in the formula, as this is almost always implied (or meant to be implied) by the person reading the formula.

Dash

A notation when drawing molecular compounds that indicates the third dimension; the atom on the fatter side of the dash goes behind the paper to a greater extent than the atom on the thinner side.

Wedge

A notation when drawing molecular compounds that indicates the third dimension; the atom on the fatter side of the wedge pops out of the paper to a greater extent than the atom on the thinner side.

Uncontrolled Chain Reaction

A nuclear decay process in which large amounts of energy are given off very quickly, this can possibly lead to disaster.

Nuclear Fission

A nuclear reaction in which a massive nucleus splits into smaller nuclei with the simultaneous release of energy from liberated mass.

Nuclear Fusion

A nuclear reaction in which two smaller nuclei combine into one, large, coherent nucleus with the simultaneous release of energy from liberated mass.

Photon

A particle of electromagnetic radiation with no mass that carries a quantum amount of energy that is emitted when an electron falls down into a lower energy state.

Factor-Label Method (FLM, Dimmensional Analysis)

A process of dealing with unit conversions in chemistry in which numbers are multiplied by various unit factors so that certain quantities are systematically cancelled out.

Chromatography

A process of separating mixtures into their component solutions by separating a mixture using both a stationary and moving phase.

Evaporation

A process that separates mixtures into their component substances by gently heating a solution over a low flame so that one of the components turns to gas and floats away, leaving behind some substance(s) with (a) lower boiling point(s).

Filtration

A process that separates mixtures into their component substances by pouring the mixture into filtering paper.

Carbon-14

A radioactive isotope of carbon that is common in radiocarbon dating, as its ratio against carbon-12 changes over a long period of time as a result of beta (-) decay.

Cobalt-60

A radioactive isotope of cobalt that is common in cancer treatments and nuclear medicine.

Iodine-131

A radioactive isotope of iodine that is commonly used in treating cancer and diagnosing thyroid issues.

Lead-206

A radioactive isotope of lead that is common, alongside uranium-238, in the dating of geological formations.

Technetium-99m

A radioactive isotope of technetium that is commonly used to enhance the quality of bone scans.

Uranium-238

A radioactive isotope of uranium that is common, alongside lead-206, in the dating of geological formations.

Enothermic Reaction

A reaction in which heat is absorbed into the system from its surroundings and q is positive.

Exothermic Reaction

A reaction in which heat is released from the system into its surroundings and q is negative.

Completion Reaction

A reaction that is not significantly reversible and will never achieve chemical equilibrium, often because one of the involved substances will escape out of the reaction vessel; for example, the reaction of placing a lithium pellet in water will never reach equilibrium as the hydrogen gas that is produced will escape.

Skeleton Reduction-Oxidation Equation

A reduction-oxidation equation that is derives from the first five steps of the half-reaction method; this gives a general synopsis of the whole reaction, including the species that are oxidized -- usually metals and some nonmetals -- and leaving out those that are not, typically the elements of hydrogen and oxygen; the coefficients derived from this skeleton equation can be transferred to the real equation (Step Six) and can then be balanced by inspection (Step Seven).

Spontaneous Reduction-Oxidation Reaction

A reduction-oxidation reaction that occurs spontaneously without any external excitement or introduction of energy; it often occurs when a metal is a better oxidizer (is higher on the left-hand column list of Reference Table J) than another and is in the position to oxidize by forcing that second metal to reduce.

Nonspontaneous Reduction-Oxidation Reaction

A reduction-oxidation reaction that will not occur spontaneously without any external excitement or introduction of energy; it often occurs when a metal is a worse oxidizer (is lower on the left-hand column list of Reference Table J) than another and is not in the position to oxidize by forcing that second metal to reduce.

Crystal Lattice

A regular, geometric arrangement of ions in which a crystal is arranged; this is the nature of all true solids.

Resonance Hybrid

A representation of a molecule that is used to indicate the multitude of electron structures that are possible; definite bonds are represented by solid lines, while possible bonds are represented by dashed lines.

Volumetric Flask

A round-bottomed flask that is used to determine molarity in the laboratory; it has a bulbous bottom that skinnies upwards into a thin, long neck with a graduation at one point; a set volume of solution (i.e., 100 mL or 250 mL) corresponds to filling up to this mark, with the operator adding solute to set amount of solvent until the mark is achieved.

Boiling Flask

A round-bottomed flask that is used to hold liquids while they are being boiled.

Boiling Flask

A round-bottomed, spherical-shaped flask that is often used for boiling solutions in a distillation.

Manometer

A scientific device that is used to measure pressure, in which the pressure of a gas is measured based upon how far it can push a liquid up a tube.

Torricelli Barometer

A scientific instrument for measuring air pressure in which a glass tube that is sealed at one end and open at the other has its open end placed into a dish of mercury; the rise of the mercury as a response to pressure is measured either in mmHg or torr; named after Evangelista Torricelli.

Mass Spectrometer

A scientific instrument that is used to determine the relative masses of atoms in a sample of an element by observing their deflection as a result of their differing numbers of neutrons.

Homologous Series

A series of organic compounds with the same functional group but notable structural differences, with each successive member differing by the addition or removal of a carbon-hydrogen-hydrogen group.

Elementary Steps

A series of simple reactions that act as individual mechanisms within a larger reaction.

Monomer

A single compound and identifiable unit whose molecules can join together in order to form polymers with many.

Dropper Pipette

A small glass or plastic pipette that is often used in the transfer of small volumes of liquids that often need to be measured by the drop.

Magnetic Stir Bar

A small, pill-shaped magnet that can be placed within a beaker or flask that rotates whenever the beaker or flask is set upon an activated stirrer.

Metal Spatula

A small, utensil-like piece of metal that can be used to scoop and stir powders and other solid chemicals; it is often formed of a long piece of heat-resistant metal with a rectangular scoop at one end and a curved scoop at the other end.

Precipitate

A solid (acting as an "attempted" solute) that forms and settles out of a liquid solvent, leaving a supernate behind.

Network Solid

A solid substance in which all of the atoms are bonded together through the use of covalent bonds; diamond and graphite are common examples.

Standard Solution

A solution of a known concentration that is used in a chemical analysis; it often serves as the titrant in a titration procedure.

Lewis Structure of an Atom

A structural model of an atom in which valence electrons are represented as dots surrounding the atom's kernel, represented by its atomic symbol; if we are being a bit more complicated, the way in which the dots are filled in should represent the filling of the suborbitals (remember that valence electrons can only exist in the s, p[subscript]x, p[subscript]y, and p[subscript]z suborbitals).

Positron

A subatomic particle with the same mass as an electron but a negative charge; it is the "antiparticle" of the electron.

Free Element

A substance containing only one type of atom with all of its atoms having oxidation numbers of zero.

Solvent

A substance that dissolves the solute in order to create a solution; for example, water in saltwater; water is the "Universal" one of these; if distinctions between it and the solute are not made, it is said to be the one in greater quantity.

Brønsted-Lowry Acid

A substance that is capable of donating a proton (a hydrogen ion, or H+) to another species; it is sometimes referred to as a "proton donor" for this reason.

Brønsted-Lowry Base

A substance that is capable of receiving a proton (a hydrogen ion, or H+) from another species; it is sometimes referred to as a "proton acceptor" for this reason.

Solute

A substance that is dissolved in a solvent in order to create a solution; for example, salt in saltwater; if distinctions between it and the solvent are not made, it is said to be the one in lesser quantity.

Ring Stand

A support that is formed of a solid base and a thin vertical support, made of metal, that has many uses in a laboratory setting, often allowing for the construction of different apparatuses that can be used to execute a number of chemical procedures.

Ring Stand

A support that is often used in many laboratory functions; it consists of a solid base with a long, metal pole extending upwards from it.

Homogenous System

A system at which all of the chemical reactants and products are at a common phase; thus, adding more of a liquid or solid to one of these systems is likely to affect its equilibrium.

Heterogeneous System

A system at which not all of the chemical reactants and products are at a common phase; thus, adding more of a liquid or solid to one of these systems is unlikely to affect its equilibrium.

Arrhenius Acid-Base Classification System

A system of classification of acids and bases under which substances are classified by their ability to produce either hydrogen ions (H+) or hydroxide ions (OH-).

Older System of Naming Polyvalent Ionic Compounds

A system of naming polyvalent ionic compounds with two possible charges in which, instead of using the Roman numerals as presented by the IUPAC System, the lower potential charge will take the "-ous" suffix and the higher potential charge will take the "-ic" suffix.

Periodic Table of Elements

A table that lists all of the elements in ascending atomic number in a way that depicts chemical similarities.

Present in Excess

A term that is used to describe any (of the) reactant(s) in a chemical reaction that is/are not used up by the time the capacity of the limiting reactant has been acheived.

Electrolytic

A term that is used to describe any solution that behaves as an electrolyte (can conduct electricity).

Isoelectronic

A term that is used to describe any two atoms having the same number of electrons, which are configured in the same way.

Soluble

A term that is used to describe any two or more component substances that are capable of being dissolved within one another at specified proportions or at all proportions.

Insoluble

A term that is used to describe any two or more component substances that are incapable of being dissolved within one another at specified proportions or at all proportions.

Flame Test

A test for determining the identity of a substance in which the focus substance is dissolved into an aqueous solution, a platinum wire or Nichrome looped wire is dipped into said solution, and said wire is held above a flame, with the colour of the flame often helping to demonstrate the identity of the substance; for example, lithium ions produce a deep red flame when burned; cobalt glass may need to be used in order to distinguish between yellow and violet flames when both sodium and potassium ions are present in the solution.

Ruler

A tool that is used to measure length, having many graduations that correspond to different linear length quantities.

Salt Bridge

A tube that is constructed of an electrolyte dispersed through a gel medium (typically agar) that allows for the systematic flow of ions throughout it, so that these ions can maintain the connection between two distinct half-cells and allow for the creation of a generative voltaic cell in this way.

D-Orbital

A type of atomic orbital that contains five symmetrical orbitals that can hold ten electrons in total.

F-Orbital

A type of atomic orbital that contains seven symmetrical orbitals that can hold fourteen electrons in total.

P-Orbital

A type of atomic orbital that contains three "dumbbell"-shaped and symmetrical orbitals that can hold six electrons in total.

Foam

A type of colloid that is formed when a gas is dispersed within a liquid; they are often fluffy and form bubbles; a good example is soft soap (air (a gas) + soap mixture (a liquid)).

Solid Foam

A type of colloid that is formed when a gas is dispersed within a solid; they are usually fluffy and compressible in nature, with gas escaping from cavities in a holy solid structure; a good example is styrofoam (air (a gas) + solid foam (a solid)).

Solid Emulsion

A type of colloid that is formed when a liquid is dispersed within a solid; they are usually soft and spreadable in nature; a good example is butter or cheese (oil (a liquid) dispersed in solid fat (a solid)).

Emulsion

A type of colloid that is formed when a liquid is dispersed within another liquid in which it is not soluble or immiscible at that proportion; they often separate out of themselves if not mixed frequently; a good example is a vinaigrette (vinegar + oil (both liquids, insoluble within each other)).

Sol

A type of colloid that is formed when a solid is dispersed within a liquid in which it is not soluble or immiscible at that proportion; they are usually liquid in nature with some viscous-like properties; a good example is mud (soil (a solid) + water (a liquid)).

Aerosol

A type of colloid that is formed when drops of liquid or solid particles are dispersed within a gas; they can often be sprayed; a good example is mist (air (a gas) + water (a liquid)).

Coordinate Covalent Bond

A type of covalent bond in which joining an ion with a stable molecule results in a molecule, typically with an ionic charge now (polyatomic ion), in which there exists a covalent bond in which one atoms contributes both electrons; they are drawn using arrows.

Closed-Tube Manometer

A type of manometer using a closed tube that is often only used when the pressure of the enclosed gas is significantly less than atmospheric pressure (much less than 1 atm or 101.325 kPa).

Open-Tube Manometer

A type of manometer using an open tube that is often only used when the pressure of the enclosed gas is equal to or greater than atmospheric pressure.

Breeder Reactor

A type of nuclear reactor that utilizes between 40% and 70% of its nuclear fuel and converts fertile nuclei to fissile nuclei faster than the rate of fission; thus, they are actually able to produce nuclear fuels.

Saponification

A type of organic reaction in which a fat is hydrolyzed with a base (such as sodium hydroxide, NaOH) in order to form glycerol and the salts of fatty acids, known collectively as soap.

Polymerization

A type of organic reaction in which a polymer is formed through the combination of multiple monomers; this often occurs through the hydration and the creation of peptide bonds; they can be expressed numerically as n monomer becoming (monomer)[subscript]n.

Esterification

A type of organic reaction in which an acid and an alcohol combine to form an ester and water (this removal of water makes it a type of dehydration reaction); it occurs slowly and must be catalyzed by acids or bases; it is fully reversible and can occur in both directions., with the reverse process being hydrolysis.

Addition

A type of organic reaction in which atoms are "added across" a double or triple bond, converting it into a single bond; this allows the carbon atoms to form bonds coming out of their sides; it takes place more readily that other kinds of chemical reactions, as the pi bonds holding together the double and triple bonds are relatively easy to break.

Substitution

A type of organic reaction in which one type of atom or functional group is replaced by another; this often occurs with halogen substitution.

Fermentation

A type of organic reaction in which oxidation occurs in the presence of oxygen; glucose is often processed into ethanol and carbon dioxide.

Combustion

A type of organic reaction in which saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes, namely) react with oxygen gas, O2, at temperatures that are high enough to allow for the production of carbon dioxide and water; if it occurs improperly having a limited supply of oxygen, it may produce noxious carbon dioxide (CO) or soot (C), a solid form of carbon that can also be toxic to humans (and the environment!) if inhaled.

Hydrolysis

A type of organic reaction in which water and a large molecule combine in order to form two smaller molecules; it is the reverse reaction of esterification, as it converts an ester back into an alcohol and an organic acid through the addition of water.

Addition Polymerization

A type of polymerization in which monomer components simply add together and are able to form bonds through the elimination of double and triple bonds (allowing carbon atoms to "hold hands" with nearby carbon atoms).

Condensation Polymerization

A type of polymerization in which two smaller monomers are combined into a larger dimer molecule (usually an ether) through the removal of one hydrogen atom from one monomer and the removal of one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom from another monomer.

