2.2.1-2.2.3: The Presidency

As chief legislator, the president plays a role in influencing the making of laws. Among the most powerful tools presidents have at their disposal in getting laws passed is (are):

the power of persuasion and the ability to veto legislation.

Which of the following does not act as an obstacle when the president is trying to get things accomplished?

Lack of opportunity to convey views to public

introduction to the roles of the president.

Many people believe that the office of the president of the United States of America is the most important and powerful office in the world. Certainly, since the breakup of the former Soviet Union, the president controls the strongest military force in the world. The president also heads the nation with one of the world's strongest economies. As a result of the power he is believed to possess, Americans place enormous expectations on the president of the United States. But is the president able to meet these expectations, or are citizens likely to be perennially disappointed with the performance of the president? In this tutorial, we will describe the various occupational roles we expect the president to play, along with the sources of these expectations. In the next tutorial, we will examine the resources the president has at his disposal to fulfill these roles and assess whether the president is capable of meeting the public's expectations.

Washington community

People who play a regular role in Washington, D.C.'s political scene.

statutory power

Power created by laws that Congress establishes. These powers may be given to the president or to other political actors such as bureaucratic agencies.

advice and consent

Power the Constitution (Article II, Section 2) grants the U.S. Senate to give its advice and consent to treaties and presidential appointment of federal judges, ambassadors, and cabinet members.

pardon

Power to release a person from the punishment or legal consequences resulting from a crime. The president and governors of 30 states have the right to grant pardons within their respective areas of authority. In the other states, governors share the power with special pardon boards. An "absolute pardon" fully restores the person to his or her position before conviction. A "conditional pardon" sets conditions that the person must meet before the pardon is granted.

power to persuade

Presidential ability to bargain with political actors and get them to fall into line with the president's agenda. It was claimed by political scientist Richard Neustadt to be the most important of the president's powers, in his 1960 book Presidential Power.

President is unable to perform the functions of the office, the job falls to:

the vice president and then the Speaker of the House of Representatives.

When presidents "go public," they:

use the media to encourage segments of the public to pressure their legislators about a particular issue.

Some presidential candidates in recent history, such as Jimmy Carter, Ross Perot, and Bill Clinton, have focused on being outsiders. These candidates claimed that they were outsiders because they:

were not caught up in the political infighting that is common in Washington, DC.

expressed powers

Presidential powers expressly written into the Constitution or congressional statute.

chief of public opinion

Presidential role as chief communicator for the nation and nation's symbolic leader.

Compared to presidents of the nineteenth century, today's presidents are busier and had more power. Which of these is not one of the differences between presidencies in these two eras?

Presidents head the federal bureaucracy.

informal presidential roles

Roles not assigned by the Constitution that the president fills along with the formal roles that come with the position, including party chief, economic chief, and chief of public opinion.

split-ticket voting

See Also: ticket splitting

As chief diplomat, the president is responsible for directing U.S. foreign policy. Who assists in this activity?

The Secretary of State

Twelfth Amendment

The amendment (1804) that calls for separate ballots to be used by the electoral college when voting for president and vice president. Before that, the president was the candidate who received the most votes, and the vice president the candidate who received the second most. Also, in cases when no candidate receives a majority of electoral college votes, this amendment specifies that the House of Representatives is to choose from the candidates with the three highest vote totals. This had been the five highest before.

Twenty-Fifth Amendment

The amendment (1967) that establishes guidelines for filling the offices of president and vice president if they become vacant and makes provisions for situations when the president is disabled. This amendment was created on the heels of events including the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the serious illnesses of Dwight D. Eisenhower, and the assassination of John F. Kennedy.

chief of staff

The assistant to the president who directs the White House Office and advises the president.

"leader of the free world"

The belief that the United States, and in particular the president, is responsible for safeguarding the freedom and liberty of all nations. This belief grew from hostilities between the United States and the U.S.S.R. during the Cold War.

pocket veto

The chief executive's special veto power exercised after the legislative body adjourns. By not signing a passed bill within a specific time, the chief executive in effect "vetoes" the bill. If the legislature wishes to have the bill passed, it must reconsider the bill again in its next session.

