2.2 Carbon-Based Molecules

Why does active transport require energy from the cell?

Active transport requires energy because the molecules were moved against (up) the concentration gradient; molecules moved from area of LOW concentration to HIGH concentration.Passive transport does not require energy because molecules move from HIGH to LOW concentration or with (down) the concentration gradient.

Monomers and Polymers of Proteins

Amino acid is the monomers of protein. Our body can make 12 of the standard 20 amino acids. Polypeptide is the polymer for protein. A polypeptide is a chain of precisely ordered amino acids linked by peptide bonds. A protein is made of one or more polypeptides. Proteins differ in the number and order of amino acids which determines a proteins structure and function.

Carbon Branched Chain

An example of a branched chain is isohexane. An isohexane is a clear liquid used to make gasoline and glues, and as a solvent for extracting oils.

Carbon Ring

An example of a carbon ring is glucose which is a simple sugar that is an important energy source for living organisms.

Carbon Straight Chain

An example of a straight chain is capric acid. which is a fatty acid found in plant oils such as coconut oil and palm kernel. oil, as well as in the milk of some mammals. This fatty. acid has been shown to have antibacterial and. anti-inflammatory properties.

Hydrolisis

Breakage of one single molecule into two with the entrance of a water molecule. Polymers are broken into monomers through this process.

Why are carbohydrates and cholesterol important to the cell membrane?

Carbohydrates - allow cells to distinguish one type of cell from another -enable neighboring cells to adhere to each other Cholesterol -gives strength the cell membrane by limiting the movement of phospholipids -prevents the membrane from having too much fluid -protects the cell membrane from becoming too solid when exposed to cooler than normal temperatures

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates have a purpose of providing a great fast source of energy. Example of carbohydrates are bread, pasta, vegetables, fruits, grains, potatoes and sweeteners

Structure of Carbon-Based Molecules

Carbon atoms are. the basis of most molecules involved in the processes for supporting. life. Carbon has four available electrons. to. share with atoms of other elements and in organic molecules carbon is most commonly bonded with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus. Carbon molecules can have. structures including straight chains, branches chains and. rings.

How many chemical bonds does carbon form?

Carbon can form four chemical bonds.

Hydrocarbons

Carbon compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen. Covalent bonds in hydrocarbons store a great amount of energy.

The hydrophobic tails of phospholipids keep water from passing directly through the cell membrane. How might this be beneficial for the maintenance of homeostasis in a cell?

Cellular homeostasis involves maintaining a balance of several factors that make a cell healthy. The cell membrane is a lipid bilayer that prevents that passage of water and ions. This allows cells to maintain a higher concentration of sodium ions out the outside of the cell.

What is Cellular Respiration?

Cellular respiration is the process through which cells convert sugars into energy. To create ATP and other forms of energy to power cellular reactions, cells require fuel and an electron acceptor which drives the chemical process of turning energy into a useable form.

Why does it take longer for your body to break down complex carbohydrates than simple carbohydrates? How is this related to their molecular structure?

Complex carbohydrates contain longer chains of sugar molecules than simple carbohydrates. The body converts these sugar molecules into glucose, which it uses for energy. As complex carbohydrates have longer chains, they take longer to break down and provide more lasting energy in the body than simple carbohydrates.

What are the two general types of nucleic acids?

DNA and RNA. The double helix in DNA is held together by hydrogen bonds.

What does it mean to be isotonic?

Denoting or relating to a solution having the same osmotic pressure as some other solution, especially one in a cell or a body fluid.A solution that has the same salt concentration as cells and blood. Isotonic solutions are commonly used as intravenously infused fluids in hospitalized patients. In an isotonic environment, there is no net water movement, so there is no change in the size of the cell

Which type of transport would be the best if the cell needs to respond to a sudden concentration gradient difference?

Diffusion-the rate increases as the concentration gradient increases.

Endocytosis

Endocytosis is the process by which cells take in substances from outside of the cell by engulfing them in a vesicle. ... Endocytosis occurs when a portion of the cell membrane folds in on itself, encircling extracellular fluid and various molecules or microorganisms

Exocytosis

Exocytosis is the process that allows cells to expel materials. It is the release of substances out of a cell by the fusion of a vesicle with the membrane. A vesicle forms around materials to be sent out of the cell. The vesicle then moves toward the cell's surface, where it fuses with the membrane and releases its contents.

Fats and Oils

Fats contain 2.25 times as much energy per gram as carbohydrates, so fats are a major source of energy. They also play an important role in the absorption of some vitamins and minerals. Fats are needed to build and repair cell membranes and are an essential part of the myelin sheath that surrounds and protects nerves. Fats are also required for processes such as muscle movement, blood clotting, and inflammation.