Ideal Gas Law

A unification of all of the fundamental gas laws that can be expressed as PV = nRT, in which "P" is the the pressure, "V" is the volume, "n" is the number of molecules, "R" is the molar gas constant, and "T" is the temperature in degrees Kelvin.

Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

A unit of mass that is exactly equal to one-twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom and is roughly the mass of a proton or a neutron.

Becquerel (Bq)

A unit that measures the rate at which a sample of radioactive material decays in the Système International of measurements.

3-Prong Jaw Clamp

A universal clamp that can be used for a variety of purposes, attaching onto the support of a ring stand in order to facilitate the holding of a particular piece of glassware.

IUPAC System of Nomenclature

A universally-accepted systematic way of naming chemical substances.

Percentage Abundance

A value indicating how many atoms of a specific isotope would be naturally-found in a sample of 100 randomly selected atoms of that element.

Kernel

All of the components of an atom that are not its valence electrons; its nucleons in the nucleus (protons and neutrons) and core (non-valence) electrons.

Core Electrons

All of the electrons located in the inner shells of the atom that are not valence electrons; they are far less significant in chemistry than the valence electrons.

Transuranium Elements

All of the elements of the periodic table with atomic numbers greater than ninety-two that, alongside technetium (Te, 43) must all be produced in a laboratory through bombardment.

Henry Mosely

An English chemist who is credited for arranging the Periodic Table so that it is organized by atomic number (number of protons) instead of atomic mass, as did Mendeleev and Meyer.

Triple Beam Balance Scale

An accurate scale that is used to measure the mass of an object through the use of a lever onto which various sliding weights are positioned; through a precise movement of the weights, an object's mass can be determined.

Methyl Orange

An acid-base indicator with a colour change range of 3.1 to 4.4 on the pH scale; when activated, it often changes from red to yellow.

Bromcresol Green

An acid-base indicator with a colour change range of 3.8 to 5.4 on the pH scale; when activated, it often changes from yellow to blue.

Litmus Paper

An acid-base indicator with a colour change range of 4.5 to 8.3 on the pH scale; when activated, it often changes from red to blue; it is usually used in a test with two strips: one as an experimental, and one as a control.

Bromothymol Blue

An acid-base indicator with a colour change range of 6.0 to 7.6 on the pH scale; when activated, it often changes from yellow to blue.

Phenolphtalein

An acid-base indicator with a colour change range of 8.0 to 9.0 on the pH scale; when activated, it often changes from clear to pink; it's standard in many titration procedures.

Thymol Blue

An acid-base indicator with a colour change range of 8.0 to 9.6 on the pH scale; when activated, it often changes from yellow to blue.

Fusion Reactor

An experimental device for producing a controlled fusion reaction and generating electrical energy from it.

Thomson Atomic Model

An atomic model of the atom in which each atom consists of a positively-charged, jelly-like mass with negative electrons scattered throughout (a "plum pudding"); it did not contradict the Dalton Model, but simply added further depth to it.

Dalton Atomic Model

An atomic model of the atom in which each element is composed of indivisible particles called atoms, all of the atoms in an elmeent are identical, atoms cannot be created or destroyed but merely rearranged, compounds are formed when more than one element combine, and that atoms are (this is a big one) indivisible particles.

Sublevel

An atomic orbital or collections of atomic orbitals in a specified shape that occupy a particular principal energy level, possible along with or not along with others.

Antineutrino

An elementary particle that is the antiparticle of the neutrino with no charge and practically no mass that is produced as a result of beta (-) decay.

Neutrino

An elementary particle with no charge and practically no mass that is produced as a result of beta (+) decay.

Petroleum

An energy-dense hydrocarbon compound that can be fractionally distilled in order to attain different hydrocarbons.

Calorimetry Equation

An equation for observing the change of heat in a substance that is represented as heat equals specific heat capacity times mass times temperature change; if q is positive, then heat is absorbed into the system and the reaction is endothermic, while if q is negative, then heat is released out of the system and the reaction is exothermic.

Nuclear Equation

An equation representing a change in the atomic nucleus as a result of nuclear changes; always check that the numbers of certain particles hold up when the decay process is considered.

Half-Life Equation

An equation that describes the relationship between the original amount of a substance, the amount remaining after a given period of time, the length of that given period of time, and a radioactive isotope's half-life.

Solubility-Product Constant

An equilibrium constant that is often used to analyze the dissolution of an ionic compound in water or another solvent; it is expressed mathematically as "K[subscript]sp"and is equivalent to the product of the equilibrium concentrations of each of the ions (raised to the power of their relative mole quantities) that the compound dissolves into.

Self-Sustaining Exothermic Reaction

An exothermic reaction that is able to continually sustain itself, with the negative change in enthalpy (heat of reaction) released from one small reaction providing the activation energy needed for another segment of the substance to react; for example, an entire gas of hydrogen gas will combust even if a flame with less energy than the activation energy of all of the hydrogen gas if brought to it, as the energy produced by a small combustion will serve to create more energy in other parts of the tank, and so it goes.

Dipole

An imbalance of charges that is created by the covalent bonding of two atoms with differing electronegativities, in which one of the atoms becomes negativity and another becomes positive; they are not real charges, only a representation of the unbalanced distribution of those charges; they are represented by a + or - sign following a lowercase delta ("δ+ or δ-").

Noble Gas Core

An inner-shell configuration of an atom that corresponds to that of one of the noble gases; it is relatively small leading up to establishing this core, but is much larger right after it is reached.

Calorie (Cal)

An older method of measuring energy and energy potential that is equivalent to the amount of heat energy that is required to raise the temperature of one gram of liquid water by one degree Celsius; it is roughly equivalent to 4.2 joules.

Millimeters of Mercury (mmHg)

An older metric unit of pressure that is associated with the pressure measurement given by a Torricelli barometer, in which the height of a line of mercury changes in response to difference of pressure; still used in measuring blood pressures.

Bunsen Burner

An open-flame source heating apparatus that is used in which ignited gas, coming from the outlet of a large metal tube, is capable of heating a substance positioned atop the flame; it often involves an adjustable collar that allows the user to configure the amount of air that comes into the burning flame.

Protein

An organic compound that is made of one or more chains of amino acids (polypeptide chains) and that is a principal component of all cells and is essential to the function of all living things.

Elemental Symbol

An symbol that each element has, which is unique from all other symbols; they are often simply a rough shortening of the element's name or a reference to a name in another language, usually Latin.

S-Orbital

An type of atomic orbital that contains one spherical and symmetrical orbital and can hold two electrons in total.

Nearly Insoluble

An uncommon term that is used to describe a given solute that is only soluble in a given solvent at very, very diffuse conditions.

Standard State Pressure

An uncommon unit of pressure in the scientific world that is exactly equivalent to 100 kPa or 100000 Pa; occasionally used in thermodynamics problems.

Activated Complex

An unstable arrangement of atoms that forms momentarily at some point along the reaction coordinate of a chemical equation; it has the greatest potential energy of any arrangement of atoms that is to occur in a given chemical reaction.

Nichrome

Any alloy of nickel and chromium (often also containing iron and sometimes manganese) that is well-known for its resistance to high heats, making it useful in flame testing.

Glass Rod with Nichrome Wires

Any assemblage of a glass rod joined with a looped Nichrome wire that can be used in flame tests, with the wetted loop of wire being held by the glass rod over an open flame, with the resulting colour that is produced being observed.

Clay Triangle

Any assemblage of a wire frame with porcelain supports; it is often used to hold a crucible above a burning flame as it is being heated.

Thermonuclear Device

Any body, such as our Sun and many other stars, that is capable of nuclear fusion; by our current knowledge, this usually only happens at extreme temperatures and pressures.

Test Tube Brush

Any brush situated upon a firm piece of wire that can be used to clean the insides of a test tube or other thin pieces of glassware, such as graduated cylinders or volumetric flasks.

Reduction-Oxidation Equation

Any chemical equation that represents a reduction-oxidation reaction; if the oxidation number of any given species decreases as it transitions from the reactant to the product state, it must be reduced, while if the oxidation number of any species increases as it transitions from the reactant to the product state, it must be reduced (this can be remembered by comparing the third letter of the reaction type to the first letter of the numerical change that occurs (𝘥ecrease means re𝘥uced, while 𝘪ncrease means ox𝘪dized).

Chemical Shift to the Left

Any chemical shift in which the chemical system, after being disturbed by some sort of stress, shows a preference for the backwards reaction (converting the products into reactants) in order to increase the concentration of those substances.

Chemical Shift to the Right

Any chemical shift in which the chemical system, after being disturbed by some sort of stress, shows a preference for the forwards reaction (converting the reactants into products) in order to increase the concentration of those substances.

Chemical Apron

Any chemical-resistant rubberized apron that is often worn to protect one's clothing in a laboratory setting; be sure to always wear one!

Apparatus

Any complex piece of equipment or machinery that is intended to serve a specific purpose; in chemistry, a variety of these items are used in order to demonstrate various fundamental concepts of the chemical sciences.

Binary Compound

Any compound that is composed of exactly two distinct elements, such as water (hydrogen and oxygen) or octane (hydrogen and carbon).

Electrolytic Cells

Any device powers uses a spontaneous reduction-oxidation reaction through the provision electrical energy; it consists of one single unit into which the two electrodes are submerged; various functions can be performed using these apparatuses, such as the electrolysis of water into hydrogen and oxygen gas.

Electrochemical Cell

Any device that is capable of relating electricity to oxidation-reduction reactions; the two most notable divisions of these types of devices are voltaic cells (provide energy) and electrolytic cells (use energy).

Voltaic Cell

Any device that uses a spontaneous reduction-oxidation reaction in order to provide electrical energy; it consists of two separate half-cells that are capable of exchanging ions through a porous barrier or salt bridge; a voltmeter can be used to measure the electricity production of the apparatus; it is sometimes additionally known as a "Galvanic cell".

Condenser

Any device, made of an inner tube and an outer tube, that results in the condensation of a gas when it is flowed through the inner tube, with a coolant (typically cold water) being flowed through the outer tube in order to draw heat energy away from the gas and force it to change phase into a liquid; it is commonly used in many distillation procedures.

Thermometer

Any device, typically made of glass, that is used to measure temperature; most use the expansion and contraction of a liquid substance (usually liquid mercury or coloured alcohol) in response to the introduction and removal of heat, respectively, in order to indicate temperature; they come in a wide variety of types, ranging from immersion thermometers to infrared thermometers.

Van der Waals Forces

Any distance-dependent intermolecular attractions that exist between molecules.

Funnel

Any plastic device, consisting of a curved, inwards-sloping cone that falls into a thin tube, that can be used to facilitate the clean, easy transfer of liquids between containers without spillage; additionally, they can be used for filtration when a piece of filter paper is fitted into one and a filtrate is run through it.

Plastic Gloves

Any plastic gloves that are used to prevent substances that one must handle with their hands from touching their skin; it is essential that these be worn and that the user be attentive that they do not accidentally touch them to other parts of their body (with the face in particular being a troublesome area) as they are wearing them.

Forceps

Any plastic or metal device that is commonly used to pick up and move small particles from a greater body, where the precision provided by such an instrument is necessary in some way.

Safety Goggles

Any plastic pieces of protective eyewear that can be used as protection for the upper portion of one's face in a laboratory setting; be sure to always wear them!

Test Tube Rack

Any plastic, wooden, or metallic rack that is used to stand a given number of test tubes upright for momentary storage and easy access, avoiding the chance of a spill.

Terminal

Any point along a circuit at which electrons are capable of either leaving or entering the central structure of wires and metals; depending on the flow of electrons (in or out) they are often either positive or negative.

Stopcock

Any rotatable device that can be attached to the bottom of a burette and can be turned in order to allow for the systematic flow of a measured quantity of liquid into a contained below; it is essential in a titration procedure, where the careful measurement of volumes is often necessary for determining the concentration of an unknown substance.

Pipette Bulb

Any rubber or plastic bulb that is used to draw liquids into a pipette by forcing a liquid to be drawn up from a container as the bulb is squeezed and air is displaced and the lost volume needs to be replaced.

Crucible Tongs

Any set of tongs that is used to hold extremely hot crucibles and other high temperature objects.

Corks

Any small pieces of cork, being made in a variety of sizes, that are used to stop up necked pieces of glassware, such as Erlenmeyer flasks or volumetric flasks, for the easy containment of substances within said container; they typically do not contain holes.

Rubber Stoppers

Any small pieces of rubber, being made in a variety of sizes, that are used to stop up necked pieces of glassware, such as Erlenmeyer flasks or volumetric flasks, for the easy containment of substances within said container; they may or may not have holes, which allow for the installation of glass tubes into the stopper in order to connect it to a tubing system.

Unsaturated

Any solution for which more solute can be dissolved within the solvent; this added solute will not fall out of the solution as a precipitate.

Saturated

Any solution for which no more solute can be dissolved within the solvent; any additional solute that is added will fall out of the solution as a precipitate.

Flask

Any sort of bottle that has a narrow neck; often, when one colloquially mentions a "flask", they are likely referring to an Erlenmeyer flask.

Lewis Acid

Any species that can accept a pair of electrons from another species in order to become an electron-pair "acceptor"; they often form coordinate covalent bonds with Lewis bases in this process.

Lewis Base

Any species that can donate a pair of electrons to another species in order to become an electron-pair "donor"; they often form coordinate covalent bonds with Lewis acids in this process.

Amphiprotic Species

Any species that is capable of behaving as an acid or a base, depending upon the reaction in which it is participating.

Multiprotic Brønsted-Lowry Acid

Any species, behaving as a Brønsted-Lowry acid, that is capable of donating two or more protons to a species behaving as a Brønsted-Lowry base; it has more than one equivalence point on a titration curve.

Supercritical Fluid

Any state of matter that has exceeded its critical temperature or critical pressure, at which point it can no longer be distinguished between a gas and a liquid.

Nucleon

Any subatomic particle that is found in the nucleus of an atom; a proton or a neutron.

Acid

Any substance that can be classified as acidic; the general definition of what it actually as varies based upon the definition system used (Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, or Lewis).

Base

Any substance that can be classified as basic; the general definition of what it actually as varies based upon the definition system used (Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, or Lewis); the aqueous solutions that they make often feel rather slippery.

