2) Contrast two theories explaining altruism in humans

Empirical Support for Kin Selection Theory - EXAMPLE 3 - STUDY: Aim

Aim: To test kin selection theory in a laboratory setting in two countries (Madsen et al., 2007).

Empirical Support for empathy altruism Theory - EXAMPLE 1 - STUDY: Aim

Aim: To test if levels of empathy and cost had an impact on how much people would help another person (Toi and Batson, 1982).

Theory 2: The empathy-altruism hypothesis

Cognitive theory. • They must first recognize there is a need • A person will act altruistically if they feel genuine empathy for another person in need (focusing merely on empathy is a limitation because it ignores other reasons for helping) • They must perceive a benefit for themselves before they are motivated to help (a benefit might be the absence of distress - when someone is in need it causes you to feel discomfort therefore helping them would reduce that feeling)

Empirical Support for empathy altruism Theory - EXAMPLE 1 - STUDY: Conclusion 1

Conclusion 1: The most important factors in people's decision to help is how much empathy they feel and the perceived cost to themselves for helping or not helping.

DISCUSS POINT (desire is a feeling)

Exam sentence: If a "desire" to act is linked to feelings then the theory can also be said to have a biological and therefore evolutionary paradigm attached to it.

GMEC

Gender was standardized; variables were clear; culturally specific

DISCUSS POINT (empathy has biological considerations)

If empathy is partly biological it can be influenced by biological factors (for example diet, drugs, sleep etc)

Current interpretation: Nurture Kinship

In social mammals, primates and humans, altruistic acts that meet the kin selection criterion are influenced by circumstantial cues (environmental) such as shared developmental environment, familiarity and social bonding (Sherman et al. 1997) It is the context that helps the development of the bonding process and the expression of the altruistic behaviours Kinship refers to 'social kinship' not necessarily 'genetic kinship'.

Exam opener - the two theories

In this answer I will contrast kin selection and the empathy-altruism hypothesis

Assumption 4

KIN SELECTION: assumes behaviour is only altruistic if there is a cost to the person who helps. VS. EMPATHY ALTRUISM: The empathy-altruism model assumes there does not need to be a cost to the helping individual with altruistic behaviour.

Assumption 3

KIN SELECTION: assumes people put themselves in danger for other people Focuses on extreme events - that threaten the survival of the organism. VS. EMPATHY ALTRUISM: The empathy-altruism model can be applied to almost any helping situation and not just extreme events.

Assumption 2

KIN SELECTION: assumes research with animals can inform our understanding of human behaviour VS. EMPATHY ALTRUISM:

Assumption 1

KIN SELECTION: in its Darwinian form is an evolutionary theory (it is focused on biological reasons for altruistic behaviour) E.G: Behaviour can be inherited through genes. Kin selection views altruism as an adaptive response that is natural in animals and humans. VS. EMPATHY ALTRUISM: comes from the cognitive level of analysis, meaning it is focused on internal psychological processes (rather than social or biological ones). E.G: Behaviour is guided by information processing (such as perception and motivation), and therefore empathy-altruism focuses on the psychological processes rather than assuming behaviour is purely biological.

DIFFERENCE 2: Empirical Support for Kin Selection Theory

Kin Selection theory has been demonstrated cross culturally and with animals (cross species).

Darwinian interpretation

Organisms are motivated to help others who are genetically similar (to increase the chances of the group surviving) Therefore in an emergency situation people are more likely to help someone who is in their family or if there is a degree of similarity - they are perceived to be in the in-group.

Empirical Support for empathy altruism Theory - EXAMPLE 1 - STUDY: Results

Results: Groups who were told to focus on Carol's feelings were much more likely to offer to help her. The high empathy group were equally likely to help in either condition. The low empathy group was more likely to help Carol in the high cost condition.

Empirical Support for Kin Selection Theory - EXAMPLE 3 - STUDY: Results

Results: In both countries biological relatedness was correlated and the amount of money given.