Fatty Acids

Fatty acids consist of long chain hydrocarbons containing two oxygen. atoms at one end. Saturated fatty acids are found mostly in foods from animals and some plants. They are usually solid at room temperature. There are no double bonds between the carbon atoms, so this molecule is "saturated" with hydrogen atoms. The saturated fatty acid shown here is stearic acid.

When a carbohydrate is attached to a phospholipid, what is the structure called?

Glycolipid

How do the glucose molecules pass through the channel protein?

Hormone (insulin) attaches to "binding" site on channel protein causing channel to begin to open by changing its shape, which allows glucose (sugar) molecule to pass into the cell.

Why do red blood cells burst when placed in pure water?

If red blood cells are placed in a solution with a lower solute concentration than is found in the cells, water moves into the cells by osmosis, causing the cells to swell; such a solution is hypotonic to the cells. .

Describe a Red cell vs. Plant cell in hypertonic solution

If you place an animal or a plant cell in a hypertonic solution, the cell shrinks, because it loses water ( water moves from a higher concentration inside the cell to a lower concentration outside ). ... A single animal cell ( like a red blood cell) placed in a hypotonic solution will fill up with water and then burst.

What is the origin of the phrase "oil and water don't mix"?

Lipids are nonpolar molecules thus most lipids are insoluble in water because water molecules are polar. Some examples of lipids include natural fats, oils, waxes - form protective coatings, phospholipids - important for cell membrane structure and steroids - act as chemical messengers, which are nonpolar.

Lipids

Lipids consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen as well. Lipids have a purpose of providing insulation and can store long-term energy. Lipids make up cell-membrane, these are important for life and for replacing carbohydrate short term energy. Examples of lipids were natural fats, oils, steroids and waxes.

Do Lipids have polymers and monomers?

Lipids do not have monomers because they are hydrophobic. Lipids are made up of different structures and therefore are not monomers. Lipids do not have polymers because they do not have monomers. Lipids are bunched together because they do not interact with water.

What is the structure nucleic acid?

Made of nucleotide monomers. Nucleotide is made of sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing molecule called a base. the sugar and phosphate nucleotides form the backbone of the DNA double helix.

Compare and contrast the way molecules move in diffusion and facilitated diffusion?

Molecules move through a protein in the membrane in facilitated diffusion, but not in simple diffusion.

Isomers

Molecules that share the same chemical formula but differ in placement, or structure, of their atoms and/or chemical bonds are known as isomers. Isomers have different physical chemical properties. Glucose and fructose are isomers that are both energy sources for cell processes however fructose is not as easily metabolized as glucose.

What is active transport?

Movement of a substance against (up) a concentration gradient, which requires energy input from the cell and also requires membrane (channel) proteins. This process is the best for moving substances into or out of the cell quickly.

Why is facilitated diffusion necessary for the transport of charged ions such as Na+ and K+ across the cell membrane?

Na+ and K+ are positively charged ions and would stick to the negatively charged polar heads of the phospholipids.

Do all lipids have linear structures?

No, steroids and cholesterol oral have fused ring structures.

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorous. The purpose for nucleic acid is that it involves genetic information for the coding of an organisms traits. Nucleic acids can be found in DNA and RNA.

What direction to molecules move in once they read equilibrium?

Once equilibrium is reached, molecules will continue to move across a membrane randomly.

What two major types of biological molecules compose the majority of the cell membrane in Model 2?

Phospholipids and membrane spanning proteins.

What role do proteins have in the cell membrane?

Proteins are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer. Some proteins transport materials across the membrane, others that are in the form of membranes speed up chemical reactions that take place on the membrane and others act as receptors for molecules such as hormones.

Proteins

Proteins are made up of carbon, hydrogen en, oxygen and nitrogen. The purpose of protein is it is important for muscle development. Proteins work in the immune system and act as enzymes to regulate chemical reactions within the body. Some examples of proteins are meats, beans and nuts.

What happens when molecules that pass through the membrane are polar?

Since phospholipid heads are non-polar, they repel those molecules. In solution, the proteins create canals that allow both polar rand non-polar molecules to pass across the membrane.

Cystic fibrosis is a disease that occurs when a protein that normally transports ions across the cell membrane does not function properly. A change to the tertiary structure of the protein prevents it from transporting chloride ions out of cells. This leads to a lack of water outside the cells, which causes a sticky mucus to form in the lungs. Explain how diffusion and osmosis are related to the symptoms of cystic fibrosis.

Sticky mucus traps bacteria and causes more lung infections. Therefore, because of less diffusion of salt and less osmosis of water, people with cystic fibrosis have too much sticky mucus in the airways of their lungs and get lots of lung infections. Thus, they are sick a lot.