Electrolyte

Any substance that is able to conduct electricity once it is dissolved in water, with the value of the conductivity depending upon the ion concentration; acids and bases are all of this category of substances.

Arrhenius Acid

Any substance, under the Arrhenius acid-base classification system, that is capable of releasing hydrogen ions (H+ ions) when dissolved in water in order to form an aqueous solution.

Arrhenius Base

Any substance, under the Arrhenius acid-base classification system, that is capable of releasing hydroxide ions (OH- ions) when dissolved in water in order to form an aqueous solution.

Products

Any substances that are produced as a result of a chemical reaction.

Physical Changes

Changes in the nature of a material that does change the neither the identity not composition of a substance; this includes melting, boiling, molding, crumpling, stretching, and much more.

Decomposition Reactions

Chemical reactions in which a single reactant reacts to form two or more products; AB → A + B.

Single-Replacement Reactions

Chemical reactions in which only one element replaces another in a compound; these reactions will only occur if the metal that is to do the replacing is higher in the activity series in Reference Table J than the metal that will be replaced, for if the metal that would be replaced is higher in the activity series, the reaction will not occur.

Double-Replacement Reactions

Chemical reactions in which two elements in different compounds replace each other or "swap places"; this will only occur if one of the products forms a solid precipitate (this can be discovered by looking at the solubility predictions in Reference Table F; be sure to the note the "exceptions"!), a gas, or a molecular compound, with the latter two being quite rare compared to the first one.

Direct Combination (Synthesis) Reactions

Chemical reactions in which two or more reactants combine to form a single product; A + B → AB.

Organic Reactions

Chemical reactions involving organic compounds that often involve the recombination of various organic functional groups; they would take a very long to occur on their own, so the addition of organic catalysts is often necessary.

Reduction-Oxidation Reactions

Chemical reactions that involve the transfer of electrons; they are composed of one distinct reduction and one distinct oxidation reaction, each of which gains or loses the same amount of electrons, meaning that this reaction can simply be written as the net reaction of the two; they are often known colloquially as "redox" reactions; in any of these chemical reactions, the reducing agent is oxidized and the oxidizing agent is reduced.

Hydrocarbons

Compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen; man of them can be separated into the alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes; they are often attained through the fractional distillation of petroleum; pictured is butane, an alkane.

Basic Oxides

Covalent oxides, formed of oxygen and assorted metals, that dissolve in order to form water and (an) additional basic substance(s).

Acidic Oxides

Covalent oxides, formed of oxygen and assorted nonmetals, that dissolve in order to form water and (an) additional acidic substance(s).

Nuclear Energy

Electrical energy that is produced as a result of the massive potential energy located within the nucleus of an atom; far more energy-dense than coal or oil.

Semiconductors

Elements that are capable of conducting heat or electricity easily under certain conditions; this is a property that applied to most metalloids.

Synthetic Elements

Elements which do not occur naturally (to our knowledge) and have to be produced by scientists in a laboratory through bombardment.

Radioisotopes

Isotopes of an element that have unstable nuclei and are thus subject to radioactive decay.

Ethene

The simplest alkene, having two carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms; note that there is no methylene molecule.

Alkyl Groups

Functional groups that are formed by removing a hydrogen atom from an alkane; common members include the methyl, ethyl, and propyl groups.

Stereoisomerism

Isomers having the same molecular formula but different arrangements in space; this is often a result of double- and triple-bonded carbon atoms holding onto the atoms around them differently in different situations; they are often noted using the prefixes "cis-" and "trans-".

Analyte

Literally: the substance being "analyzed"; in most laboratory contexts, it is simply used as a synonym for titrand.

Mole Conversions

Mathematical conversions in which the number of moles in a sample of a substance is set equal to that of another in some way; when translating between substances, know that you can only make the jump between moles, and nothing else.

Containment Vessel

One component of a fission reactor, usually made out of concrete and steel, that is to protect it.

Phase

One of the distinguishable primary three states of matter in which every substance is capable of existing.

Sigma Bond

One of the fundamental types of covalent bonds in which two orbitals directly overlap parallel to the internuclear axis; there is exactly one of them in every covalent bond (one in single, one in double, one in triple); they are stronger than pi bonds and are thus less reactive as a result of holding their shared electrons closer to their nuclei; they are represented by the symbol "σ".

Pi Bond

One of the fundamental types of covalent bonds in which two orbitals overlap sideways perpendicular to the internuclear axis; there are none of these types of bonds in single covalent bonds, one in double bonds, and two in triple bonds; they are weaker than sigma bonds and are thus more reactive as a result of holding their share electrons farther from their nuclei (can be broken easily); they are represented by the symbol "π".

Mole

One of the most useful basic concepts in chemistry; it is equivalent to one [Avogadro's Number] of anything, but is most commonly used to describe the number of particles of a substance; one mole of a substance will weigh its molar mass in grams.

Contributing Resonance Structure

One of the plausible structures that could potential represent a given molecule; combinations of contributing resonance structures work together in order to form the resonance hybrid.

Allotrope

One of two or more different molecular forms of an element in the same physical state; for example, carbon has two distinct solid physical forms: graphite and diamond.

Enzymes

Organic catalysts that act to speed up organic chemical reactions in virtually all living things.

Organic Catalysts

Organic chemical substances, often enzymes, that are capable of reducing the activation energy needed for an organic reaction to occur; they are often necessary in living organisms, considering that many organic reactions would otherwise occur much more slowly.

Amines

Organic compounds consisting of a hydrocarbon in which at least one of the hydrogen atoms is replaced by an amino group.

Haloalkanes

Organic compounds consisting of an alkane with one of more of its hydrogen atoms removed, with halogen atoms (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine) taking their place; they are named by adding the name of the halogen as a prefix to the name of the parent hydrocarbon (i.e., "chloro-") with a prefix ("di", "tri", etc.) if necessary, with an additional number indicating their location.

Amino Acids

Organic compounds consisting of one or more amino groups that is or are joined with an organic acid; they are the building blocks of proteins and have other essential roles in living organisms.

Ketones

Organic compounds containing a functional group of carbonyl in which the carbon atom of the carbonyl has no direct bonds with any hydrogen atoms; they are named by adding the suffix "-one" to the name of the parent hydrocarbon.

Aldehydes

Organic compounds containing a functional group of carbonyl that is bonded to at least one hydrogen atom; they are named by adding the suffix "-al" to the name of the parent hydrocarbon.

Organic Acids

Organic compounds containing a functional group of carboxyl; they are formed by adding the suffix "-oic" and the word "acid" onto the end of the name of the parent hydrocarbon; ethanoic acid (acetic acid, vinegar, pictured) is a well-known member.

Esters

Organic compounds containing, somewhere in their middle segment, a carbon atom that is bonded to one oxygen atom through a single bond and a second oxygen atom through a double bond; they are formed as a result of the reaction between an organic acid and an alcohol, with their name being a derivative of those two substances (replace the "-ic" suffix with "-ate"); they usually have a pleasant, distinctive smell that is determined by the alcohol and organic acid that they come from.

Ethers

Organic compounds with the general structure in which an oxygen atom is bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups on either side; they are often created by dehydrating primary alcohols in the presence of sulfuric acid; they are often named by adding the word "ether" following the name of the parent hydrocarbon.

Safety Goggles

Plastic pieces of eyewear that must be worn in the laboratory at all times in order to prevent chemicals from accidentally splashing into one's eyes.

Diatomic Molecules

Polyatomic molecules that are only composed of two atoms; only hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine can form these kinds of molecules.

Synthetic Polymers

Polymers that are anthropogenic in origin, such as plastic polyethylene, nylon, and polyester.

Natural Polymers

Polymers that occur naturally, such as proteins, cellulose, and starch.

Compounds

Pure substances composed of molecules of a specific chemical with fixed compositions (i.e., the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in pure water will always be two to one); they are "chemically combined".

Elements

Pure substances composed of only one type of atom that cannot be decomposed further through chemical processes.

Tracers

Radioisotopes that can be used to follow through and describe the steps of a chemical reaction.

Acid-Base Indicators

Substances for which a change in colour corresponds to a change in the pH of a solution; therefore, one of these said colour changes can often be useful in titration reactions or other laboratory neutralization procedures.

Electrolytes

Substances that produce ions when they dissolve in a solution; as a result of this they are capable of conducting an electric current; electrolytic solutions have even higher boiling points and even lower boiling points than they would have otherwise in comparison to other solutions; when dissolved, they produce more than one mole of particles as a result of how ionic dissolution works.

"R" and "X" in Functional Groups

Symbols that are used to denote the presence of a hydrocarbon chain missing a hydrogen at the location where it is affixed (an alkyl).

Relationship Between the Surface Area of the Reactants and the Rate of Reaction

That a greater surface area of the reactants will generally lend itself to a greater number of collisions and thus an increase in the reaction rate; thus, reducing the size of a given substance, such as by powdering, will generally cause a reaction to occur more quickly.

Taste of Acids and Bases

That acids tend to have a mild sour taste at low concentrations (i.e., lemon, vinegar, citrus) while bases tend to have a more bitter taste at low concentrations (i.e., coffee, soap, radish).

Effect of the Solute on the Vapour Pressure and Boiling and Freezing Points of the Solvent

That adding any given solute to a solvent will increase its boiling point by a given number of degrees Celsius and will decrease its freezing point by a given number of degrees Celsius; this happens regardless of the identity of the solute added (disregarding relationships as a result of electrolytic properties), only on its amount added and on the identity of the solvent.

Relationship Between the Concentrations of the Reactants and the Rate of Reaction

That as the concentration of a reactant increases, the number of collisions between the given particles will increase and the rate of reaction generally increases; this also plays into that an increase in pressure will lead to an increase in reaction rate.

Relationship Between the Pressure of the Reactants and the Rate of Reaction

That as the pressure at which the given reactants in a chemical equation are at increases, the rate of reaction will increase as well; this is a result of a greater frequency of collisions between the particles.

Relationship Between the Temperature of the Reactants and the Rate of Reaction

That as the temperature at which the given reactants in a chemical reaction are at increases, so will the rate of reaction as an increase in the kinetic energy of the particles will thus result in an increase in their number of collisions.

Use of Colours in Identifying Substances

That colours can often be used to determine the identity of a substance through a series of examination, such as naked eye viewings or flame test.

Relationship Between the Presence of Catalysts in a Reaction and the Rate of Reaction

That introducing a catalyst ("speeder-upper") to a reaction will cause it to occur more quickly as it lowers the activation energy that is needed for the reaction to begin to occur; it makes an "easier hill to climb" -- do note that this does not affect the heat of reaction, ΔH.

Colours of Elements and Certain Compounds

That many elements and certain compounds can be identified using their characteristic colours that can be referred to using a reference table (such as the ones which can be found on Wikipedia); for instance, chlorine gas (Cl2, see image) is often greenish-yellow in colour.

Solubility of Organic Compounds and Inorganic Compounds

That organic compounds are generally soluble in nonpolar solvents while inorganic compounds are generally soluble in polar solvents; this explains as to why oil and water separate.

Electrolytic Behaviour in Solution of Organic Compounds and Inorganic Compounds

That organic compounds generally cannot conduct an electric current in solution while inorganic compounds are often able to conduct electricity, given that they ionize and dissociate when in solution.

Melting and Boiling Points of Organic Compounds and Inorganic Compounds

That organic compounds generally have low boiling and melting points, while inorganic compounds tend to have boiling and melting points that are comparatively higher.

Bonding of Organic Compounds and Inorganic Compounds

That organic compounds tend to only form covalent bonds (almost always nonpolar), while inorganic substances are more diverse, forming nonpolar covalent bonds as well as polar covalent, ionic, and metallic bonds.

Rate of Reaction of Organic Compounds and Inorganic Compounds

That organic compounds tend to react slowly as a result of having a large number of bond rearrangements to make (this is why they require catalysts), while inorganic substances tend to react more quickly with one another.

Effect of a Catalyst on Equilibrium

That the addition of a catalyst to a reaction will increase the reaction rates of the forward and reverse processes of a chemical reaction equally, causing no change in equilibrium; however, it should be noted that as a result of both of these processes occuring more quickly, any change that does occur will be resolved (patched) more easily.

Relationship Between the Nature of the Reactants and the Rate of Reaction

That the bond types of the substances reacting in a chemical reaction will be easier to break if they are ionic than if they are covalent; thus, reactions between ionic compounds will often occur much more quickly than those between covalent compounds.

Origins of Oxidation and Reduction

That the chemical processes of oxidation and reduction are often born from competition for electrons between different species in a chemical reaction.

Unit of Measure of Concentration

That the concentration of a given substance is most frequently measured in moles per liter, often written as "mol/L"; this unit plays directly into molarity.

Conductivity of Pure Water

That the conductivity of pure water is incredibly poor, unless an electrolyte is dissolved within it.

Conductivity of Pure Water with an Electrolyte Dissolved Within It

That the conductivity of pure water with an electrolyte dissolved within it is quite good, especially compared to the conductivity of pure water.

Adjustment of a Bunsen Burner

That the inflow of air into the flame of a Bunsen burner (often as measured as the percentage of the combusting mixture that is flammable gas and the percentage of the combusting mixture that is nonflammable air) can be adjusted through a rotation of its collar, located near the base of the burner.

Conservation of Mass, Energy, and Electric Charge in Reduction-Oxidation Equations

That the mass, energy, and electric charge of any reduction-oxidation reaction is conserved between the products and the reactions; therefore, each side must have an equivalent sum of oxidation numbers, given that is balanced.

Measurement of a Meniscus

That the water level of a concave meniscus (as is formed with water and nearly every other liquid in the laboratory) should be measured with the viewer's eye being parallel to the bottom of the meniscus, and the reading should be measured there as well.

Guidelines for Laboratory Reports

That there exist many general guidelines that should be followed (although personal standards should be maintained as well) in the keeping of a laboratory notebook or whenever reporting scientific findings in a similar way.

Distinguishing Between Organic and Inorganic Substances Through the Comparison of their Solubilities, Melting Points, and Electrical Conductivities

That we can distinguished between organic and inorganic substances by comparing together their solubilities, melting points, and electrical conductivities, with organic substances tending to lend themselves to solubility in polar substances and low melting points and electrical conductivities and inorganic substances tending to lend themselves to solubility in nonpolar substances and high melting points and electrical conductivities.