State of the Union message

The constitutionally required message to Congress in which the president lays out a legislative program. The Constitution requires the message be given "from time to time," but it has become customary for the president to deliver it every January, at the beginning of the legislative term. The State of the Union message was not originally a very dramatic event early presidents sent the message in the form of a letter. Radio and television greatly increased the importance of the State of the Union address by making it a media event and providing the president an audience with the American people and the rest of the world.

reprieve

The delay of the execution of a court's legal sentence. Reprieves are usually granted for humanitarian reasons, or to await the collection and presentation of new evidence. The power to grant reprieves is held by the president and most state governors.

Federal Register

The estimate of the income and expenditures need by the federal government to carry out its program in some future period, usually a fiscal year.

federal budget

The estimate of the income and expenditures need by the federal government to carry out its program in some future period, usually a fiscal year.

executive agreement

A binding international agreement between chiefs of state. Unlike treaties, these do not require the consent of the Senate.

civil service

A collective term for the employees working for the government. Generally, civil service is understood to apply to all those who gain government employment through a merit system.

The president has a lot of responsibilities. Along with these responsibilities, the public tends to have very high expectations of the president because:

when campaigning, presidents tend to make a lot of promises about what they will do if elected.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

A division of the Executive Office of the President charged with running the government efficiently and economically, helping to prepare the annual budget as well as clear and coordinate the budgets of all departmental agencies, and helping to create fiscal policy. The OMB was created by executive order in 1970, replacing the Bureau of the Budget. The OMB includes the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs and the Council on Competitiveness, a secret body established by President George Bush in 1989 and headed by Vice President Dan Quayle.

party platform

A document prepared by a political party, outlining its policies and objectives and used to win voter support during a political campaign. Candidates do not feel obligated to fulfill the items laid out in a platform if elected to office.

impeachment

A formal accusation by the House of Representatives, accusing the president, vice president, or any civil officer of the United States of "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors." The Senate must then try the impeachment. Impeachment is authorized by Article I of the Constitution. Military officers and members of Congress cannot be impeached.

War Powers Act (1973)

A law specifying certain conditions the president must meet to commit U.S. troops without the approval of Congress. The War Powers Act attempted to close a loophole by which presidents were able to get around the constitutional requirement that only Congress can declare war.

plebiscitary presidency

A model of presidentially centered government in which a president seeks to govern through direct support of the people. Under this theory, presidential power and legitimacy emanate from citizen support, as measured in public opinion polls; presidents directly link to citizens through television; and presidents find themselves unable to deliver on promises made to citizens due to structural barriers inherent in our governmental system.

veto message

A presidential explanation to Congress detailing reasons for vetoing a piece of legislation.

executive order

A rule or regulation issued by the president that has the effect of law. Executive orders can implement and give effect to provisions in the Constitution, to treaties, and to statutes.

National Security Council (NSC)

A staff agency in the Executive Office of the President that advises the president on matters relating to national security, both domestic and foreign. The NSC is made up of the president, vice president, Secretary of State, and Secretary of Defense. The director of the CIA and the Joint Chiefs of Staff are statutory advisors; others may serve at the president's request.

Council of Economic Advisers (CEA)

A staff agency, established in 1946, that advises the president on measures to maintain stability in the nation's economy.

emergency power

An inherent presidential power exercised during a period of national crisis, particularly in foreign affairs.

patronage

Appointing government jobs and contracts to faithful party workers as a reward for their contributions. Unrestricted patronage came about with Andrew Jackson's spoils system and began to lose influence with the Civil Service Act of 1883.

inherent power

Authority and power held by the national government but not specifically granted to it by the Constitution. These powers most commonly relate to foreign affairs and international relations. The powers of the federal government are delegated powers, meaning they must be directly or implicitly granted. In foreign affairs, however, it's presumed that the federal government has the same powers as other nations.

"beyond the beltway"

The part of the United States outside of Washington, D.C. The "beltway" is a highway circling Washington, D.C.

formal presidential roles

Chief diplomat, chief executive, chief legislator, chief of party, chief of state, commander in chief.