What is the difference between the position of the surface proteins and the membrane-spanning proteins?

Surface proteins do not span the cell membrane.

What physical observations did you make about your potato/carrot in salt solution? What do you think caused these physical changes?

The carrot that was in saltwater looked smaller and soggier. It was also more dehydrated and drier than it was before we put it in the water.

What physical observations did you make about your potato/carrot in distilled water? What do you think caused these physical changes?

The carrot that was not in saltwater looked pretty much the same as it did before. Even though it did not increase in size, the carrot in distilled water seemed fuller, wetter, and more solid than before.

What is a concentration gradient?

The difference in the concentration of a substance from one location to another. Molecules diffuse down their concentration gradient from a region of higher concentration to. a region of lower concentration. The molecules will continue to move along this concentration gradient until they reach equilibrium.

What is facilitated diffusion?

The diffusion of molecules across a membrane through transport proteins. Some proteins form opens or pores through molecules can move. Other proteins bind to specific molecules to be transported on one side of the membrane. When the correct molecule binds, these proteins change their shape and this allows the molecule to pass through the membrane to the other side. Each. protein in the membrane is specific to a certain type of molecule or particle. In the case of glucose, it needs to be helped from hormone insulin.

Denaturation

The loss of normal shape and disruption of the function of a protein due to temperature or pH change. The process only impacts the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.

Monomer and Polymer of Carbohydrates

The monomers of carbohydrates are monosaccharides, examples of monosaccharides are glucose. The polymers of carbohydrates are disaccharide, an example of disaccharide is cellulose, and another complex molecule are polysaccharides, sucrose is an example of polysaccharide.

In potatoes/carrots, what cell part stores water?

The part of a plant cell that stores water is the vacuole. Since potatoes and carrots are plants, the same would apply to them. The vacuole stores food, water, and waste in a plant cell.

What might happen to a human's red blood cells if they were immersed in a salt water solution? Using your knowledge about diffusion and osmosis, why do you think it is effective to use salt as a means to kill snails and slugs?

Then the red blood cells would shrink as the result of osmosis and the water moving from inside the cell to the surrounding salt water solution. Like many living creatures, snails and slugs are largely made up of water. These creatures also have very permeable outer membranes. When they are covered in salt or placed in a salt solution, the water from inside their cells moves out their bodies by osmosis and causes them to die.

How is the number of bonds carbon can make related to its ability to form molecules with many different shapes?

This ability makes large, complex molecules possible. Carbon is the only element that can form so many different compounds because each carbon atom can form four chemical bonds to other atoms, and because the carbon atom is just the right, small size to fit in comfortably as parts of very large molecules.

Where exactly in the membrane do these molecules pass through and what types of molecules move across the membrane?

Through the phospholipid bilayer. Small nonpolar or small polar molecules.

What does selectively permeable mean?

To only allow certain molecules or ions but not all to pass through it by means of active or passive transport

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Unsaturated fatty acids are found mostly in oils from plants and are usually liquid at room temperature. There are double bonds between some carbon atoms, so this molecule is not saturated with hydrogen atoms, and it has a bent shape. The unsaturated fatty acid shown here is linoleic acid.

A plant cell has a cell wall around its cell membrane. The cell wall is not "stretchy," so the plant cell won't break open. How does this help the plant remain upright, not fall over? (Hint: think about what's in the vacuole, and how it can help in this situation.)

Vacuoles are sacks filled with fluid. Vacuoles are found in both plant and animal cells but are much bigger. Vacuoles are vital in supporting plant cells. These organelles help the plant to remain upright by pushing against the cell wall. The size of the cell is dependent on how much water is inside the vacuole.

Hydrophobic

Water fearing

Diffusion

When molecules go directly through cell membrane it travels by a process called diffusion. Very small water molecules can go through diffusion. Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Concentration is the number of molecules of a substance in a given volume.

Which of these solutions is "hypertonic?" How do you know? What does hypertonic mean?

When the concentration of particles outside the cell is greater than the concentration inside, the outside is called hypertonic (hyper- means more). In this case, more water will move out of the cell. As water leaves the cell, the cell starts to shrivel and shrink For example, the salt concentration in the water and outside of the carrot is greater than the concentration of the salt inside the carrot so that the water flows out of the carrot and into the water.

Which of these solutions is "hypotonic?" How do you know?

When the concentration of particles outside the cell is less than the concentration inside, the outside is called hypotonic (hypo- means less). In this case, more water will move into the cell than out. There is more salt in the carrot than there is in the water, so the water flows from the solution outside into the cells of the carrot.

Think about what happens to a plant when you don't water it. What happens to its leaves? Why does this happen (Hint: think of what is found in the vacuole of a healthy plant cell), and what can you do to stop the plant from dying?