Effect of a Change in Pressure by Addition of an Inert Gas on Equilibrium

That when an inert gas is added into an otherwise closed system, no change in in the equilibrium of the system will be observed, given that these inert gases are almost entirely unreactive.

Effect of a Change in Concentration on Equilibrium

That when the concentration of one of the substances on one side of the equation is increased (or the other is comparatively reduced), the reaction will shift to the other side in order to balance out the change and a new equilibrium point will be established.

Effect of a Change in Temperature on Equilibrium

That when the temperature at which a reaction occurs is increased, the system will begin to favor the more exothermic process (releasing heat to "cool down"); likewise, if the temperature of the system is decreased, the system will begin to favor the more endothermic process (taking in heat to "warm up").

Effect of a Change in Volume on Equilibrium

That when the volume of a gas is decreased in a chemical reaction (most often through increasing the pressure, per Boyle's Law) its particles will collide more frequently and reactions will occur at a faster rate; thus, the reaction will favour, between the forward and reverse reaction, whichever one produces the least number of particles (as calculated in number of moles) in order to compensate for the change.

Estimation to a Fraction of the Smallest Division Percent

That whenever a measuring device has a ruled scale, the measurement value can be estimated up to, at the smallest point of division, one-tenth of the smallest graduations.

Metal-Nonmetal Line

The "zigzag"-shaped line upon the Periodic Table that is responsible for separating its metals from its nonmetals, with many of the surrounding elements being metalloids.

Detergency

The ability of a chemical agent to "clean" a surface through the forced emulsion of nonpolar substances (such as oil) and a polar solvent (such as water); soap is a powerful and well-known detergent.

Reversibility

The ability of a given reaction to demonstrate both the execution of a forwards and a backwards reaction.

Ductility

The ability of a substance to be drawn, pulled, or extruded through a thin opening in order to be transformed into a thin strip of wire.

Malleability

The ability of a substance to be hammered or rolled into thin sheets without shattering.

Conductivity

The ability of a substance to transfer heat and electrons well.

Ability of an Acid-Base Indicator to Distinguish Between Varying pH Values

The ability of an acid-base indicator to distinguish between varying pH values that is rooted in its ability to have the two pH values in question on either end of its given range of values at which it undergoes a change.

Energy

The ability to do work or cause change (this is a general definition, as this is a tricky thing to define).

Conjugate Acid

The acid that is formed by the protonation (addition of a proton) to its respective conjugate base.

Strong Acids

The acids that are often cited as being incredibly strong and powerful when dissolved in an aqueous solution, such as hydrogen iodide (HI), hydrogen bromide (HBr), hydrogen chloride (HCl), nitric acid (HNO3), and sulfuric acid (H2SO4); they nearly always dissociate almost completely in an aqueous solution, and often dominate the character of an acid-base mixture, usually making it acidic in nature if the combined base is weak and neutral in nature if the combined base is strong.

Activity Series of Metals

The activity series of metals, which can be found in Reference Table J of the Reference Table packet on in Appendix 1 of the book, which denotes the relative activities of the metals; the left-hand column ranks the activities of various metals, with those on the top being the best oxidizers and those on the bottom being the best reducers, while the right-hand column ranks the activities of various nonmetals (there are only four!), with those on the top being the best reducers and those on the bottom being the best oxidizers.

Conjugate Base

The base that is formed by the deprotonation (removal of a proton) to its respective conjugate acid.

Strong Bases

The bases that are often cited as being incredibly strong and powerful when dissolved in an aqueous solution, such as all of the Group I (1) hydroxides, including lithium hydroxide (LiOH), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), rubidium hydroxide (RbOH), and caesium hydroxide (CsOH); they nearly always dissociate almost completely in an aqueous solution, and often dominate the character of an acid-base mixture, usually making it basic in nature if the combined acid is weak and neutral in nature if the combined acid is strong.

Normal Boiling Point

The boiling point of a liquid at one standard atmosphere (1 atm or 101.325 kPa).

Chemical Kinetics

The branch of chemistry that is concerned with reaction rates and the mechanisms by which reactions occur.

Empirical Formula from Percent Composition

The calculation the empirical formula of a substance is its percent-by-masses are known; this only works for the empirical formula as all of the proportional derivatives of a substance will have equal percent compositions by mass, so there is no way to differentiate them.

Bond Dissociation Energy

The change in energy that is required to break the bond(s) in a molecule; it is able to help is determine the energy content of said bond.

Heat of Reaction

The change in enthalpy in any kind of reaction; it is represented as "ΔH"; it is positive in an endothermic reaction and negative in an exothermic reaction.

Standard Heat of Formation

The change in enthalpy that accompanies the formation of one mole of a compound from its constituent elements; it is often represented at ΔH°[subscript]f; for any elemental substance, ΔH°[subscript]f = 0.

Contact Process

The chemical process by which sulfuric acid is produced industrially in a four-step process that ultimately converts gaseous sulfur trioxide and liquid water into liquid sulfuric acid; it is best performed at high pressures and low temperatures, typically with a catalyst included to maintain adequate formation rates.

Reduction

The chemical process in which a species gains electrons; in any redox reaction, the oxidizing agent is the one that often undergoes this change; this will correspond to a decrease (e.g., 0 to -2) in a species' oxidation number.

Oxidation

The chemical process in which a species loses electrons; in any redox reaction, the reducing agent is the one that often undergoes this change; this will correspond to an increase (e.g., 0 to +2) in a species' oxidation number.

Lewis Acid-Base Classification System

The classification system of defining distinct acids and bases in which separations are made based upon the substance's ability to either receive ("acceptor") a pair of electrons or give ("donate") them.

Metalloids

The elements upon the Periodic Table that share the properties of both metals and nonmetals; this makes them useful in products such as electrical components.

Electron Spin

The clockwise or counterclockwise motion that defines an electron; electrons will chose to fill empty orbitals (due to their -/- repulsive forces) before combining with those in half-filled negatives at an opposite spin value.

Self-Protective Oxide Coating

The coating of the oxide of a metal that forms upon its surface; for many metals, such as zinc, aluminum, and titanium, this coating holds firm, and shields the pure metal underneath from further corrosion.

Effective Collisions

The collisions in a given chemical reaction in which the particles of that reaction meet with sufficient energy in order to be able to create a product; to be effective, the particles of any given reaction must have enough energy and must be oriented properly when they are to collide.

Scoopula

The colloquial name that is used to refer to any small, metal scoop that is used to transfer solids or powders between different containers and sources.

Colours of Ions in a Solid and/or in an Aqueous Solution

The colours that ions often assume when in their solid form or when in an aqueous solution that can be referred to using a reference table (such as the ones which can be found on Wikipedia); for instance, iron(III) thiocyanate produces a deep red colour (characteristic of iron) when in a solution.

Mortar and Pestle

The combination of a porcelain mortar and a wood or porcelain pestle that is used to mash large particles into smaller particles; for instance, many solid chemicals are packed and shipped as beads or balls, but need to be ground into a coarse or fine powder for laboratory use.

Combined Gas Law

The combination of the three laws of ideally-behaving gases into a single relationship, which can be represented mathematically as (P1)(V1)/(T1) = (P2)(V2)/(T2); remember that temperature must be specified in Kelvin!

Moderator

The component of a fission reactor located in the nuclear core that slows electrons to about the energies of air molecules at room temperature; it is usually made of water containing hydrogen or deuterium, graphite, or beryllium.

Heat Exchanger

The component of fission reactor that receives thermal energy from the core and uses it to heat steam, turning a turbine and thus generating electricity.

Supernate

The component substance that is left behind after a precipitate settles out of a solution.

Distillate

The condensed liquid products of the distillation process; pure ethanol in the diagram.

Condensed Structural Formula of a Hydrocarbon

The condensed structural formula of a hydrocarbon that is given in which the general formatting of the molecular formula is kept but is broken up and rearranged in order to show the general trend of the molecule's structure; if "attachments" are present, they are noted above or below one of the carbon atoms and connected using a line; pictured is propane.

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)

The conditions under which gas behavior is typically studied, consisting of standards of 273.15 K (0°C, the ice point of water) as a constant for temperature and 1 atm (101.325 kPa) as a constant for pressure.

Molar Gas Constant (R)

The constant of proportionality regarding the molar volume of a gas that is specified as a result of units used; is 0.0821 for (L)(atm)/(K)(mol).

Construction and Interpretation of a Heating or Cooling Curve

The construction and interpretation of a heating or cooling curve that is necessary in order to be able to properly determine the phase-derived aspects of a substance; this allows us to use experimentation in the laboratory in order to determine melting and boiling points and construct a heating curve or determine freezing and condensation points and construct a cooling curve.

Partial Pressure

The contribution of each gas in a mixture to its total pressure; it is equivalent to the pressure that any one gas of a mixture would exert in the container if left alone.

Meniscus

The curved surface that a liquid forms in a tube as a result of capillary action; if it extends outwards (as water does) then it can be classified as concave, while an inwards-extending one (as liquid mercury does) can be classified as convex.

Dashed Structural Formula of a Hydrocarbon

The dashed structural formula of a hydrocarbon that is given in which the full molecular structure is written out, demonstrating both the quantity and molecular arrangement of the molecules involved; this can become messy for larger molecules (over ten carbon atoms) so it is generally avoided in organic chemistry.

Mass Defect

The difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of its component nucleons; this is what is responsible for the production of lots of energy during nuclear fusion and fission.

Potential Electrical Energy Difference

The difference in potential energy that is responsible for the origins of the measurement of voltage.

Internuclear Distance

The distance between the nuclei of two like atoms that are in a bond in a diatomic molecule; it is often reported in picometers.

Atomic Radius

The distance between the sphere created by an atom's outermost electron orbital and its nucleus; it is equal to roughly half of the internuclear distance between two bonded atoms of the same kind in a diatomic molecule; it increases as you move down and to the left on a Periodic Table; it is often reported in picometers.

Visible-Line Spectrum

The distinct spectrum of light that every element emits when excited by a particular wavelength of light, as defined in nanometers.

Oxidation Number of Hydrogen

The dynamic oxidation numbers of hydrogen in which hydrogen nearly always has an oxidation number of +1 when bonded to non-metals, but has an oxidation number of -1 when it bonds to metals and becomes a hydride.

Oxidation Number of Oxygen

The dynamic oxidation numbers of oxygen in which oxygen nearly always has an oxidation number of -2 but has an oxidation number of -1 in perxoide compounds (such as H2O2) and had a positive oxidation number in oxygen-fluorine compounds (usually +1).

The Common-Ion Effect

The effect by which the solubility of a given compound in water is reduced by the addition of another compound into the water that contains one or more of the same ions as it.

Tyndall Effect

The effect that is used to describe the scattering of a light beam as it passes through a colloidal dispersion; it can be seen whenever a car's headlights are visible in a fog or a laser shining through dirty water has its color revealed.

Group XVIII (Noble Gases)

The eighteenth group of the Periodic Table containing elements having eight valence electrons that tend to form monatomic molecules and are almost entirely unreactive; do note that while helium (He) has only two valence electrons, it is placed in this group as a result of having similar properties; they do (surprise!) occur as free elements in nature.

Anode

The electrode at which oxidation occurs in the reduction-oxidation reaction of an electrochemical cell; in voltaic cells, they are the negatively-charged electrode, while in electrolytic cells, they are the positively-charged electrode.

Cathode

The electrode at which reduction occurs in the reduction-oxidation reaction of an electrochemical cell; in voltaic cells, they are the positively-charged electrode, while in electrolytic cells, they are the negatively-charged electrode.

Electroplating

The electrolytic process by which an electric current is used to deposit a layer of metal, such as silver, upon a specific object for plating; it is a special adaptation of the electrolytic cell in which a bar of the focus plating metal serves as the anode and the metal material that is going to be plated serves as the cathode; popular metals for this process include gold, silver, and platinum (expensive metals for which making the entire object out of them would be ridiculously expensive).

Noble Gas Electron Configuration

The electron configuration of a noble gas, which is incredibly stable and what most atoms strive to attain.

Valence Electrons

The electrons located in the outermost energy level of an atom, known as the valence level; all other electrons are known as core electrons; they determine how an element behaves chemically and are incredibly important in the study of chemistry.

Actinoid (Actinide) Series

The elements constituting the bottom row of the f-block in Period XII (7).

Lanthanoid (Lanthanides) Series

The elements constituting the top row of the f-block in Period XI (6).

Transition Metals

The elements in Groups III (3) through XI (11) that often exhibit multiple oxidation states (are polyvalent) because their two outermost electron levels may be altered in a reaction; they are often colored, whether in an aqueous solution or as a solid; note that Group XII (12) is excluded as they have full d sublevels in their electron configurations.

Metals

The elements upon the Periodic Table that are good conductors, are lustrous, are malleable, and are ductile; they compose about two-thirds of the Periodic Table.

Nonmetals

The elements upon the Periodic Table that are poor conductors, are not lustrous, are not malleable, and not are ductile.

Gibbs Free Energy

The energy of a system that is available to do work at a constant pressure and temperature; if G is negative, then the reaction is spontaneous, if G is positive, then the reaction is nonspontaneous, and if G equals zero, then the reaction is in a state of equilibrium. ΔG is set as equal to ΔH (heat of reaction) minus (T (temperature) times Δs (change in enthalpy)).

Specific Heat Capacity

The energy that is required to raise a unit mass of a substance a unit temperature (typically one degree Celsius or Kelvin); also known as the specific heat; that of liquid water is quite high and thus especially important.

First Ionization Energy

The energy that is required to remove the first electron from an atom and make it cationic; it is equal to the potential energy of the cation plus the energy of the remove electron minus the energy of the neutral atom; it is often reported as "I[subscript]1"; it increases as you move up and to the right of the Periodic Table.

Activation Energy

The energy that is required to start some sort of reaction; it is represented as "E[subscript]a".

Heat

The energy transferred between a system and its surroundings as a result of a temperature difference; represented by the symbol "q".

Titration Equation

The equation and relationship for which the molarity (or "normality") of one solution multiplied by the volume of that same solution is equivalent to the molarity (or "normality" of a second solution multiplied by the volume of that second solution; it is often expressed as either "M[subscript]a × V[subscript]a = M[subscript]b × V[subscript]b" or "N[subscript]a × V[subscript]a = N[subscript]b × V[subscript]b".