DIFFERENCE 1 between Kin selection and Empathy-altruism

both theories have different assumptions about human behaviour

Altruism

Altruism is when one helps another person for no reward, and even at some cost to oneself. Batson (1991) defines altruism as 'a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another's welfare'.

Empirical Support for empathy altruism Theory - EXAMPLE 1 - STUDY: Analysis

It could be argued the humans in this sample are considering purely selfish reasons for engaging in altruistic behaviour (e.g. whether or not they will be uncomfortable in the presence of 'Carol'). Therefore - To what extent is their subsequent behaviour truly altruistic? CAUTION: It is difficult to test the empathy-altruism model with non-humans because it is not possible to ask how they think or feel.

Assumption 5

KIN SELECTION: In its purest form: Kin selection theory fails to explain altruism when helping non-related strangers. (However nurture kinship addresses this issue by incorporating an environmental explanation of the behaviour.) VS EMPATHY ALTRUISM: can explain altruism when helping non-related strangers.

Theory 1: Kin selection

Kin selection is an evolutionary theory. It assumes human altruistic behaviour exists because it has an adaptive function, meaning it has helped human beings survive. The theory assumes altruism is INSTINCTIVE rather that COGNITIVE

Empirical Support for Kin Selection Theory - EXAMPLE 3 - STUDY: Method

Method: Researchers asked UK student participants to do a painful physical exercise for as long as possible (promising their biological relatives would receive money according to how long the student could stay in this position) Compared the length of time students were able to stay in the painful position and correlated this with how genetically close the relative was E.G comparing how long a student would stay in the position for a cousin or an aunt. In South Africa, they used the same position with students of Zulu origin. To make the reward more culturally appropriate it was food items rather than money. IV: degree of biological relatedness DV: time spent in a painful position

Empirical Support for Kin Selection Theory - EXAMPLE 2:

Squirrels are more likely to warn relatives than non-relatives for predators (Sherman, 1985)

Empirical Support for empathy altruism Theory - EXAMPLE 1 - STUDY:

The empathy-altruism model has supporting research with humans but not with animals.

Sythensis Exam Sentence - concluding statements

The theories are not opposed to one another. They complement each other. E.G: It can be seen as is highly likely the cognitive processes outlined in the empathy-altruism model (empathy, perception and motivation) are the result of evolutionary processes. The nurture kinship approach to the kinship model also uses environmental/contextual explanations.

Empirical Support for Kin Selection Theory - EXAMPLE 3 - STUDY: Conclusion

There is empirical support for kin selection. However, there are also sociocultural factors that influence behaviour. There is also a cognitive element in the sense that perception of family closeness impacted behaviour. This can be explained by nurture kinship. B MARK: The Zulu males helped their cousins as much as their brothers. This is because in Zulu culture, cousins are perceived to be family and part of the social in-group. Exam sentence: Biological relatedness increases levels of altruism (Darwinian interpretation). However this may also be due to circumstantial cues (nurture kinship)

Empirical Support for Kin Selection Theory - EXAMPLE 1:

Vampire bats are more likely to share blood with close relatives (Wilkinson, 1984)

Contrast - command term

Give an account of the differences between two (or more) items or situations, referring to both (all) of them throughout.

Empirical Support for empathy altruism Theory - EXAMPLE 1 - STUDY: Method

Method: Female psychology students listened to a radio interview with a psychology student named Carol, who had broken both her legs in a car accident. The researchers then gave participants the opportunity to help Carol with class notes. Independent variable A: Empathy level Condition 1: Participants were asked to imagine how Carol is feeling (High empathy condition) Condition 2: Participants were asked to be objective and not concerned with how Carol felt (Low empathy condition) Independent variable B: High or low cost conditions Condition 1: High cost. Carol would be in the class. It would be embarrassing to deny her the lecture notes. Condition 2: Low cost. Carol would not be in the class. It would not be as embarrassing to deny her the lecture notes.

Exam sentence: the notion of "feeling" can be discussed

To what extent are feelings cognitive in nature? Does the presence of feelings make the theory partly biological?