2228-PSYC exam 1
EXPERIENCE IS CONFOUNDEDA
3rd berible = confound is an uncontrolled, extraneous variable or a flaw in the experiment. Extraneous variables increase the variability of the data and are a threat to internal validity Confounds cause difficulty in distinguishing the effect of the independent variable from effect of confound on dependent variable outcomes = what we measure =
CAUSAL CLAIMS
A causal claim argues that one variable causes changes in the level of another variable. =goes even further, arguing that one of the variables is responsible for changing the other. Causal claims are supported by experiments (studies that have a manipulated variable and a measured variable.) NOT ALL CLAIMS ARE BASED ON RESEARCH -Not all claims we read about in the popular press are based on research. -Some claims are based on experience, intuition, or authority. Want a higher salary? Get a graduate degree. Active social life may lead to improved GPA. Essential oils may boost immunity. verbs such as cause, enhance, affect, decrease, and change. In contrast, association claims use verbs such as link, associate, correlate, predict, tie to, and be at risk for.
Frequency claims
A frequency claim describes a particular level or degree of a single variable. -describe a particular rate or degree of a single variable - Frequency claims are easily identified because they focus on only one variable—such as level of food insecurity, rate of smiling, - Frequency claims involve only one measured variable. - Report: 37% of Americans have considered moving to a different country. - Sixty percent of men feel dissatisfied with their careers.
constant
A value that does not change - An attribute that could potentially vary but that has only one level in the study in question.
constant
A value that does not change -"we all psy major" -variables that reachers want to controll for
construct
A variable of interest, stated at an abstract level, usually defined as part of a formal statement of a psychological theory. Refers to any complex psychological concept, model, or schematic idea that happens in the human brain such as a person's: - Intelligence Happiness Aggression Stress Love Motivation Personality and idead, behavoir , skill. attribute abstract - that opperational definition help define that def Constructs are not concrete and not visible to the naked eye Constructs are always defined by established theories
INTUITIVE THINKING VS SCIENTIFIC REASONING
We make mistakes when we base our reasoning on intuition rather than on empiricism. - Researchers create comparison groups and look at all the data.
Prioritizing Validities
Which of the four validities is the most important? It depends. When researchers plan studies, they usually find it impossible to conduct a study that satisfies all four validities at once. External validity, for instance, is not always possible to achieve—and sometimes it may not be the researcher's priority - its hard to test all the chirden of the work or counrty
READING WITH A PURPOSE: CHAPTERS AND REVIEW ARTICLES
While empirical journal articles use predetermined headings such as Method, Results, and Discussion,
participant subject variables
indiv differences (gender, intelligence)
measured variable
is observed and recorded. -what we looking for a variable in an experiment whose levels (values) are observed and recorded
Operational definition: Specific procedure used to produce and measure a construct
BEFORE DATA COLLECTION - Researchers must operationally define the construct they are interested in study. - Operational definitions are developed by: Consulting established theories Reviewing previous research Determining how others have measured the construct - Constructs and their measures must be valid Researchers must know the type of information the measure provides about the construct. In other words, researchers must know the scale of measurement
BIAS BLIND SPOT
Being biased about being biased "im not bias you are" the tendency to think that other people are more susceptible to attributional biases in their thinking than we are
PROBABILITY AND AREAS UNDER THE CURVE
Probability usually involves population of scores that can be displayed in a frequency distribution graph Different portions of the graph represent portions of the population Proportions and probabilities are equivalent A particular portion of the graph corresponds to a particular probability in the population
How to know if its a good article
last part of intro , abstract first part of discussion (within 10 years is okay) Other journals are called "predatory." Their names sound legitimate -but they publish almost any submission they receive, even fatally flawed studies -They exist to make money by charging fees to scientists who want to publish their work. =Once you leave the university, you will learn that some articles are paywalled, or subscription only. Other articles are open access, or available for free to the general public.