Stock-Working Solution Equation

The equation that mandates that the product of the molarity of a stock solution (high concentration) and the volume of that stock solution (low volume) will be equivalent to the molarity of a working solution (low concentration) and the volume of that working solution (high volume); it can be expressed mathematically as M[subscript](stock solution) × V[subscript](stock solution) equals M[subscript](working solution) × V[subscript](working solution); do note that, while the value of "M" must be in molars, the value of "V" can be in any unit (not only liters!), as long as the same unit is to be made sure to be used on both sides of the equation.

Equilibrium Constant of a Complex System

The equilibrium constant for a system consisting of either or both three or more distinct substances or substances occurring in mole ratios greater or less than 1 to 1; it can be found by dividing the product of all of the equilibrium concentrations of the products of the reaction, raised to the power of their number of relative moles, by the product of all of the equilibrium concentrations of the reactants of the reaction, raised to the power of their number of relative moles.

Equilibrium Constant of a Simple System

The equilibrium constant for a system consisting of only two distinct substances in a 1 to 1 mole ratio; it can be found by dividing the equilibrium concentration of the product by the equilibrium concentration of the reactant.

Equilibrium Constant of an Acid-Base Reaction

The equilibrium constant, "K[subscript]eq", that is equivalent to the product of the equilibrium concentrations of the products of a chemical reaction divided by the product of the equilibrium concentration(s) of the reactant(s) of a chemical reaction; do note that the equilibrium concentration of water ([H2O]) is often omitted as it stays constant within acid-base reactions (note how the "[H2O]" is omitted in the image on the left).

Group XV

The fifteenth group of the Periodic Table containing elements having five valence electrons that tend to form 3- anions and are minorly reactive; they do not usually occur as free elements in nature.

Group I (Alkali Metals)

The first group of the Periodic Table containing elements having one valence electron that tend to form 1+ cations and are incredibly reactive; hydrogen is not considered to be a member due to its unique chemical properties; they do not occur as free elements in nature (except for hydrogen).

Benzene

The first member of the benzene series and the primary aromatic compound that forms a ring-like hexagonal structure; the flat, hexagonal molecule with angles of 120 degrees between atoms, in which each atom forms two sigma bonds with its neighboring carbon atoms and one sigma bond with its neighboring hydrogen atom in addition to having one shared pi-bonding orbital, with three pi bonds that are extended over the whole of the molecule.

Dissociation

The first of two processes of creating an electrolytic solution in which the ions of a given substance, in a crystal lattice structure, are dissolved in water and are thus capable of conducting an electric current.

Flaking of Oxide in Response to Corrosion

The flaking that many corrosion-irresistant metals ensure when corroded; this exposes the pure metal beneath and leaves them vulnerable to further degradation.

Pressure

The force exerted upon a surface divided by the total surface area over which said force is applied; measured using the pascal (Pa) and kilopascal (kPa) in the Système International.

General Formula for Alkanes

The formula by which the general amount of hydrogen atoms per carbon atoms in an alkane can be noted, with every alkane having approximately two times as many plus two hydrogen atoms for every carbon atom; note that there are some occasional exceptions.

General Formula for Alkynes

The formula by which the general amount of hydrogen atoms per carbon atoms in an alkane can be noted, with every alkyne having approximately two times as many minus two hydrogen atoms for every carbon atom; note that there are some occasional exceptions.

General Formula for Alkenes

The formula by which the general amount of hydrogen atoms per carbon atoms in an alkene can be noted, with every alkane having approximately two times as many hydrogen atoms for every carbon atom; note that there are some occasional exceptions.

Four Specific Properties of Metallic Substances

The four properties that define most metals and fail to define most nonmetals, including luster, conductivity, malleability, and ductility.

Group XIV

The fourteenth group of the Periodic Table containing elements having four valence electrons that can form a variety of ions and are poorly reactive; they do not occur as free elements in nature.

Mole Fraction

The fraction that is calculated by dividing the number of moles of one component of the solution (either the solvent or the solute) by the total number of moles of the solution (the number of moles of the solvent plus the number of moles of the solute); while you can calculate the proper value for both, do note that that of the solvent will generally be greater than one-half and that of the solute will generally be less than one-half.

Change in Boiling Point as a Result of Becoming a Solution

The fundamental mathematical relationship that states that the boiling point of a molecular (non-ionic), non-volatile (will not evaporate with the solvent) solution will increase by an amountage, "k[subscript]b" (a set amount for that solvent that changes the number of the degrees that the boiling point of a solvent is raised when one mole of a molecule, nonvolatile solute is dissolved in one kilogram of the solvent; they can be found in Reference Table W3 in Appendix 2) multiplied by the molarity of that solution; more succinctly: ΔT = +kb.

Change in Freezing Point as a Result of Becoming a Solution

The fundamental mathematical relationship that states that the freezing point of a molecular (non-ionic), non-volatile (will not evaporate with the solvent) solution will decrease by an amountage, "k[subscript]f" (a set amount for that solvent that changes the number of the degrees that the freezing point of a solvent is decreased when one mole of a molecule, nonvolatile solute is dissolved in one kilogram of the solvent; they can be found in Reference Table W3 in Appendix 2) multiplied by the molarity of that solution; more succinctly: ΔT = +kb.

Gay-Lussac's Law

The gas law stating that there is a direct relationship between pressure and temperature; as pressure increases or decreases, temperature must increase or decrease, respectively and vice versa; it can be expressed mathematically as P1/T1 = P2/T2; remember that the temperature must be specified in Kelvin!

Avogadro's Law

The gas law stating that there is a direct relationship between volume and number of moles; as volume increases or decreases, the number of moles of a gas must increase or decrease, respectively and vice versa; it can be expressed mathematically as V1/n1 = V2/n2; note that there are always 22.4 L of any mole of any gas at STP.

Charles's Law

The gas law stating that there is a direct relationship between volume and temperature; as volume increases or decreases, temperature must increase or decrease, respectively and vice versa; it can be expressed mathematically as V1/T1 = V2/T2; remember that the temperature must be specified in Kelvin!

Boyle's Law

The gas law stating that there is an inverse relationship between pressure and volume; as pressure increases or decreases, volume must decrease or increase, respectively and vice versa; it can be expressed mathematically as (V1)(P1) = (V2)(P2).

"Like Dissolves Like"

The general chemical principle (rephrased as a commonplace statement) that demonstrated how like substances are able to dissolve each other; i.e., insoluble substances dissolve insoluble substances, and soluble substances dissolve soluble substances.

Prefixes for Naming Alkanes

The general prefixed terms that are used for naming alkane molecules beyond methane; see the attached chart.

Laboratory Safety

The general set of rules and guidelines that often dictate the behaviours and mannerisms of one in a laboratory, that are often essential in order to ensure safety.

Corrosion

The gradual deterioration of a metal that occurs as a result of degenerative interactions with various chemicals present in its environment.

Half-Reaction of an Oxidation or Reduction Reaction

The half-reaction of any (undefined) oxidation or reduction reaction for which the reactant and the product species can be shown as differing by a determined amount of ions that is placed on one side of the reaction; note that we never use negative signs ("-") when expressing in this way, and simply use positive signs ("+") on the other side instead.

Half-Reaction of an Oxidation Reaction

The half-reaction of any oxidation reaction in which electrons are lost, and therefore a positive number of them is located on the right side of the equation (in lieu of a negative number of electrons on the right side).

Half-Reaction of a Reduction Reaction

The half-reaction of any reduction reaction in which electrons are gained, and therefore a positive number of them is located on the left side of the equation.

Electron Configuration

The highly-systematic manner in which electrons arrange themselves within the electron orbitals of an atom.

Hydration

The process by which the ions of an ionic compound (in the form of a crystal lattice) are broken up and surrounded by the extremely polar molecules of water.

Periods

The horizontal rows upon the Periodic Table, for which elements in common rows will have some minor chemical similarities.

Absolute Zero

The hypothetical coldest temperature possible, at which all molecular motion stops; it is equivalent to 0 K on the Kelvin temperature scale.

Identification of Exothermic and Endothermic Processes Using Temperature Measurements

The identifications of both exothermic and endothermic processes that can be executed by measuring the heat of the reactant(s) and product(s) both before and after a reaction, with an increase in temperature indicating that an exothermic reaction occurred and a decrease in temperature indicating that an endothermic reaction occurred.

Percent Composition by Mass

The individual percentage of mass that any specific part of a molecule composes; for example, in a molecule, oxygen constitutes about 16/18, or about 89%, of the total molecule's mass.

London Dispersion Forces

The intermolecular attractions resulting from the constant motion of electrons around the atom, which creates temporary dipoles that are able to exhibit an incredibly weak sense of attraction between them; the strength of these forces increases with increasing molecular mass and decreases with increasing internuclear distance between adjacent molecules.

Dipole Forces (Dipole-Dipole Interactions)

The intermolecular attractions that occur between molecules of a polar substance, in which the molecules line up so that the positive and negative dipoles are as close as possible to one another; they generally depend upon the polarities of the molecules involves, in that more polar molecules often correspond to stronger dipole forces; these interactions are able to drastically increase a molecule's boiling point; they include notable subcategories of intermolecular interactions, such as hydrogen bonding.

Inverse Relationship Between the Ionization Constants of Hydronium and Hydroxide Ions in Water

The inverse relationship that exists between the ionization constants of hydronium and hydroxide in water where they will have a constant product of ten to the negative fourteenth power, so that as one of them increases, the other must decrease; the numbers in their exponent places must have a sum of fourteen, due to the nature of multiplying exponents.

Ionization Constant of an Acid

The ionization constant of an acid that is often represented as "K[subscript]a"; the larger the number is, the stronger the acid tends to be.

Ionization Constant of a Base

The ionization constant of an base that is often represented as "K[subscript]b"; the larger the number is, the stronger the base tends to be.

Spectator Ions

The ions of any acid-base reaction that are not directly involved within the reaction; they are unchanged by the involved chemical processes.

Trans- Isomer

The isomer of a given molecule in the cis-trans system in which the two given atoms or identical groups are on different side of the two carbons (they are farther apart).

Cis- Isomer

The isomer of a given molecule in the cis-trans system in which the two given atoms or identical groups are on the same side of the two carbons (they are closer together).

Acid-Base Titration

The laboratory procedure by which the concentration of an unknown sample of a given acid or base can be determined by slowly combining it with an acid or base (whichever is the opposite of itself) until a neutralization reaction occurs at the reaction's end point; this is often signified by a colour change, as indicated by an indicator substance.

Laboratory Safety Rule Regarding Alertness

The laboratory safety rule regarding alertness that dictates that students should always be alert of themselves and their surroundings when handling chemicals or being near an open flame; no daydreaming or sleepiness when in a laboratory setting shall be tolerated.

Laboratory Safety Rule Regarding Correct Procedures

The laboratory safety rule regarding correct procedures that dictates that students have the responsibility of having a repertoire of laboratory procedures that they can carry out with accuracy.

Laboratory Safety Rule Regarding Creativity

The laboratory safety rule regarding creativity in a laboratory setting; while being appropriate and good in a general classroom environment, creativity has no place in a practical laboratory, where mixing anonymous chemicals could lead to disaster.

Laboratory Safety Rule Regarding Food and Drink

The laboratory safety rule regarding food and drink that dictates that neither food nor drink should ever be brought into the laboratory as an active experiment is occuring.

Laboratory Safety Rule Regarding Stringed Hoodies

The laboratory safety rule regarding hoodies that dictates that hoodies with strings in the front should be left outside the classroom, as these may catch fire when exposed to an open flame.

Laboratory Safety Rule Regarding Instruction

The laboratory safety rule regarding instruction that dictates that students should not act and should not "experiment" on their own to "see what would happen" until they receive explicit instructions from a teacher or supervisor; if a student is confused or unclear about the given instructions, it is their responsibility -- for their own safety -- to ask for clarification.

Laboratory Safety Rule Regarding Long Hair

The laboratory safety rule regarding long hair that dictates that long hair should always be tied back in the laboratory in order to prevent it from accidentally catching fire when exposed to an open flame.

Laboratory Safety Rule Regarding Safety Goggles

The laboratory safety rule regarding safety goggles that dictates that safety goggles or other pieces of protective eyewear should be worn when in the laboratory in order to prevent chemicals from accidentally splashing into one's eyes.

Laboratory Safety Rule Regarding Supervision

The laboratory safety rule regarding supervision that dictates that one should never be present in an active laboratory setting without a teacher or other qualified supervisor or instructor.

"Jump" in Successive Ionization Energies

The large difference in ionization energies that occurs when an atom transitions from taking away electrons in one energy level to shifting to the next-lowest orbital.

The First Law of Thermodynamics

The law of thermodynamics stating that energy cannot be created nor destroyed; the change in internal energy of a system is the sum total of the energy absorbed by the system and the work done by the system; energy cannot be generated or destroyed, only transferred between a system and its surroundings.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

The law of thermodynamics stating that in any reaction that occurs spontaneously, the sum of the change in enthalpy (ΔS) of any system plus that of its surroundings will equal that of the universe, which must always be greater than zero; remember that entropy is not conserved in a spontaneous process.

Law of Conservation of Energy

The law stating that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only moved between a system and its surroundings; the change in energy of a system plus the change in energy of a surroundings it equal to the change in energy of the universe, all of which is equivalent to zero.

Hess's Law

The law stating that the total change in enthalpy of a reaction (ΔH[subscript]rxn) will always be equivalent to the sum of the changes in enthalpy of any of its component reactions; remember to take the opposite of an enthalpy change if reversing a reaction when balancing it!

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures

The law that states the sum of the partial pressures of the gases that constitute a mixture will be equivalent to the pressure of that mixture in the same container, given that volume and temperature are constant.

Half-Life

The length of time required for one-half of the radioactive atoms in a given sample to decay.

Filtrate

The liquid that had been recovered and has come through the filter following filtration.

Parent Hydrocarbon Chain

The longest unbroken hydrocarbon chain present in a molecules (remember: it does not have to be straight!) that is responsible for determining the name and many of the properties of the hydrocarbon that contains it.

Ground State

The lowest energy level for a given electron in a given atom.