Which of the following does not hinder the president's ability to act in the foreign arena?

Congress setting foreign policy

White House Office

The group of advisors set up by the president without congressional ratification who tend to president's political needs, help advise the president, and act as the president's intermediaries with the press and Congress. They include the Chief of Staff.

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

Established by President Franklin D. Roosevelt by executive order under the Reorganization Act of 1939, the EOP now consists of nine staff agencies that assist the president in carrying out major duties.

line-item veto

Executive power to veto specific items included in a piece of legislation without vetoing the entire piece of legislation.

Kitchen Cabinet

Informal advisers to the president. The phrase originated during the presidency of Andrew Jackson, who frequently met with friends and trusted advisors in the White House kitchen to discuss policy. The Kitchen Cabinet may include members of the official Cabinet. This does not mean that the Kitchen Cabinet will give the president the same advice as the official Cabinet. In fact, presidents often follow the advice of their Kitchen Cabinets instead of the advice of their official Cabinets.

appointment power

The president's authority to fill a government office or position. Positions filled by presidential appointment include those in the executive branch, the federal judiciary, commissioned officers in the armed forces, and members of independent regulatory commissions.

cabinet chief diplomat

The president's core advisory group. The Cabinet presently numbers 14 department secretaries (State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Education, Energy, Transportation, and Vetrans Affairs) and the attorney general. Depending on the president, the Cabinet may be highly influential or relatively insignificant in its advisory role.

chief of state

The president's role as ceremonial head of the government.

chief executive

The president's role as head of the executive branch of the government.

commander in chief

The president's role as supreme commander of the military forces of the United States and of the state National Guard units when they are called into federal service. This power is granted by Article II, section 2 of the Constitution.

chief legislator

The president's role in influencing the making of laws.

chief diplomat

The president's role in recognizing foreign governments, making treaties, and making executive agreements.

economic chief

The presidential role involving management of the national economy. In this role, the president is responsible for smoothing out the rough edges of the capitalist business cycle by taking action to curb inflation, lower unemployment, and adjust the international trade balance.

executive privilege

The right of officials in the executive branch to refuse to appear before, or to withhold information from, a legislative committee or judicial proceeding. Executive privilege is enjoyed by the president and by those executive officials accorded that right by the president.

political party chief (chief of party)

The role of the president as the nation's partisan political leader.

Vice President

The second highest executive officer of the United States, who is also the presiding officer of the Senate.

Which of the following is not something that contributes to the great expectations on a president?

The traditional refusal of presidents to promise benefits to potential voters.

In addition to constitutional roles such as chief executive and chief legislator, the president also performs other duties that are more informal in nature. These include the roles of party chief, economic chief, and chief of public opinion. What do these roles have in common with each other?

There is no constitutional or statutory requirement that the president exercise them.

Examine some of the constraints placed upon the presidency.