FROM JOURNAL TO JOURNALISM
media can sometimes create a problem - Benefits and risks of journalism coverageIs the story important?Is the story accurate? - Science journalism is easy to access, and understanding it does not require specialized education. However, in their effort to tell an engaging, clickable story, journalists might overstate the research or get the details wron
subject variable
participant subject variables a variable that characterizes preexisting differences among the participants in a study - cant take this vaible out of you that cant be sontrolled for
conceptual variable
the researcher's definition of the variable in question at a theoretical level - - A variable of interest, stated at an abstract, or conversational, level. Also called construct. See also conceptual definition. - abstract concepts such as "shyness" or "intelligence"
social desirability bias
the tendency to respond to questions in a socially desirable manner
THEORY, HYPOTHESES, AND DATA
theory -A statement or set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another. A hypothesis, or prediction -A statement of the specific result the researcher expects to observe from a particular study, if the theory is accurate. Also called prediction. Data are a set of observations Ideally, hypotheses are preregistered. That is, after the study is designed but before collecting any data, the researcher states publicly what the study's outcome is expected to be (perhaps using a time-stamped Internet tool)
AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC
we are influenced what easily comes to mind estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common - going to the beach we are scared to go bc we think of shark and not scared of going in the car to drive there
dependent variable
what is being measure in the study = OUTCOME VARIBLE -
INTERROGATING ASSOCIATION CLAIMS
"Excessive exercise is tied to obsessive compulsive disorder." - Construct validity -To support an association claim, a researcher measures two variables, so you have to assess the construct validity of each variable. For the headline "Study links coffee consumption to lower depression in women," you should ask how well the researchers measured coffee consumption and how well they measured depression. External validity -You might also interrogate the external validity of an association claim by asking whether it can generalize to other populations, as well as to other contexts, times, or places. For example, the association between coffee consumption and depression came from a study of women. Will the association generalize to men? Statistical validity -When applied to an association claim, statistical validity considers how strong the estimated association is and how precise that estimate is, and it considers other estimates of the same association.
INTERROGATING FREQUENCY CLAIMS
"Sixty percent of men feel dissatisfied with their careers."Construct validity How was the variable operationalized? How well was it measured? External validity Which people were surveyed? How did they choose participants?Statistical validity Are the conclusion accurate? What is the margin of error?
THE THEORY-DATA CYCLE
, scientists collect data to test, change, or update their theories. - HOw to we test our therius Hypothesis = now it includes specific predictions (" i think the number of days makes a positive association to their number grade " - for psy) Preregistered = take hypo , data , and publish it = do thing to show yout hypo and doest give you the opportunity to change your hypo to what the data shoes ex- 1 Cupboard theory versus contact comfort theory - monkeys liked their mom bc of confort not bc of food
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
-.A measure with high construct validity will provide an accurate measure of the behavior of interest.
Research Results Are Probabilistic
. However, the results of behavioral research are probabilistic, which means that its findings do not explain all cases all of the time. Instead, the conclusions of research are meant to explain a certain proportion
all def
. When researchers are discussing their theories and when journalists write about their research, they use more abstract names, called constructs or conceptual variables. When testing hypotheses with empirical research, they create operational definitions of variables, also known as operational variables, or operationalizations. To operationalize a concept of interest means to turn it into a measured or manipulated variable.
THE POWER OF A COMPARISON GROUP
2 Sources of Information: Why Research Is Best and How to Find It
THE RESEARCH VERSUS YOUR INTUITION
2. Describe at least five ways intuition is biased. -Humans are not natural scientific thinkers. BEING SWAYED BY A GOOD STORY We tend to believe good stories—even ones that are false. For example, to many people, bottling up negative emotions seems unhealthy. BEING PERSUADED BY WHAT COMES EASILY TO MIND -Another bias in thinking is the availability heuristic, which states that things that pop up easily in our mind tend to guide our thinking -The availability heuristic might lead us to wrongly estimate the number of something or how often something happens. FAILING TO THINK ABOUT WHAT WE CANNOT SEE -When testing relationships, we often fail to look for absences; in contrast, it is easy to notice what is present. This tendency, referred to as the present/present bias, reflects our failure to consider appropriate comparison groups (discussed earlier). FOCUSING ON THE EVIDENCE WE LIKE BEST -The tendency to look only at information that agrees with what we want to believe is called the confirmation bias. BIASED ABOUT BEING BIASED We have what's called a bias blind spot, the belief that we are unlikely to fall prey to the other biases previously described
ASSOCIATION CLAIMS
An association claim argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable =to correlate, or covary,- related. - New Study Links Exercise to Higher Pay -Notice that there are two variables in each example above. In the first, the variables are amount of coffee consumption and level of depression: - -Association claims are supported by studies that have at least two measured variables .Variables that are associated are said to correlate.
variable
An attribute that varies, having at least two levels, or values. See also dependent variable, independent variable, manipulated variable, measured variabl
dependent vs independent variable
An independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment to test the effects on the dependent variable. A dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in a scientific experiment.