Formula Unit

The lowest whole-number representation of the ratio of all of the molecules in an ionic compound (crystal lattice).

Parts Per Million (ppm)

The mass the of particles of solute that exist in the mass of a given million particles of the solution in which it is contained; it is calculated by dividing the mass of the solute by that of the solution and then multiplying by one million, or 10^6 (ten to the sixth); it is often used to describe much more potent solutions, such as the concentration of allowable arsenic or lead in drinking water of the concentration of a radioisotope in a chemotherapy treatment.

Maximum Standard Voltage of a Voltaic Cell

The maximum standard electrical current different, as measured in Volts, that a voltaic cell, made of a given substance, is able to maintain; they can be found in the table labelled "Standard Electrode Potentials" in Table Z of Appendix 2.

Electronegativity

The measure of an atom to attract shared electrons in any kind of bond; fluorine has the highest value and francium has the lowest value.

Measurement of the Heat of a Simple Chemical Reaction

The measurement of the heat of a simple chemical reaction that can be executed through the use of a thermometer and its readings both before and after the reaction occurs.

Post-Transition Metals

The metals that are found between the transition metals and the metalloids (adjacent to the "zigzag" line) that are often poorly reactive; note that Group XII (12) is included with the post-transition metals as they have full d sublevels in their electron configurations.

Method of Creating a Balanced Reduction-Oxidation Equation from Two Half-Reactions

The method by which a balanced reduction-oxidation equation can be created through the use of its two half-reactions; in this process, every term in every half-reaction is multiplied systematically so that the reduction half-reaction gains the exact same number of electrons that the oxidation half-reaction donates; the electrons then simply cancel out and then the reactants and products of each reaction can simply be combined (for a simple combination, you should only have two species on each side of the reaction); per the image, you must "balance" the electrons through careful and proper multiplication of reduction and oxidation half-reactions!

Visual Depiction of a Benzene Molecule

The method by which a benzene molecule is visually depicted, with it forming a hexagon with either a solid or a dashed circle inside; this is meant to represented the unique nature of bonding within the benzene molecule.

Shorthand Notation of a Half-Reaction as a Subscript of 𝓔

The method by which a half-reaction can be written shorthand through expressing the transformation of the species as a subscript of "𝓔"; typically, this occurs in which the subscript is composed of the starting stage of the species separated from the ending stage of the species, separated by a "|" (e.g., "𝓔[subscript](Cu2+|Cu)").

Method of Determining if a Given Species in a Reduction-Oxidation Reaction Undergoes Reduction, Oxidation, or Neither

The method by which whether a given species in a reduction-oxidation reaction undergoes reaction, oxidation, or neither by determining its oxidation numbers before and after the reaction and comparing them (for help with determined these oxidation numbers, please consult pages 62 and 63 of Chapter Three!) ; if the oxidation number decreases, then the species is reduced, and if it increases, then the species is oxidized.

Diagonal Rule

The method in which the order in which electrons fill into orbitals can be found by tracing along on a chart with the symbols of all of the orbitals and diagonal lines being drawn through them.

Reaction Mechanisms

The series of elementary reactions or steps that take place during the course of a complex reaction.

The Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Reduction-Oxidation Equations

The method of balancing reduction-oxidation equations that involves identifying the oxidation numbers of the various elements and tracing their journey throughout the reaction; it can be itemized as follows: 1) rewrite the equation with all of the elements on either side being assigned oxidation numbers (for help with determined these oxidation numbers, please consult pages 62 and 63 of Chapter Three!), 2) identify the elements that are oxidized and those that are reduced, 3) write the oxidation and reduction half-reaction with the relevant inclusion of electrons, 4) multiply each half-reaction by an appropriate number so that the number of electrons lost by the oxidized elements is equal to the number of electrons gained by the electric current (this plays off of the fact that electric current must be conserved in any chemical reaction), 5) add the two "balanced" half-reactions, eliminating the electrons and creating a balanced "skeleton" reduction-oxidation question, 6) take the coefficients derived from that skeleton equation and substitute them respectively into your equation as coefficients there, and finally, 7) balance the rest of the equation through inspection; make sure to check afterwards to make sure that you got everything down correctly.

The Ion-Electron Method for Balancing Reduction-Oxidation Equations

The method of balancing reduction-oxidation equations that involves identifying the transfer of electrons between the various elements and tracing their journey throughout the reaction; it can be itemized as follows: 1) separate the equation into two half-reactions demonstrating the ionic change of a single species, 2) balance the half-reaction if it is not already balanced, 3) begin balancing out the half-reactions (one at a time!) by adding in one water molecule for every lacking oxygen atom, 4) do the same with hydrogen ions (H+) for every lacking hydrogen atom, 5) balance the charged on either side of the reaction (per the Law of Conservation of Electric Charge) through the addition of various electrons, 6) multiply the half-reactions to that electric charge is conserved and add the two together, and finally, 7) add the half-reactions, eliminating the electrons; make sure to check afterwards to make sure that you got everything down correctly.

Factor-Label Method (FLM) and Moles

The method of using the factor-label method to complete mole conversions; made sure that you convert to moles as quickly as possible in your conversion and do not convert between molecules in anything aside from moles. Using a "road map" diagram if you wish - plan out your steps ahead of time!

Scientific Notation

The method of writing or displaying numbers in the terms of a mantissa value between one and ten and an exponent value that multiplies by the mantissa in order to express its true value; very useful in chemistry and the rest of the sciences in general!

Luster

The mirror-like shine of a substance that reflects light well; it is one of the unique properties of metals.

Near-Ideal Behaviour

The mode of behaviour in which real gases are nearest in interaction to ideal gases, at which a gas exists at a high temperature and a low pressure.

Modern Wave-Mechanical Model

The model of the atom put forth by Erwin Schrödinger in which the electrons orbit the nucleus in electron clouds, which describe the regions in which they are most probably located.

Gas Density

The molar mass of a substance divided by its molar volume; it can be represented as gas density at STP = (molar mass) divided by (molar volume).

Molecular Formula of a Hydrocarbon

The molecular formula of a hydrocarbon that is given very clearly as both the carbon and hydrogen atoms having numbers to indicate their quantities.

Bent Molecular Geometry

The molecular geometry that forms a weak "L" shape; this is a result of the central atom having two peripheral atoms and one pair of unmatched electrons connecting to it; the two peripheral atoms will be less than 109.5° apart; a common example is water, with atoms that are 104.5° apart.

Elemental Name

The name given to an element; they may be named after people, a place, or a characteristic of the element itself.

Net Equation for a Titration Reaction

The net equation for any titration reaction in which one mole of aqueous hydrogen ions (H+ ions) are combined with one mole of aqueous hydroxide ions (OH- ions) in order to form one mole of liquid water.

Net Reaction of the Electrolysis of Briny Water

The net reaction of the electrolysis of water by which two moles of liquid water and two moles of aqueous chlorine ions react to form one mole of hydrogen gas, one mole of chlorine gas, and two moles of hydroxide ions which bubble off of the cathode and anode, respectively; note that this reaction produced one mole of hydrogen gas and two moles of hydroxide ions in lieu of solid sodium; this reaction can be represented as the chemical reaction of "2H2O(l) + 2Cl-(aq) → H2(g) + Cl2(g) + 2OH-(aq)".

Net Reaction of the Electrolysis of Pure Water

The net reaction of the electrolysis of water by which two moles of liquid water react to form two moles of hydrogen gas and one mole of oxygen gas, which bubble off of the cathode and anode, respectively; this can be represented as the chemical reaction of "2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)".

Control Rods

The neutron-absorbing rods that help to control the rate of reaction within the nuclear core by absorbing neutrons; they are usually made from boron, cadmium, silver, or indium.

Artificial Transmutation

The non-spontaneous decomposition of an atom that results from the bombardment of its nucleus with other particles, such as neutrons or electrons; this result in a change in the atom's elemental identity (by changing the number of protons that it contains).

Notation for the Concentration of a Substance

The notation for expressing the value, in moles per liter, of concentration of a substance, in which the chemical formula of that substance is written in square brackets ("[ _ ]").

Phase Notation

The notation of the phase of a substance in a chemical reaction; "(g)" represents a gas, "(l)" represents a liquid, "(s)" represents a solid, and "(aq)" represents an aqueous solution.

Isomeric Transition

The nuclear process by which the nucleus of an atom emits gamma radiation as the nucleons of an atom move from a metastable to a more stable state.

Transmutation

The nuclear reaction that converts an atom from one type of element to another type of element by changing the number of protons that it contains.

Parent Nucleus

The nucleus present before radioactive decay occurs; possibly known as the "reactants" or "reagents" of a nuclear reaction.

Daughter Nucleus

The nucleus that is created as a result of radioactive decay; possibly known as the "products" of a nuclear reaction.

Mantissa

The number between one and ten that ten to a specific power is multiplied by when a number is written in scientific notation.

Atomic Number

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom which determines its elemental identity; a change in the number of protons will change the identity of the atom.

Atomic Number

The number of protons within the nucleus of an atom that binds it to an elemental identity.

Sublimation

The phase change in which a substance in a solid form transitions directly into a gaseous form without undergoing a liquid phase.

Stationary Phase

The phase that does not move in the chromatography process; often, this is a strip of special paper.

Moving Phase

The phase that moves in the chromatography process in order to move the mixture at different rates; often, this is some kind of solvent.

Valence Level

The outermost energy level of an atom that is occupied solely by the valence electrons.

Valence Level

The outermost principal energy level in which the valence electrons are located.

Orbital Overlap

The partial occupation of the same region of space by two orbitals from two distinct atoms; they are responsible for the fundamental creation of covalent bonds!

Alpha Particle

The particle containing two protons and two neutrons that is a result of alpha decay, which is comparable to a helium nucleus.

System

The particular part of the universe on which a chemist chooses to focus their study; it is capable of interacting with the surrounding system.

Surroundings

The particular part of the universe that is not regarded as the system; essentially, it is everything in the universe but the system.

Crystal Lattice

The pattern in which the compounds of a crystal are arranged, with constituents being arranged in a regular pattern and being close together; this is the nature of all true solids.

Performance of an Acid-Base Titration

The performance of an acid-base titration that can be undergone in order to measure the concentration of an acid or base of a known volume using a base or acid (respectively) of a known concentration and a known volume.

Deposition

The phase change in which a substance in a gaseous form transitions directly into a solid form without undergoing a liquid phase.

Ion-Pairing

The phenomenon by which the number of dissolved particles present in more concentrated solutions is decreased in any electrolytic solution as a result of ions coming together and lowering the number of moles in the solution; this combats the initial gain in increased boiling point and decreased freezing point that results from a substance being electrolytic in the first place.

Physical Properties of Ionic Substances

The physical nature of ionic substances in which they have high melting and boiling points as a result of the strong electrical attractions between their ions; they will typically dissolve in a polar solvent (i.e., water); they usually form crystals that are hard and brittle; they conduct electricity in a solution in the liquid phase (not in the solid phase).

Physical Properties of Metallic Substances

The physical nature of metallic substances in which they have a variance of melting points; they form crystals of varying hardness (some soft, some firm); they do not dissolve well in neither nonpolar nor polar substances; they can conduct electricity well in both their solid and liquid phases.

Physical Properties of Network Substances

The physical nature of network substances in which they have extremely high melting points and form incredibly hard, brittle crystals; they generally do not dissolve in any kinds of solvents, and are poor conductors of electricity in both their solid and liquid phases.

Physical Properties of Nonpolar Covalent Substances

The physical nature of nonpolar covalent substances in which they have extremely low melting and boiling points as a result of the weak attraction between their molecules, which often depend upon London dispersion forces alone; they dissolve in nonpolar solvents but do not conduct electricity well in any phase or other state; the crystals that they form in the solid state are often soft and waxy.

Physical Properties of Polar Covalent Substances

The physical nature of polar covalent substances in which they have intermediate melting and boiling points; they do dissolve in polar solvents but do not conduct electricity when in a solution (unless they ionize).

Solution Equilibrium in a Gas-Liquid Solution

The physical state at which the opposing processes of a gas falling in and out of a liquid solutionare equivalent; they are affected by changes in both temperature and pressure.

Solution Equilibrium in a Solid-Liquid Solution

The physical state at which the opposing processes of dissolution (dissolving) and crystallization (falling out of the solution as a precipitate) are equivalent; they are affected by changes in temperature.

Linear Molecular Geometry

The planar (two-dimensional) geometry that is created in which the central atom is surrounded by two peripheral atoms or lone pairs of electrons that are 180° apart from one another.

Trigonal Planar Molecular Geometry

The planar (two-dimensional) geometry that is created when the central atom is surrounded by three peripheral atoms or lone pairs of electrons that are either 120° or less than 120° apart ("bent") from one another.

Battery Death

The point at which a battery achieves "death" and becomes "dead"; that is, the point at which its two internal half-cells reach electrolytic equilibrium with one another and are no longer capable of producing an electric current.

Saturation Point

The point at which a solvent can receive no more of another substance (the solute) in solution under given conditions.

Equilibrium Point

The point at which a system is capable of reaching dynamic equilibrium; a system disturbed by a stress will attempt to achieve equilibrium, yet at a new point, per Le Chatêlier's Principle.

Electrolytic Equilibrium

The point at which an electrolytic cell reaches chemical equilibrium of the reduction-oxidation reaction so that it is no longer capable of discharging any energy after this point comes; if the electrolytic device in question is a battery, then we would say that the battery is "dead" once it reached this chemical state.

Positive Terminal

The point in any circuit in which electrons enter the central structure of wires and metals; this usually occurs at a metal piece, such as an anode or cathode; it is usually represented with colour red in electrical engineering.

Negative Terminal

The point in any circuit in which electrons leave the central structure of wires and metals; this usually occurs at a metal piece, such as an anode or cathode; it is usually represented with colour black in electrical engineering.

Equivalence Point of Titration

The point in the reaction at which the the acid and base have been added to one another in stoichiometrically-matched proportions; this is often indicated by a steep incline on the titration curve.

Balancing Reduction-Oxidation Reactions Occuring in a Base

The practice of balancing reduction-oxidation reactions occuring in a base by using the ion-electron method with a few modifications, as follows: 1)... 8) add hydroxide ions (OH-) to either side of the equations until all of the hydrogen ions (H+) are eliminated, knowing that the sum of the hydroxide and a hydrogen ion is water (H2O); this should result in an overabundance of hydroxide ions (OH-) ions on the left side of the equation in addition to some water molecules (not always, but usually) on the right side of the equation; the hydroxide ions are supplied from the basic solution, which, by the definition of an Arrhenius base, must release them when dissolved in water.