Topic four: Constraints on presidential power In looking at these constraints, it will be helpful to return to the various presidential roles outlined in the previous tutorial. When functioning as chief executive, as we have noted, the president has the power to persuade. Yet this also translates into a need to persuade, something which is often difficult to do. Since presidents cannot possibly make every administrative decision, they must delegate authority to the White House staff and to the other components of the executive bureaucracy. However, the various department secretaries that comprise the president's cabinet are often more loyal to their respective agencies than they are to the president or his policies. Other lower-echelon civil servants can drag their heels, comfortable in the knowledge that presidents come and go every few years, while they remain securely in the employment of the federal government. When President Truman left office, he remarked on the difficulties his successor, former general Dwight Eisenhower, was likely to encounter once in office. "He'll sit here and he'll say, 'Do this! Do that!' And nothing will happen. Poor Ike — it won't be a bit like the Army. He'll find it very frustrating." In trying to exercise his powers as chief legislator, the president is likely to encounter a number of obstacles. Under our system of checks and balances, Congress has the power to reject the president's legislative initiatives and also to override the president's veto of bills passed by Congress. Even if many members of Congress support the president's agenda, they may not constitute a majority in Congress, given the prevalence of split-ticket voting in recent years. In addition, Congress has the power to hold hearings questioning presidential policy decisions, and to conduct investigations into alleged wrongdoing by the president or members of his administration. In extreme cases, Congress can impeach the president, as surely would have happened to President Nixon had he not resigned instead. When serving as commander in chief and as chief diplomat (the two principle foreign-policy roles assigned to the president), the president may find that he is unable to accomplish his objectives for a variety of reasons. When Bill Clinton first took office, he stated that one of his goals was to remove the ban on homosexuals from serving in the military. Despite the fact that he had the power to order such a change as the nation's commander in chief, top military leaders announced that they strongly disagreed with Clinton's proposal and would not cooperate in carrying out this policy change. Eventually, a "don't ask, don't tell" compromise was reached to the satisfaction of almost no one involved. As chief diplomat, the president is responsible for charting the course of America's foreign policy and negotiating agreements with other nations that will serve our national interests. Yet, as new presidents quickly discover, there are a number of factors that can make this task extremely difficult. Wars can break out, revolutions can take place, foreign leaders whom we support can lose elections or die in office, terrorists can target American citizens. All of these events enormously complicate the job of the chief diplomat. As chief economist, the president is viewed by the American public as being responsible for maintaining the nation's economic health. Despite his best efforts, the president may not be able to do so. Let's take a look at three examples of why this is the case. First, recessions invariably occur, sometimes at the worst moments, as George Bush discovered following the conclusion of the Persian Gulf War. Second, American corporations can move their businesses overseas to take advantage of lower labor costs, thereby raising unemployment in the United States. And third, when a president wants the Federal Reserve Board to lower interest rates as a means of stimulating the economy, he may not get his wish. He is generally powerless to do anything about it, since the chairman of the Federal Reserve Board serves for a 14-year term, more than three times the length of the president's term of office. Finally, the president occupies the role of chief of public opinion and, as such, is expected by the public to listen to their views and respond to them accordingly. As we have seen, the president can employ such resources as the media, interest groups, and political parties to help mold public opinion and mobilize the citizenry. However, these potential resources can transform into potential obstacles in a hurry. More than one president has found himself to be the object of media scrutiny or ridicule. Along the same lines, instead of supporting the president, interest groups can and do protest his policies and demand that their views be heard. And, as for political parties, as we've learned, they often lack internal discipline. When key members of the president's own party in Congress announce their disagreement with the president, it is very difficult for a president to get Congress to enact his proposals.

what expectations the public has of the president.

Topic four: Public expectations of the president As you can see, the president has a multitude of roles to play in the American political system. Although some of these are formal (that is, they're prescribed by the Constitution), others are informal and we have observed that, in practice, the president's duties often combine both roles. Equally important is the seemingly tremendous power granted to the president to carry out these roles, which has led to enormous public expectations of the institution of the presidency, no matter which particular individual occupies the Oval Office. In this section, we will briefly review the various sources of these public expectations, which stem from both structural features of our system and the various linkage institutions connecting citizens to government. First, as we have described, the Constitution itself grants a number of powers to the president, such as the power to make appointments, veto legislation, and order troops into battle. Accordingly, Americans tend to expect that the presidents use a powerful office, and that the president should be able to implement whatever policies are necessary to promote the general welfare. A second source of the public's expectations of the presidency is the economy. The president's political health is often tied to the health of the economy, and the president is expected to see that prices, taxes, and interest rates are all kept at low levels, while employment is kept at high levels. Foreign policy is another source of the public's expectations of the presidency. For example, the emergence of the Soviet Union as the principle American rival in world affairs following World War II placed very high expectations on the president to contain communist expansion and serve as the leader of the free world. And then when the Soviet Union collapsed in the late 1980s, and the Cold War was declared over, the president was expected to lead America and indeed the world into a new world order. Yet another source of the public's expectations of the presidency is contained in our political culture. With its emphasis on individual opportunity, the culture tells us that anyone can, given sufficient education and ambition, grow up to be president. In a sense, the president is like all of us and yet he is also expected to be much more than that. Because we assume that anyone who has managed to get elected president must be capable of great things, we therefore expect the president to accomplish great things once in office. The various linkage institutions we have analyzed so far in this course provide additional sources of expectations on the presidency. For example, when presidential candidates campaign for office, they make a great number of promises concerning what they will try to accomplish if elected. As a result, the public expects the president to deliver on these promises once in office. Similarly, the president's political party expects him to implement the party platform when he ascends to the Oval Office. Interest groups are another example of a linkage institution that generates a considerable number of expectations on the president. As we have seen in an earlier lesson, interest groups are capable of mobilizing their constituents to demand presidential action on issues that concern them. Also, interest groups often form political action committees to donate money to political campaigns. Presidents, like all politicians, recognize that if they institute policies that fail to please these interest groups, the campaign contributions will often not be forthcoming in the next election. Finally, the mass media is probably the most important source of the public's expectations on the president. As we noted in the lesson on the media, the president receives more media coverage than any other political figure by far. Given the amount of media attention paid to the president, it is certainly understandable that the public would come to expect him to be able to respond to public opinion and solve the nation's various social, political, and economic problems.