EXPERIENCE IS CONFOUNDED
Another problem with basing conclusions on personal experience is that even if a change has occurred, we often can't be sure what caused it. In research, these alternative explanations are called confounds. =a confound occurs when you think one thing caused an outcome but in fact other things changed, too, so you are confused about what the cause really was.
HISTORY OF ETHICS—
CORE ETHICAL PRINCIPLES -Within the United States, ethical systems are also based on the Belmont Report, which defines the ethical guidelines researchers should follow. NUREMBERG CODE (1948) A set of research ethics principles for human experimentation created as a result of the atrocities committed by Nazi soldiers that were discovered during the Nuremberg trials. - The Nuremberg Code consists of ten key points: 1. The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential. 2. The experiment should be such as to yield fruitful results for the good of society, unprocurable by other methods or means of study, and not random and unnecessary in nature. = for the good of society and not random/just cause /point - 3. If it can be done in animals than do it in animal first . -- The experiment should be so designed and based on the results of animal experimentation and a knowledge of the natural history of the disease or other problem under study, that the anticipated results will justify the performance of the experiment. 4. Minimize and remove unnecessary pain and suffering , mental or physical pain or disconfurt -The experiment should be so conducted as to avoid all unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury. 5. No experiment should be conducted, where there is an a priori reason to believe that death or disabling injury will occur; except, perhaps, in those experiments where the experimental physicians also serve as subjects. 6. The degree of risk to be taken should never exceed that determined by the humanitarian importance of the problem to be solved by the experiment. RISK SHOULD NOT OUTWAY THE BENIFIT 7. Proper preparations should be made and adequate facilities provided to protect the experimental subject against even remote possibilities of injury, disability, or death. APPROPIATE ENVIROMETN 8. The experiment should be conducted only by scientifically qualified persons. The highest degree of skill and care should be required through all stages of the experiment of those who conduct or engage in the experiment. ONLY THE QUALIFIED SHOULD EXPERIMENT 9. During the course of the experiment, the human subject should be at liberty to bring the experiment to an end, if he has reached the physical or mental state, where continuation of the experiment seemed to him to be impossible. THEY SHOULD BE ABELT TO LEAVE THE STUDY ANYTIME , AND BE ABLE TO WITHDRAW THE DATA 10. During the course of the experiment, the scientist in charge must be prepared to terminate the experiment at any stage, if he has probable cause to believe, in the exercise of the good faith, superior skill and careful judgement required of him, that a continuation of the experiment is likely to result in injury, disability, or death to the experimental subject. - THE RESHEACHER SHOULD BE ABLE TO PULL THE PLUG ON EXPERIMENT WHNE IT GOES TO FAR
Survivorship bias
Concentrating on the people or things that "survived" some process and inadvertently overlooking those that didn't because of their lack of visibility. - most common form of sample selection bias. Does not include things that cease to exist - not adknolowing
COMMON PITFALLS
Confusing deception with full information - Failure to identify risks - Inadequate debriefing
HOW DO RESEARCHERS DEFINE VARIABLES?
Construct, conceptual variable: - tell us ehat it is Peer victimization Conceptual definition: Repeatedly being the target of intentionally aggressive acts or behaviors of one's peers Operational definition: - dry and boring but used for measure Children's Self-Experiences Questionnaire (CSEQ; Crick & Grotpeter, 1995) Direct and Indirect Aggression Scale (DIAS; Bjorkvist, Lagerspetz, & Osterman, 1992)
THE RESEARCH VERSUS YOUR EXPERIENCE
Does a new reading program improve 2nd graders' reading comprehension? - (reading comprehension increases naturally at 2nd grade so we need a controll group to compare the natural pace from the affecnetness of the reading program) THE RESEARCH VERSUS YOUR EXPERIENCE Experience Has No Comparison Group -There are many reasons not to base beliefs solely on personal experience, but perhaps the most important is that when we do so, we don't have a comparison group. ===After 10 years and 1,700 patients, the study found that radical mastectomy was no more effective at curing breast cancer than simple mastectomy, which spares the lymph nodes and chest wall (Fisher et al., 1985, 2002). Today, doctors hardly ever perform radical mastectomies. - ==Just as the surgeons never compared radical mastectomy with other procedures, when you rely on personal experience to decide what is true, you usually don't have a systematic comparison group because you're observing only one "patient": yourself.
chapter 4
Ethics guidelines
CONFOUNDs
Factors that undermine the ability to draw causal inferences from an experiment.