Balancing Reduction-Oxidation Reactions Occuring in an Acid

The practice of balancing reduction-oxidation reactions occuring in an acid by using the ion-electron method as needed; this should result in an overabundance of hydrogen ions (H+) ions on the left side of the equation in addition to some water molecules (not always, but usually) on the right side of the equation; the hydrogen ions are supplied from the acidic solution, which, by the definition of an Arrhenius acid, must release them when dissolved in water.

Preparation and Collection of a Gas

The preparation and collection of a gas, such as hydrogen gas or carbon dioxide, that is to occur with a given chemical reaction resulting in the production of said gas; for instance, the electrolysis of pure water yields the aforementioned hydrogen gas along with oxygen gas, and any combustion of a hydrocarbon will yield the aforementioned carbon dioxide.

Equilibrium Vapour Pressure

The pressure and temperature at which a liquid achieves dynamic equilibrium between evaporation and condensation.

Critical Pressure

The pressure at which a gas or vapour cannot be distinctified between a gas and a liquid, and a supercritical fluid is formed.

Vapour Pressure

The pressure of a given substance at which, at a given temperature, the rate of condensation will be equivalent to that of evaporation.

pH Scale of Acidity and Basicity

The primary scale (more common than pOH) that chemists often use in order to evaluate the acidity and basicity of a solution, as derived from its ability to generate hydrogen ions (H+ ions) in solution; it is logarithmic in nature (i.e., each "jump" between numbers corresponds to a ten-fold increase or decrease in the concentration of ions); it often runs from 0 to 14, with 7 (the median number) being assigned to a neutral substance and numbers lower than 7 being assigned to acidic substances and those higher than 7 being assigned to basic substances.

Le Chatêlier's Principle

The principle devised by French chemist Henri Le Chatêlier in 1888 that states that whenever a closed system at equilibrium is subjected to any stress, it will shift itself in order to relieve the effects of this stress and restore its equilibrium conditions as closely as possible to its initial conditions; this will result in it attaining a new equilibrium point.

Gases Collected Over Water

The principle stating that whenever two gases are collected over water, the pressure exerted by the mixture of the gas will be the combination of that of the "dry" gas and the water vapour; the pressure of the dry gas can be found by subtracting the pressure of water vapour at the given temperature from the pressure of the water vapour at that temperature, values for which can be found in Reference Table X in Appendix 2.

Bending of Glass Tubing

The procedure by which glass can be bent by prying it in a given direction at a joint, created by holding the glass tube over a flame and bending it at that point, where it is most malleable.

Cutting of Glass Tubing

The procedure by which glass can be cut using a specialized set of glass cutting tools; in the case of glass tubing, this often involves a small, clamping apparatus that is brought down upon the tube or a file (pictured).

Fire-Polishing of Glass Tubing

The procedure by which glass can be polished and made shinier, removing any dents or imperfections, by gently roasting it over a soft flame.

Balancing by Inspection

The process by which a chemical equation can be balanced, typically at the end of a more complicated but more precise method that yields some "holes", through a quick glance and analysis of the reactants and products; as always, it is extremely important to check your work, especially after balancing in this way.

Safe Heating of a Flammable Substance in a Test Tube Using a Hot Plate

The process by which a flammable liquid or solid can be heated in a test tube in which an uncapped, unfractured test tube is placed in a water bath that is then gently heated on a hot plate; this ensures that the substance itself does not catch fire when being heated.

Safe Heating of a Flammable Substance in a Beaker or Flask Using a Hot Plate

The process by which a flammable substance in a beaker or flask can be safely heated using a hot plate by placing the piece of glassware on the hot plate and turning the hot plate on; typically, if a liquid that splashes easily when it boils needs to be heated, a watch glass may be placed over the beaker to prevent hot liquid from jumping out.

Benzene Series

The series of organic molecules with the general formula of having two times minus six as many hydrogen atoms for every carbon atom; its first member is benzene.

Safe Heating of a Nonflammable Substance in a Test Tube Using a Bunsen Burner

The process by which a nonflammable liquid or solid can be heated in a test tube in which an uncapped, unfractured test tube is held at an angle pointing away from the operator and gently warmed near the tip of the flame, moving it off of the heat source momentarily every now and then; make sure to use a test tube clamp and never use your raw hands!

Safe Heating of a Nonflammable Substance in a Beaker or Flask Using a Bunsen Burner

The process by which a nonflammable substance in a beaker or flask can be safely heated over a Bunsen burner by placing the piece of glassware on a piece of wire gauze (as to not char the bottom of the glass) and positioning it above a flame using a ring stand.

Dissociation of a Strong Acid

The process by which a strong acid dissociates in which nearly all of it is dissolved into its constituent ions.

Dissociation of a Strong Base

The process by which a strong base dissociates in which nearly all of it is dissolved into its constituent ions.

Dissociation of a Weak Acid

The process by which a weak acid dissociates in which a small amount of it is dissolved into its constituent ions.

Dissociation of a Weak Base

The process by which a weak base dissociates in which a small amount of it is dissolved into its constituent ions.

Haber Process

The process by which ammonia is fixed industrially in order to produce ammonia compounds for agricultural fertilizers; the process as a while is a piecewise process consisting of multiple elementary steps.

Stepwise Ionization

The process by which an acid loses protons sequentially; with each succeeding step, the ionization constant decreases, meaning that as protons are removed from a molecule, doing so becomes increasingly difficult at an exponential rate.

Protonation

The process by which any species gains a single proton, transforming it into a conjugate acid if it were a conjugate base to begin with.

Deprotonation

The process by which any species loses a single proton, transforming it into a conjugate base if it were a conjugate acid to begin with.

Hydrolysis

The process by which either acids or bases interact with molecules of water (H2O) in order to produce additional hydronium ions (H3O+ ions) or hydroxide ions (OH- ions); an acid or base will engage with water in this way if it is either an acid that is a stronger acid than a molecule of water or if it is a base that is a stronger base than a molecule of water.

Delocalization

The process by which electrons are free to move between atoms in a metallic bond after becoming disattached from the atom they originated from; the charge of the electron is spread over more than one atom.

Electron Promotion

The process by which electrons on the same energy level are spread out as much as possible in preparation for orbital hybridization.

Effusion

The process by which gas particles flow out of a container through small openings, or pores.

Diffusion

The process by which gases of two different substances mix together as a result of natural law.

Electrolytic Purification of Metals

The process by which impurities can be removed from a bit of metal by forming an anode of the impure metal and running an electric current through the apparatus; a coating on purified copper (usually more than 99.5% pure -- wow!) can then be collected at the cathode; many of the impurities either are oxidized at the anode and enter the solution, but have electrode potentials that are too negative to allow them reduce at the cathode and fall out of the solution as an "anode mud", (iron and zinc, mainly) or are never oxidized and remain in their metallic states at the anode (fold and silver, mainly; these are valuable by-products of the process).

Emulsification

The process by which lipids (fats and oils) are broken up into smaller bits and pieces that the body is able to process in a more optimal way.

Cracking

The process by which long-chain saturated hydrocarbons are broken down into smaller pieces through the fracturing of carbon-carbon bonds.

Reduction of Metals

The process by which metals can be refined from their respective ores or can be electrolyzed from their molten salts using reduction-oxidation reactions; which method should be used is often dependent upon the activity of the metal and the nature of its ore.

Orbital Hybridization

The process by which new kinds of orbitals, all at equal energy levels, are formed from the combination of multiple orbitals at differing energy levels; first, electrons are "promoted" before being transferred into the hybridized orbitals.

Fractional Distillation

The process by which petroleum can be separated into its constituent hydrocarbons through boiling it at different temperatures and collecting the condensates of the resulting vapours.

Method of Solving Problems Involving the Equilibrium Constant

The process by which problems involving the equilibrium constant ("K[subscript]eq") of a substance can be solved; this is usually done (at least in the most efficient way) by creating a table to represent the reaction in which the name of the substance and its initial, change in, and equilibrium concentrations are written in the rows and the different substances are all listed in the columns.

Evaporation

The process by which some of the molecules at the surface of a liquid gain enough kinetic energy in order to change phase into a vapour that escapes above the surface of the liquid; its rates depends on the nature of the liquid, the temperature of the liquid, and the surface area of the liquid.

Condensation

The process by which some of the molecules in a vapour lose enough kinetic energy in order to change phase into a liquid and fall out of the gas.

Chemical Equilibrium

The process by which the forward and reverse rates of a given chemical reaction are equal and thus result in the concentrations of the reactants and the products remaining constant; as with all equilibrium processes, they are represented using the double arrows ("⇌") symbol.

Calculating Heat of Reaction from Bond Energies

The process by which the net energy change and heat of a chemical reaction can be calculated by adding together the total energy resulting from the bonds broken (positive) to that resulting from the bonds formed (negative).

Determination of the Percent by Mass of Water in a Crystal

The process by which the percent by mass of water in a crystal, or the value describing the mass of water, as compared to that of the whole crystal, can be calculated by measuring the mass of hydrated crystal and comparing it to the mass of a dehydrated crystal.

Measurement in the Laboratory

The process by which the properties of various substances can be analyzed using an analysis of their amountages.

Using the Factor-Label Method in Order to Work with the Molarity (M) of a Given Solution

The process by which we can world with certain values relating to the molarity of a solution; please do remember that you can only go between substances in a chemical reaction using a mole-to-mole type conversion.

Bombardment

The process of artificially transmutating or inducing a nucleus to decay radioactively by shooting accelerated particles at it at a high speed.

Metallic Bonding

The process of bonding in which atoms with low ionization energies and relatively unoccupied valence levels join together their valence orbitals, allowing the electrons to move freely (delocalization) through a sea of a sea of positively-charged metal kernels.

Hydrogenation

The process of converting unsaturated fats into saturated fats through the addition of hydrogen atoms.

Radioactive Waste Disposal

The process of disposing of nuclear wastes ("spent fuel") from fission power plants, which may involve containment underground for prolonged periods of time before being released into the atmosphere or buried.

Uranium Enrichment

The process of increasing the percent of uranium-235 to uranium-238 in natural uranium ore for use in fission power plants.

Electron Capture

The process of nuclear decay by which an electron crashes into the nucleus of an atom, converting a proton and said electron into a neutron.

Alpha Decay

The process of radioactive decay by which a nucleus becomes more stable through the creation and ejection of an alpha particle; the daughter nucleus has a mass number four less and an atomic number two less than those of the parent.

Beta Decay

The process of radioactive decay by which a nucleus becomes more stable through the emission of a beta particle (either an electron or a positron).

Dilution of Acids and Other Liquids

The processes by which acids and other liquids can be safely diluted by carefully combining then with a diluting agent, typically water or ethanol alcohol.

Determination of the Molar Volume of a Gas

The processes by which the molar volume of a gas produced in an experiment can be generated by comparing the volume of the gas produced to its molar mass, as given by the gas' identity.

Determining the Solubility of a Substance at Various Temperatures and Constructing a Solubility Curve for that Substance

The processes by which the solubility of a substance can be determined at a given temperatures by dissolving a solute within it until some of the solute no longer dissolves and falls out of the solution as a precipitate; using this data, we can construct a solubility curve of a substance, measuring its solubility at a variety of different temperatures.

Avogadro's Number

The quantity of "things" that represents a mole; it is equivalent to 6.022 times 10^23.

Reaction Rate

The rate at which reactants change into products over time as a result of a chemical reaction.

Percent Yield

The ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield (predicted yield, or what's shown on paper) of a chemical reaction as a percentage.

Group XVII (Halogens)

The seventeenth group of the Periodic Table containing elements having seven valence electrons that tend to form 1- anions and are incredibly reactive; they do not usually occur as free elements in nature.

Limiting Reactant

The reactant that limits the amount of product that can be formed in a chemical reaction and "runs dry" before the other reactant(s); this can be found by comparing mole ratios: if that of the problem is larger than that of the equation, the denominator is the limiting reactant, and vice versa.

Reason for Which Phase of Molecules Transitions from Gas to Liquid to Solid as the Number of Atoms in a Molecule Increases

The reason for which the phase of molecules transitions from gas to liquid to solid as the number of atoms in a molecule increases as the weak (but notable) London dispersion forces between molecules increase in strength, making it harder to intermolecular bonds to be ruptured.

Relationship Between Internuclear Distance of Two Atoms and Potential Energy

The relationship between the internuclear distance of two atoms and potential energy in which atoms have the least potential energy (are the most stable) when they are just about touching, with this amount of negative potential energy quickly decreasing as the internuclear distance climbs and increasing quickly, into a positive potential energy value, once the two atoms begin to "smoosh" together; the low point on the graph corresponds to the maximum force of attraction between the molecules and the minimum potential energy between them.

Relative Strengths of Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs

The relationship between the relative strengths of acid-base pairs in which a weak conjugate acid will correspond to a strong conjugate base (and vice versa) and a weak conjugate base will correspond to a strong conjugate acid (and vice versa).

Relationship Between Electronegativity Difference and Bond Type

The relationship by which (approximately) the electronegativity difference (∆) between two atoms in a bond can be used to predict the bond that they will form; a ∆ value of 0.0 to 0.4 indicates a nonpolar covalent bond, a ∆ value of 0.5 to 1.6 indicates a polar covalent bond, and a ∆ value of greater than 1.7 indicates an ionic bond; larger ∆ values correspond to a higher percentage of ionic character (see chart).

Relationship Between the Acidity and Basicity of the Parent Acid and Base and the Resulting Solution

The relationship by which a strong acid and a weak base will combine to form an acidic solution, a weak acid and a strong base will combine to form a basic solution, a strong acid and a strong base will combine to form a neutral solution, and a weak acid and a weak base react to form a solution with an acidity and basicity that is rather difficult to determine at this level of the chemical sciences.

Relationship Between Nonpolar or Polar Covalent Bonding and Nonpolar or Polar Charge Distributions

The relationship existing between different types of covalent bonding in a molecule and whether or not that molecule is polar or nonpolar; molecules containing only nonpolar covalent bonds (and all monatomic molecules) must be nonpolar; molecules containing covalent bonds with symmetrical charge distributions must be nonpolar; and molecules containing polar covalent bonds with asymmetrical charge distributions must be polar.