resources of the executive branch.

Topic one: Executive branch resources As chief executive, the president is in command of a vast bureaucratic apparatus to assist him in carrying out the responsibilities of his office. Let's briefly review some of the more important components of the executive organization at the president's disposal. As head of the executive branch, the president can issue what is known as an executive order, which is simply an instruction to members of the bureaucracy to implement or change an administrative rule or regulation. Executive orders have the effect of law. In 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued an executive order establishing the Executive Office of the President, the EOP. Within the EOP, there are several offices that function as important resources for the president. Let's look at a few of them. The White House Office is one of the most important and influential agencies within the EOP. Most of the president's chief personal and political advisors reside within the White House Office, as well as the president's press secretary, his speech writers, his legal counsel, and his appointment secretary. When the president needs information or advice on a particular issue, he often turns to his White House Office staff. Heading up the White House Office is the chief of staff, who is usually the person ultimately responsible for determining who has access to the president and what information crosses his desk. Accordingly, the chief of staff wields considerable power. The Council of Economic Advisors (CEA) and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), both located within the EOP, are two primary resources to assist the president in implementing his economic policies. The CEA is essentially an advisory body consisting of three members along with their various assistants. These three advisors are often leading economic experts, whose principle function these days is to prepare the president's annual report on the economy, which is required by law to submit to Congress. OMB is a major presidential resource. This office works all year long to prepare the annual budget that the president proposes to Congress, which is one of the president's responsibilities as chief legislator. In addition, the OMB serves as a clearinghouse for review and approval of all federal agency budgets. Another significant organization within the EOP is the National Security Council (NSC), which serves as an important foreign-policy resource for the president. Generally, the function of the NSC is to provide information and advice to the president on matters of national security. However, in many presidential administrations, the NSC has taken on a more active role, carrying out foreign policy — especially when the president is at odds with Congress. A primary example of this occurred in the Reagan administration, when the NSC became involved in selling weapons to Iran and aiding military rebels in Nicaragua, despite the fact that both activities had been outlawed by Congress. In addition to various offices located within the EOP, the president can take advantage of the resources provided by his cabinet. This group consists of 13 department secretaries, the attorney general who heads the Justice Department, and assorted other high-ranking officials, such as the ambassador to the United Nations and the head of the Environmental Protection Agency. The cabinet generally functions as an advisory body, but presidential willingness to seek their advice varies from administration to administration. Some presidents, such as Eisenhower, relied heavily on their cabinets for advice, while others, such as Bill Clinton, have been reluctant to make much use of their cabinets. The final remaining executive resource we need to discuss is the vice presidency. Constitutionally, the vice president has only two roles: to preside over the Senate, which he rarely does; and to assume the presidency if the president dies or resigns before the end of his term, which has occurred fewer than 10 times in our history. Since most vice-presidential candidates are selected as a function of their ability to broaden the political appeal of the presidential candidate, it is frequently the case that the president and vice president are not very close, either personally or ideologically. As a result, most vice presidents have not been assigned very important duties to carry out while in office. However, in recent years, there appears to have been a trend toward granting the vice president a larger role in shaping policy. This is evident in Vice President Gore's leadership on environmental issues.

the president's role as chief of state and chief executive.