CONFIRMATION BIAS
Focusing on the evidence we like best
Institutional review board
For every little change = the IRB will need to approve every little thing - Responsible for monitoring human subject research and protecting rights and welfare of human subjects - Without IRB review and approval: No study is to begin No modification implemented to a study protocol - WHAT IS "RESEARCH" ACCORDING TO UTA? = UTA considers any activity intended for publication in a peer-reviewed journal, presentation at professional conferences, or dissemination outside of the classroom "research" by definition.
THREE CLAIMS RESEARCHERS MAKE
Frequency claims Association claims Causal claims Not all based on research
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
HOw relaistic is it ? it is externally correct ? The degree to which the results of a study apply to individuals and realistic behaviors outside the study - =how well the results of a study generalize to, or represent, people or contexts besides those in the original study. - The next important questions to ask about frequency claims concern generalizability : How did the researchers choose the study's participants, and how well do those participants represent the intended population? - generalizability The extent to which the subjects in a study represent the populations they are intended to represent; how well the settings in a study represent other settings or contexts. ex= Did Gallup researchers survey every one of the world's 8 billion people to come up with this number? Of course not. They surveyed a smaller sample of people. Next you ask: Which people did they survey, and how did they choose their participants? Did they include only people in major urban areas? Did they ask only college students from each country? Or did they attempt to randomly select people from every region of the world?
RECENT ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
In 1998 Andrew Wakefield an= made a clain wiht data that a mar vax caused autism - this vaz is needed for school. -got data from aniti-vax people -delted data he didnt want -lied about data - mistreated data - had his own vax in the works =
ANIMAL RESEARCH (APA STANDARD 8.09)
In Standard 8.09, the APA lists ethical guidelines for the care of animals in research laboratories. Psychologists who use animals in research must care for them humanely, In addition to these APA standards, psychologists follow federal and local laws for animal care and protection. In the United States, the Animal Welfare Act (AWA) outlines standards and guidelines for the treatment of animals (Animal Welfare Act, 1966). Legal protection for laboratory animals Animal care guidelines and the three R's Replacement (when you can dont use animals), (minize pian and suffering) refinement, -means researchers must modify experimental procedures and other aspects of animal care to minimize or eliminate animal distress. ---means researchers must modify experimental procedures and other aspects of animal care to minimize or eliminate animal distress. reduction (redude of the number of animal needed) Attitudes of scientists and students toward animal research Attitudes of animal rights groups Ethically balancing animal welfare, animal rights, and animal research 0------------- INSTITUTIONAL ANIMAL CARE AND USE COMMITTEE
APA ETHICAL STANDARDS FOR RESEARCH
In addition to the Belmont Report, institutional policies, and federal laws, American psychologists can consult the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, written by the American Psychological Association Standard 8: Specific to research Institutional review boards (Standard 8.01) -=Most colleges and universities, as well as research hospitals, have an IRB. If a U.S. institution uses federal money (such as government grants) to carry out research projects, a designated IRB is required An IRB panel in the U.S. includes five or more people, some of whom must come from specified backgrounds. At least one member must be a scientist, - one must have academic interests outside the sciences, - and one (or more) must be a community member who has no ties to the institution (such as a local pastor, a community leader, or an interested citizen). In addition, when the IRB discusses a proposal to use prison participants, one member must be recruited as a designated prisoner advocate. Informed consent (Standard 8.02) Deception (Standard 8.07) - govern the use Debriefing (Standard 8.08) =Research misconduct = When researchers have used deception, they must spend time after the study talking with each participant in a structured conversation. -debriefing session, the researchers describe the nature of the deception and explain why it was necessary. -the researcher describes the design of the study, thereby giving the participant some insight about the nature of psychological science Data fabrication Data Falsification. (Standard 8.10) and data falsification ---Most discussions of ethical research focus on protection and respect for participants, and rightly so. However, the publication process also involves ethical decision making. - OPENNESS AND TRANSPARENCY -openness and transparency. As part of the publication process, researchers increasingly share their raw data via website Plagiarism, including self-plagiarism (Standard 8.11) Animal research (Standard 8.09) li
INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD PROTOCOLS