Relationship Between Molecular Structure and Properties in Organic Chemistry

The relationship in organic chemistry in which the structure of a molecule is incredibly significant in determining its properties and reactivity.

Relationship Between Covalent Bond Type, Bond Length, and Bond Strength

The relationship stating that weaker bonds will be longer and stronger bonds will be shorter, so that single bonds are the longest bonds and triple bonds are the shortest bonds; alternatively, the relationship stating that longer bonds will be weaker and shorter bonds will be stronger, so that single bonds are the weakest bonds and triple bonds are the strongest bonds.

Values of ΔH, ΔS, and ΔG in Relation to Spontaneity

The relationship stating that: 1) if ΔH is positive and ΔS is positive, then a reaction will be spontaneous at high temperatures, 2) if ΔH is positive and ΔS is negative, then a reaction will be spontaneous at no temperatures, 3) if ΔH is negative and ΔS is positive, then a reaction will be spontaneous at all temperatures, and finally, 4) if ΔH is negative and ΔS is negative, then the reaction will be sponteaneous at low temperatures.

Relationships Between Orbital Quantities

The relationships between orbital quantities in which the number of principal energy levels that an atom has can be represented as 𝘯, the number of types of sublevels it has can be represented as 𝘯, the number of orbitals it has can be represented as 𝘯[𝘴𝘲𝘶𝘢𝘳𝘦𝘥], and the maximum number of electrons that it can hold can be represented as 2𝘯[𝘴𝘲𝘶𝘢𝘳𝘦𝘥].

Removal of Solids from Containers

The removal of solids from containers using various tools; often, a powdered or beaded substance will be taken out of a bottle using a Scoopula or comparable scooping tool.

Report Guideline Regarding Concision

The report guideline regarding concession that dictates that a succinct, concise, well-written report is almost always preferable to a verbose, diffuse one; the purpose of good scientific writing is to be able to communicate one's scientific ideas and experimental conclusions as quickly and effectively as possible.

Report Guideline Regarding Logical Arrangement

The report guideline regarding logical arrangement that dictates that a well-written report will often contain distinct, well-laid out sections for an introduction, a materials and methods section, a section for observation and results, and a section for discussion and conclusions.

Report Guideline Regarding Seemingly Unacceptable or Questionable Data

The report guideline regarding seemingly unacceptable or questionable data that dictates that no data should ever be erased in any circumstances as long as one has confidence in the reliability of their experimentation methods; if some data seem questionable, you may chose to draw a single line underneath it to highlight this concern.

Report Guideline for the Listing of Conclusions

The report guideline regarding the listing of conclusions that dictates that conclusions should follow directly and logically from one's observations as to make the connections between experimentation and conclusion more obvious and better connected.

Report Guideline for the Listing of Observations

The report guideline regarding the listing of observations that dictates that observations should be listed as clearly and concisely as possible.

Report Guideline for the Presentation of Data

The report guideline regarding the presentation of data that dictates that data should be presented in the form of tables and graphs whenever possible, which creates ease for the readers of the report, making general trends easier to observe and allowing the reader to arrive at conclusions more quickly.

Collar of a Bunsen Burner

The rotatable piece of metal, fit with holes, that lies upon a Bunsen burner and is capable of regulating the composition of the combustible mixture of gas (air and the flammable gas) that services the flame.

Aufbau Principle

The rule stating that electrons "build up" (from German) upon the electron configurations of the elements coming before them, occupying the lowest occupied energy level; it coincides with the diagonal rule.

Safe Pouring of Liquids

The safe, careful pouring of liquids that should always occur when in a laboratory setting; when in doubt, use a funnel!

Chemistry

The science that focuses on the structure, composition, and properties of matter.

Group II (Alkaline Earth Metals)

The second group of the Periodic Table containing elements having two valence electrons that tend form form 2+ cations and are somewhat reactive; they do not occur as free elements in nature.

Ionization

The second of two processes of creating an electrolytic solution in which a polar covalent substance is manipulated by a polar solvent (such as water) so that it creates two distinct ionic substances that are thus capable of conducting an electric current.

pOH Scale of Acidity and Basicity

The secondary scale (less common than pH) that chemists often use in order to evaluate the acidity and basicity of a solution, as derived from its ability to generate hydroxide ions (OJ- ions) in solution; it is logarithmic in nature (i.e., each "jump" between numbers corresponds to a ten-fold increase or decrease in the concentration of ions); it often runs from 0 to 14, with 7 (the median number) being assigned to a neutral substance and numbers lower than 7 being assigned to basic substances and those higher than 7 being assigned to acidic substances.

S-Block

The section of the Periodic Table containing Groups I (1) and II (2) in which elements are in the process of filling their s sublevels.

D-Block

The section of the Periodic Table containing Groups III (3) through XII (12) in which elements are in the process of filling their d sublevels.

P-Block

The section of the Periodic Table containing most of Groups XIII (13) through XVII (17) in which elements are in the process of filling their p sublevels.

F-Block

The section of the Periodic Table containing the lanthanoids and actinoids in which elements are in the process of filling their f sublevels.

Group XIII

The thirteenth group of the Periodic Table containing elements having three valence electrons that tend to form 3+ cations and are minorly reactive; they do not occur as free elements in nature.

Three Primary Acid-Base Classification Systems

The three primary acid-base classification systems (Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis) that are often used to categorize acids and bases; in the list shown here, from left to right, the definition was given at a later time and is less specific than all of its predecessors (see the "nesting circles" diagram).

Trigonal Bipyramidal Molecular Geometry

The three-dimensional geometry that is created when the central atom is surrounded by five peripheral atoms or lone pairs of electrons that are either 90° apart from one another in some aspects and 120° apart from one another in other aspects or less than 90° apart from one another in some aspects and less than 120° apart from one another in other aspects.

Tetrahedral Molecular Geometry

The three-dimensional geometry that is created when the central atom is surrounded by four peripheral atoms or lone pairs of electrons that are either 109.5° or less than 109.5° apart from one another.

Octahedral Molecular Geometry

The three-dimensional geometry that is created when the central atom is surrounded by six peripheral atoms or lone pairs of electrons that are either 90° apart from each other in all aspects or less than 90° apart from each other in some aspects.

Internal Energy of a System (E)

The total energy contained within a system; it is comprised of both chemical energy and thermal energy.

Standard Electrode Potential

The voltage that is measured under standard conditions when a half-cell of a given substance is connected to a standard hydrogen electrode; it can be expressed as either the standard reduction or standard oxidation potential, which are directly opposite of one another (one will be positive and one will be negative or both will be zero); it is often represented mathematically as "𝓔[superscript]°".

Molar Volume

The volume occupied by one mole of any substance at a given temperature and pressure; it is often noted as "V[subscript]m"; it is roughly equivalent to 22.4 L/mol for all gases at STP.

Spectral Lines

The wavelengths at which a specific element can either absorb or emit light energy, making them useful for identifying an element using its visible-line spectrum.

Chemistry of a Period

The weak properties of correlation exhibited between multiple elements in a single period; as we move across, atomic radius decreases (due to the increased numbers of electrons and protons pulling in on each other), electronegativity increases, ionization energy increases, elements move from metal to metalloid to nonmetal to noble gas, and oxidation states move from positive to negative to zero (noble gases).

Average Atomic Mass

The weighted average of the atomic masses of all of the naturally-occuring isotopes of an atom; is uses both their masses and their natural abundances.

Hydrolyze

To interact with water in a way so that a base or an acid reacts chemically in order to produce either excessive hydroxide ions (OH- ions) or hydronium ions (H3O+ ions), respectively.

Glass Tubing

Tubing, made of glass, that is used for the safe passage of liquids between different containers.

Nuclear Isomers

Two atomic nuclei that are similar in mass and composition except for the fact that one has its nucleons in an excited, metastable state that may return to stability through isomeric transition.

Constitutional Isomers

Two distinct compounds having the same molecular formula that differ only in some of their connections between atoms; pictured are pentane and 2-methylbutane, which are constitutional isomers of one another.

Isomers

Two distinct molecules with the same molecular formula that form two distinct compounds; as the number of atoms in a molecules increases, its number of possible ones increases exponentially; they are sometimes noted by adding the "iso-" prefix onto one of their molecules.

Isotopes

Two or more atoms containing the same number of protons and thus having the same elemental identity but simultaneously having differing numbers of neutrons and thus different masses.

Increases in Entropy

Various changes in a system that result of changes in entropy, such as an increase in the temperature of that system, a change in phase to a solid to a liquid to a gas, that the products of a chemical reaction are simpler than the reactants, that there are more products than reactants in a chemical equation, or that a substance is placed in a solution (aq).

Ascending Paper Chromatography

A specific type of chromatography that uses a narrow strip of paper as the stationary phase and then dips the end into a solution composing the moving phase, with the mixture placed a little bit above the bottom of the paper.

Fractional Distillation

A specific type of distillation that is used to separate the substances of a mixture as a result of differences in their boiling points; this is how oil is refined.

Supersaturation

A state of a solution that contains more of the dissolved material than could be dissolved by the solvent under normal circumstances; to separate a mixture in this state by the process of crystallization, a "seed crystal" is often needed.

Group

A vertical column in the periodic table; also known as a family, elements in the same one tend to exhibit similar chemical properties.

Rutherford Atomic Model

An atomic model of the atom in which most of the atom is empty space, with most of the atom's mass being condensed within a dense, positively-charged nucleus and a little bit being located in the electrons that are present in the space surrounding the nucleus.

Particle Diagram

An illustration or depiction of the arrangement of atoms or molecules in a phase of matter.

Chemical Properties

Any characteristics of a material that lead to changes in the identity and composition of a substance; these include combustability, radioactivity, and toxicity.

Physical Properties

Any characteristics of a materials that can be measured without changing the identity or composition of a substance; this includes colour, odour, density, melting point, boiling point, and much more.

Order of Magnitude

Any number rounded to the nearing value that can be expressed as a power of ten; they are very useful for comparing quantities.

Conversion Factor

Any ratio of equivalent measurements that is used in the Factor-Label Method (FLM) and is ultimately equivalent to one as to not change the true value of the initial measurement.

Atomic Model

Any sort of model that shows the structure of an atom and the arrangement of subatomic particles in an atom.

Matter

Any tangible thing having both mass and volume.

Pure Substances

Any variety of matter that is homogenous and has a fixed composition as a result of its mass; this category includes both elemental substances and compounds.

Chemical Changes

Changes in the nature of a material that results in a change to its chemical identity; these include combustion, radioisotopic decay, chemical reactivity, and bonding.

Rules for What Digits are Significant

In any number, the following digits are always significant: 1) all non-zero numbers; 2) zeros located between non-zero numbers; 3) zeros located at the end of the measurement if a decimal point is present; and 4) trailing zeros that come after a number if a decimal point is present. In any number, the following digits are always insignificant: 1) zeros located before any other non-zero numbers and 2) zeros located after non-zero digits in numbers without decimal points.

Polyatomic Molecules

Molecules that are composed of two or more atoms; in nature at normal temperature and pressure, almost all molecules aside from those of noble gases are like this.

Monatomic Molecules

Molecules that are only composed of a single atom; in nature at normal temperature and pressure, only noble gases can form these kinds of molecules.

Celsius (°C)

One of the two base units of temperature, or the average kinetic energy of the particles of matter, in the Système International; it is exactly equivalent to 273.15 less than the same measurement on the Kelvin scale; water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C.

Kelvin (K)

One of the two base units of temperature, or the average kinetic energy of the particles of matter, in the Système International; it is exactly equivalent to 273.15 more than the same measurement on the Celsius scale; water freezes at 273.15 K and boils at 373.15 K.

Volume

The amount of three-dimensional space that an object occupies; the cubic centimeter (cm³) is the base unit for measurement in chemistry, as a cubic meter (m³) would likely be too large.

Ampere (amp or A)

The base of unit of electric current, or the flow of electric charge, in the Système International; it is a derived quantity that is based upon both electric current and charge.

Mole (mol)

The base of unit of number of particles in the Système International; it is equivalent to Avogadro's Number of particles (6.022(10 ) particles).

Coulomb (C)

The base unit of electric charge, or the electromagnetic polarization of a body in a given polarity, in the Système International; it serves as a basis for the ampere (amp or A).

Meter (m)

The base unit of length, or the one-dimensional linear distance between two objects, in the Système International; common derivatives include the picometer (pm), nanometer (nm), millimeter (mm), centimeter (cm), decimeter (dm), and kilometer (km).

Candela (cd)

The base unit of luminous intensity, or the brightness of a light source, in the Système International; this unit is not used in chemistry.

Kilogram (kg)

The base unit of mass, or the amount of matter contained within an object, in the Système International; common derivatives include the gram (g).

Second (s)

The base unit of time, or the temporal distance between set occurrences, in the Système International; common derivatives include the minute (min), hour (h), day (d), and year (y).

Significant Digits (Figures)

The digits that constitute any valid measurement; it is important to pay attention to them in chemistry, as we do not want to suggest more accuracy and precision than is probable.

Five Simple Steps of Mathematical Equations in Chemistry

The five steps that can be used to solve problems involving variables and an equation, which are as follows: 1) prepare a list of the variables and their values, 2) write the needed equation, 3) rewrite the equation in order to isolate the unknown variable, 4) substitute in known values into the equation, and 5) perform the necessary arithmetic equations that will result in a solution.

Rounding a Number

The process of eliminating one or more digits from a number by picking a chosen place and either keeping it as is or rounding it up based on the digit directly after it; if it is between zero and four, round down, and if it is between five and nine, round up.

Potential Energy

The stored energy that is associated with the position or shape of an object.

Absolute Zero

The temperature, 0 K, at which no more energy can be removed from matter and it exhibits no kinetic energy; this is essentially impossible in our universe to our knowledge, as things will always have some amount of energy.

Law of Conservation of Energy

The universal law stating that energy cannot be created not destroyed in the universe by any means, only passed between a system and its surroundings.

Metric Prefixes

Variou numerical prefixes that are attached to the beginning of a base unit of measurement in the Système International to increase or decrease its value by a factor of ten.