Topic one: The president as chief of state and chief executive The president of the United States is both chief of state and chief executive. In most nations, different people play these roles because each role has a separate set of functions. In nations that have a hereditary monarchy, such as the United Kingdom, the monarch is chief of state and the prime minister is chief executive. Other nations that have a president and a prime minister, such as Israel, generally have the president serve as chief of state and the prime minister serve as chief executive. In most nations, the chief of state performs symbolic duties for that nation's government. The chief of state represents the nation at formal functions, such as important dedications and funerals of political leaders. In this role, the chief of state also receives other heads of state, goes on official state visits to other countries, and represents the nation at times of national mourning. In the United States, the president frequently performs this function or designates another official to do so. Usually the other designated official is the vice president of the United States. Many Americans believe that when the president acts as chief of state, he is not spending his time as productively as possible. Rather, they believe he should be more concerned with governing. However, the role of chief of state is an important one. It allows the president to lend dignity and grandeur to the Office of the President and it provides the president with political exposure useful for domestic and international political purposes. When the president throws out the first baseball of the new season, dedicates a national park, or travels abroad to meet with foreign leaders, it reminds us that he is an American and that he symbolically stands for all of us. Article 2, Section 3 of the Constitution requires the president to "take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed." Accordingly, the president serves not only as chief of state, but also as chief executive. In this role, the president must enforce all federal laws and federal court decisions. He must also enforce treaties signed by the United States. He can grant reprieves and pardons and can provide amnesty to those who have committed offenses or who might be charged with committing offenses against the nation. Following Richard Nixon's resignation from the presidency in the wake of the Watergate scandal in 1974, President Ford pardoned Nixon so that he could not be prosecuted for offenses he may have committed while in office. As chief executive, the president is head of the federal bureaucracy. To perform this function, the Constitution grants the president the powers of appointment and removal. With advice and consent of the Senate, the president appoints all of the officers to head the 14 cabinet departments, such as the secretary of state, secretary of defense, secretary of commerce, and the secretary of education. At the same time, the president can dismiss these cabinet officers and some other high-ranking bureaucratic officials as well at his discretion.

the president's informal roles.

Topic three: Informal presidential roles In addition to these formal constitutional roles, the president also serves in a number of informal roles. These include party chief, economic chief, and the chief of public opinion. They are informal in the sense that there is no constitutional or statutory requirement that the president exercise these powers. Separating the formal and informal roles of the president is often difficult. As political party chief, the president selects the chairperson of the party's national committee. He also plays an important role in trying to unify the party and setting its political agenda. Another informal role of the president is that of economic chief. Although not a constitutional obligation, we have come to expect that the president will take responsibility for managing the national economy. In fact, according to many political scientists, the state of the economy is usually the primary factor by which the public evaluates the president's performance, and thus determines the president's chances for reelection. As economic chief, the president is given the responsibility for smoothing out the rough edges of the capitalist business cycle by taking action to curb inflation, lower unemployment, or adjust the international trade balance. Finally, anytime the president gives a speech or answers questions from the media, he is also acting as chief of public opinion. As the only elected official who represents all Americans, the president serves as chief communicator and symbolic leader of the nation. He is expected to lead the country, translate the popular mood into some sort of presidential vision, and serve as the moral center of the nation. In this capacity, the president can help all of us feel better or worse about the nation and sometimes about ourselves. For this reason, when a president's reputation is tarnished by a moral scandal, his ability to carry out his various other roles is often severely hampered.

Consider various other political resources that presidents can use in order to meet the public's expectations.