Informed consent Must be obtained for all participants If <18 years of age, then parent/guardian Confidentiality maintained Risk: minimal to significant Deception: special provisions about true nature of study- deception must be disclosed and explained Debriefing: Necessary in all research studies Return participants to state previous to participation
INTERNAL VALIDITY
Internal Validity Internal - intamite - between A & B - in a relationship between one variable (A) and another (B), the extent to which A, rather than some other variable (C), is responsible for changes in B. Good internal validity provides a good test of a causal relationship by removing alternative explanations of the data Well-designed experiments typically have higher internal validity
INTERROGATING THE THREE CLAIMS USING THE FOUR BIG VALIDITIES
Interrogating frequency claims Interrogating association claims Interrogating causal claims Prioritizing validities The rest of this chapter will sharpen your ability to evaluate the claims you come across, using what we'll call the four big validities: construct validity, external validity, statistical validity, and internal validity
CONSULTING SCIENTIFIC SOURCES
Journal articles: psychology's most important source -(peer reviews have 3 options , yes , yes but fix, no ) Empirical journal articles - Review journal articles and meta-analyses -is a review of that area of psyc Chapters in edited books Full-length books Impact factor tells the number of times the source was cited FINDING LEGITIMATE SCIENTIFIC SOURCES -PsycINFO, Google Scholar, Quality Matters, Paywalled versus open access sources Predatory journals = not peer review and charge people to post study Open aqueces -
FINDING AND READING THE RESEARCH
Psychological scientists usually publish their research in three kinds of sources. Most often, research= articles in scholarly journals -single chapters in edited books, - write full-length scholarly books. empirical journal article A scholarly article that reports for the first time the results of a research study. - Empirical articles contain details about the study's method, the statistical tests used, and the results of the study. Review journal articles summarize and integrate all the published studies that have been done in one research area. - Sometimes a review article uses a quantitative technique called meta-analysis, which combines the results of many studies and gives a number that summarizes the magnitude, == gives effect size The magnitude, or strength, of a relationship between two or more variables. It is more common to contribute a chapter to an edited book. An edited book is a collection of chapters on a common topic, each chapter of which is written by a different contributor. - Chapters are not peer-reviewed as rigorously as empirical journal articles or review articles.= but they only invite experts to write
Research Is Better Than Experience
Researchers can also control for potential confounds. - probide controll and co mparisons -research is usually more accurate than individual experience, sometimes our personal stories contradict the research results.
HISTORY OF ETHICS—BELMONT REPORT 1976
Respect for Persons: People are autonomous creatures -includes two provisions. First, individuals potentially involved in research should be treated as autonomous agents: -Applying this principle means that every participant is entitled to the precaution of informed consent: Those with diminished autonomy deserve protection -The second application of respect for persons states that some people have less autonomy, so they are entitled to special protection when it comes to informed consent. For example, children, people with intellectual or developmental disabilities, Justice: Who ought to receive the benefits & bear the burdens of research? = YOU SHOULD BE ABEL TO EXPERINCE THE BENIFITS OF THE STUDY -if experice a risk by taking the treartment you should experice the reaward Select participants fairly - LOOK out for small/dulnable comminties Beneficence Hippocratic oath of research: first, do no harm Secure participant well-being researchers must take precautions to protect participants from harm and to ensure their well-being Maximize benefits and minimize risks -Will a community gain something of value from the knowledge this research is producing? confidential study, researchers collect some identifying information (for contacting people at a later date if needed) but prevent it from being disclosed. They may save data in encrypted form or store people's names separately from their other data.
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
Scale measures the behavior it was designed to measure. - Construct validity refers to how well a conceptual variable is operationalized. When you ask how well a study measured or manipulated a variable, you are interrogating the construct validity A measure with high construct validity will provide an accurate measure of the behavior of interest. - To ensure construct validity, researchers must establish that each variable has been measured reliably (meaning the measure yields similar scores on repeated testings
MAKING PREDICTIONS BASED ON ASSOCIATIONS
Some association claims are useful because they help us make predictions. The stronger the association between the two variables, the more accurate the prediction will be. Both positive and negative associations can help us make predictions, but zero associations cannot.