When you do not water a plant, its leaves will wilt. Since the vacuole stores water, if the plant does not get enough water, the vacuole will have to make up. The vacuole is also in charge of pushing against the cell wall. Due to a release of water, the vacuole will shrink in size, and that will shrink the cell wall because the vacuole is what pushes it out.

Is the cell membrane selectively permeable?

Yes, the cell membrane is selectively permeable because of its structures. This means... -it only allows some but not all materials to cross -it's selective permeability enables it to maintain stable conditions even. if conditions outside of the cell change

Which would probably have the greatest effect on a protein's function—a change to the primary, secondary, or tertiary structure?

a change to the primary: if change initial sequence everything down the line will change as well

What is ADP?

a lower-enrgy molecule that can be converted into ATP by the addition of a phosphate group

Osmosis

a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one, thus equalizing the concentrations on each side of the membrane.

Three characteristics of carbon atoms

carbon can bond with itself or other atoms the unique bonding in carbon molecules enables them to form a ring or a long-chain structure of repeating subunits they often bind to hydrogen atoms

What is the cell wall made of ?

cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin

When a carbohydrate chain is attached to a protein, what is the structure called?

chain is attached to a protein, what is the structure called? Glycoprotein; glyco = carbohydrate

Monomers and Polymers of Nucleic Acids

monomers: nucleotides polymers: Nucleic acid is a biological polymer

Hydrophilic

water loving

What is the gap between the proteins called?

"Gated" channel. The channel acts like a gate; when the hormone (insulin) binds with the protein, it acts like a key that opens the locked gate, allowing the glucose (sugar) t pass through.

What is the structure of a Cell Membrane Structure?

-hydrophilic phosphate heads face towards cytoplasm and interstital fluid-hydrophobic tails face inward towards -made of two phospholipid layers that contain carbs, proteins, cholesterol (contain these biomolecules because phospholipids on their own would limit too many substances)

Examples of Osmosis

-plants use osmosis to move water into the cells of their roots -proteins in the cell membranes of the root cells transport certain molecules into the cell -the molecules become more highly concentrated on the inside of the root cells than outside and water follows the molecules in the cells. Water is always drawn towards areas of higher solute concentration.

primary/secondary/tertiary/quaternary of proteins

-primary: long string of AA, sequence of amino acids-VARIABLE REGIONS:-secondary: coiling of amino acid string-tertiary: folds even more based on various pockets of what is available-quaternary: two or more folded tertiary structures together-often proteins are made up of multiple subunits

What is ATP?

A change to the primary: if change initial sequence everything down the line will change as well. Energy currency of the cell, involved in cellular respiration. The energy in ATP comes from the phosphate group. ATP provides the energy to change the shape of the channel protein. After ATP binds to the protein, it changes to ADP because it loses one phosphate group.

Excess cholesterol has been linked to heart disease, so the labels on some food products contain wording such as "cholesterol-free." Is it necessary to eat a completely cholesterol-free diet? Explain your answer.

A completely cholesterol-free diet is not a healthful option. However, a low cholesterol or cholesterol-reducing diet may be part of an effective plan to manage blood cholesterol in those who have high levels. We need a small amount of blood cholesterol because the body uses it to: build the structure of cell membranes. make hormones like oestrogen, testosterone and adrenal hormones. help your metabolism work efficiently, for example, cholesterol is essential for your body to produce vitamin D.

Polymer

A large molecule made of subunits called monomers. The monomers in a polymer may be the same, or they may be different as they are in proteins.

Phospholipids

A lipid that consists of glycerol, two fatty acids and a phosphate group. The fatty acids make up the tails and the head of the phospholipid is polar. The tails are non-polar. When placed in water, the heads face the outside and the tails face the inside. Cell membranes are made up of a double layer of phosphilids. The head and tails face the same way on the inside of a membrane.

Waxes are a main component of the cuticle found on the upper surface of some plant leaves. Why might the leaves of these plants have a waxy cuticle?

A primary function of the leaf's waxy cuticle is to reduce water loss through the leaves, which is particularly important in arid deserts with little rainfall or Mediterranean climates with seasonal rainfall.

Passive Transport

A process where some molecules enter and exit a cell without energy input from the cell.

Which do you think is the strongest type of covalent bond? A single, double, or triple bond? Explain your answer.

A triple bond is a covalent bond in which 3 pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms and are the shortest and strongest type of covalent bond.

Which would be more likely to carry out endocytosis: a white blood cell engulfing foreign materials or a cell that excretes hormones? Explain.

A white blood cell engulfing foreign materials is more likely to carry out Endocytosis. Explanation: Endocytosis is the process by which a cell takes up a macromolecule into is cytoplasm by forming a vesicle.