Topic three: Other presidential resources When the president wants to mobilize segments of the American public to put pressure on their legislators, he has a number of valuable political resources at hand, First, the president generates significant media coverage on a daily basis, even on an hourly basis in this era of CNN's Headline News. Some presidential administrations have been quite adept at taking advantage of the fact that television is the principle medium by which most Americans obtain their information about politics and government. Ronald Reagan, having been a Hollywood actor for years, was quite skilled at using television to win over large portions of the American public. This, in turn, helped Reagan pass an ambitious legislative agenda during his first few years in office. In fact, Reagan was often referred to as the "great communicator." In the modern era, going public (as it is sometimes called) has enabled presidents to play a more forceful role in shaping public opinion on important political issues. In addition to taking his case directly to the American people, the president can also attempt to mobilize voters in more indirect ways. For example, the president as party chief can make campaign appearances on behalf of congressional candidates and give speeches to invigorate the dedicated activists within his party. This is done to encourage them to go out and mobilize less active members of the voting public. As you know, political parties and candidates have a perpetual need to raise money for election campaigns. The president can use his political power and prestige to help raise some of this money from interest groups. Occasionally this can backfire, as we saw when President Clinton was accused of "renting out" the Lincoln Bedroom in the White House as a reward for top campaign contributors. However, by establishing a strong relationship with certain interest groups, the president is often in a position not only to receive financial support from their PACs, but also to call upon the groups to mobilize their membership in support of the president's policies. Finally, it is important to note that there are some political resources over which the president may not exercise much control, but that he can nonetheless take advantage of when the opportunity presents itself. For example, President Clinton was quick to take credit for the economic upturn during the first few years he was in office, despite the fact that many economists claimed that Clinton had very little to due with the shift in the nation's economic fortunes. Similarly, presidents can take advantage of favorable developments in the international arena, developments that occurred beyond the sphere of presidential power. When the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, followed shortly thereafter by the collapse of the Soviet Union, George Bush was all too happy to claim that his policies played a significant role in bringing about these events. Yet, it was apparent to many observers that the downfall of the Soviet regime and the discrediting of communism was likely to have taken place, regardless of which American president was in office at the time. So far, we have seen that the president has significant institutional and political resources at his disposal as he strives to fulfill the various expectations and demands placed upon him by the American people. Yet, we must ask whether these resources are sufficient to allow presidents — any president for that matter — to please large portions of the voting public on a continual basis. Or, are presidents doomed to disappoint, no matter how skilled they are and how hard they try? In the next section, we will examine some of the constraints placed upon the presidency.

other formal roles that the president must carry out.

Topic two: Other formal presidential roles In addition to granting the president executive powers, the Constitution also furnishes him with military, diplomatic, and legislative powers. As commander in chief of the armed forces, the president is responsible for all military activities undertaken by the United States. In fact, although Congress has the constitutional responsibility to declare war, the president has the final word when it comes to committing troops to any military venture. In the cases of the Korean War, the Vietnam War, Grenada, Panama, and the Gulf War, presidents Truman, Johnson, Nixon, Reagan, and Bush, respectively, used their powers as commander in chief to commit troops to combat. In each case, congressional approval was — sometimes grudgingly — given for these actions without a formal declaration of war. Because of the Vietnam conflict, Congress passed the War Powers Act in 1973 as a means of limiting the president's capacity to make war. The act requires that the president notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops and remove them within 90 days if Congress fails to authorize a longer period of time. As chief diplomat, the president is responsible for directing U.S. foreign policy. Of course, the president has considerable assistance from the secretary of state and other top foreign-policy advisors in performing this role. The Constitution grants the president the power to negotiate treaties with other nations and to appoint ambassadors. Both of these functions must be carried out with the advice and consent of the Senate. The president can also enter into executive agreements with foreign nations, which do not require Senate approval. Executive agreements, unlike treaties, allow the president to act with both speed and secrecy in conducting foreign policy. Back in the realm of domestic policy, the president also serves as chief legislator. The Constitution requires that the president "from time to time give to the Congress Information on the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient." This is the reason that you see the president giving an annual State of the Union address before Congress each January, an occasion on which he often proposes major legislation. For example, in 1993 shortly following his inauguration, President Clinton proposed a comprehensive health-care plan to the nation during his State of the Union address. While his health-care plan was not eventually passed by Congress, President Clinton, in exercising his power as chief legislator, continued to propose legislation that he thought would be appropriate and necessary. Also acting in this capacity, the president suggests a federal budget and submits a federal economic report to Congress. Finally, he can veto legislation passed by Congress and can call special sessions of Congress whenever he deems necessary. As you are probably aware, these presidential roles often merge, For example, as commander in chief, the president may wish more funding for the military, and as chief legislator, he will propose legislation to gain such funding. Assuming the funding is approved, the president as chief executive is obligated to see that the law providing the funding is executed.

The Executive Office of the President has several offices that serve as important resources for presidents. One of these is the White House Office. This office includes:

the Chief of Staff and the press secretary.

Consider how the ability to persuade largely determines the president's success.

Topic two: The power to persuade It is certainly true that the president has considerable resources within the executive branch to assist him in carrying out his various roles and responsibilities, as we have just seen. However, many political scientists argue that what matters most are the leadership qualities demonstrated by the president. If a president is a good leader, he can take advantage of these executive resources and others in the political system in his effort to meet the public's expectations. If the president is lacking in leadership ability, it is quite likely that he will fail to live up to the demands of the office. Political scientist Richard Newstat in his 1960 book entitled Presidential Powerargued that the most important power in the president's arsenal is his power to persuade. Essentially, Newstat's view was that presidents, in order to be successful, must find ways to bargain with other political actors and persuade them to line up behind the president's political agenda. When presidents make threats or promises, claims Newstat, they must follow through on them. If not, their ability to bargain, and thus to persuade, is severely constrained. What Newstat's analysis suggests is that no matter what institutional resources he may have at his disposal, a president will be ineffective unless he is a shrewd politician, one sensitive to the complex and intricate political dynamics of Washington, D.C. For example, Jimmy Carter — and to some extent Bill Clinton — both campaigned on the virtues of being a Washington outsider, someone not mired in the political infighting, which characterizes our nation's capital. But their anti-Washington attitudes alienated potential allies shortly after their respective inaugurations, squandering opportunities to get their presidencies off to a positive start. However, political scientists have also observed that successful presidents recognize the value in looking beyond the Beltway (that is, outside of Washington, D.C.) and taking their case directly to the American public. In so doing, they can motivate citizens to pressure Congress to enact the president's political agenda. Let's now turn to some of the various other political resources that presidents can deploy in order to meet the public's rigorous expectations.

ticket splitting

Voting for a candidate from one party for one office and a candidate (or candidates) from another party for another office(s).

Sometimes a president will refuse to sign or veto a piece of legislation just before Congress adjourns. When this happens, the legislation is not passed into law. This is called:

a pocket veto

There are several groups within the Executive Office of the President (EOP) that help the president implement economic policies. These groups include:

the Office of Management and Budget.

Who has the most consistent access to the president?

the White House house office staff

As chief executive, the president has responsibility for:

the federal bureaucracy

The public often judges how the president is doing in terms of:

the health of the economy.

As chief of state, the president of the United States differs from chiefs of state in other countries because the president:

also serves as the chief executive.

The president can use the prestige of the office in a number of ways to influence public opinion, such as by:

appearing publicly with candidates running for office, and speaking on television.

The president plays many roles as head of the country. The one role the president does not fill is:

chief of justice

In 1939, President Roosevelt issued an executive order that:

created the Executive Office of the President.

Presidents have the power to negotiate treaties with foreign governments, but this process can be long and drawn out since the president has to get Senate approval. There is a way for the president to get around this requirement by entering into secret agreements with foreign governments. These secret agreements are called:

executive agreements.

Formal presidential decisions to implement affirmative action regulations or to restructure the White House bureaucracy are usually expressed as:

executive orders

The impeachment process involves removing a president from office for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors." This process occurs through:

impeachment by the House and a trial in the Senate.

In addition to the constitutional powers laid out for the president and the statutory powers given by Congress, the president can also claim:

inherent powers

The vice president's constitutional duties include:

presiding over the Senate.

When acting as chief legislator, the president can:

propose major legislation and a federal budget to Congress.

as chief of state, the president:

receives visiting dignitaries and congratulates the nation's heroes

The president's State of the Union Address allows the president to:

recommend major legislation.

One reason presidents have trouble controlling the activities of the federal bureaucracy is that:

since most of the people working in the federal bureaucracy aren't appointed by the president, they may not be loyal to the administration's policies.