RESEARCH PRODUCERS, RESEARCH CONSUMERS
Some psychology students are fascinated by the research process and intend to become producers of research. Perhaps they hope to get a job studying brain anatomy, documenting the behavior of dolphins or monkeys, administering personality questionnaires They are interested in being consumers of research information—reading about research so they can later apply it to their work, hobbies, relationships, or personal growth. -In practice, psychologists engage in both roles.
MEASURED AND MANIPULATED VARIABLES
Some variables can only be measured—not manipulated. Some variables can be either manipulated (like or measured
CHAPTER 3:
THREE CLAIMS, FOUR VALIDITIES - Three Claims, Four Validities: Interrogation Tools for Consumers of Research
INSTITUTIONAL COMPLIANCE
The Office of Research Compliance (ORC) - Two of the committees under ORC: - Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) - Institutional Review Board (IRB) -is a committee responsible for interpreting ethical principles and ensuring that research using human participants is conducted ethically. -However, in the United States, research conducted by private businesses does not have to use an IRB or follow any particular ethical guidelines
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
The degree to which the results of a study apply to individuals and realistic behaviors outside the study
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
STATISTICAL VALIDITY
The extent to which the study's conclusion are reasonable and accurate. - -also called statistical conclusion validity, is the extent to which a study's statistical conclusions are precise, reasonable and replicable. To understand statistical validity, it helps to know that the value we get from a single study is not an objective truth. Instead, it's an estimate of that value in some population. Point Estimate A single estimate of some population value based on data from a sample. Confidence Interval (CI)-margin of error of the estimate. A given range indicated by a lower and upper value that is designed to capture the population value for some point estimate Margin of Error
dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. - DATA = D = GIVE YOU NUMBERS
principle of falsifiability
The principle that a scientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to expose the theory to the possibility of disconfirmation; that is, the theory must predict not only what will happen but also what will not happen.
INTERROGATING CAUSAL CLAIMS
There are three criteria for causation: 1. Covariance: This simply means that the two variables are related. -Covariance, the extent to which two variables are observed to go together, is established by the results of a study 2. Temporal precedence: one variable comes before the other variable in time. -that the method was designed so that the causal variable clearly comes first in time, before the effect variable. --- The results showed that teens who felt more pressure to respond immediately to social media were also more anxious. However, this was a correlational study, in which both variables were measured at the same time, so temporal precedence was not established. We cannot know if the pressure to respond to social media increased first, thereby leading to increased anxiety, 3. Internal validity (also known as the third-variable criterion): a study should be able to eliminate alternative explanation EXPERIMENTS CAN SUPPORT CAUSAL CLAIMS
CHARACTERISTICS OF CORRELATIONS—DIRECTION
This type of study, in which the variables are measured and the relationship between them is tested, is called a correlational study. A positive correlation occurs when an increase in one variable is accompanied by an increase in the other variable (↑,↑) A negative (inverse) correlation occurs when an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the other variable (↑,↓) ZERO ASSOCIATION The study behind the headline "A late dinner is not linked to childhood obesity, study shows" is an example of a zero association, or no association between the variables (zero correlation)
THE THEORY-DATA CYCLE—EXAMPLE
Two theories about poverty Absolute deprivation: It is harmful to not be able to afford basic needs - (you have issues bc you are going without and that makes thing bad) Relative deprivation: It is harmful to feel poor relative to others - (hard to feel like you are not without when you are the only one without- you constaly see it - thats what causes the bad feelings) = what did reseach finds ? - monkeys were only mad when there was a diffrence in what they got something diffent - you will be okay if you in a group of have nots RELATIVE DEPRIVATION IN BASEBALL =However, economists have crunched the data and found the opposite is true. -Teams with greater equality did much better, perhaps because they were more cohesive.
SCIENTISTS TACKLE APPLIED AND BASIC PROBLEMS
Types of reseach/ goals Applied research: conducted in order to solve practical problems (question are meet to solve problmes- try to solve practical real life proc) --done with a practical problem in mind and the researchers conduct their work in a local, real-world context. - ex= school district's new method of teaching language arts is working better than the former one Basic research: The goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge about a particular topic. (ex 60% of our mas is bac/vir ) -ex=structure of the visual system, the capacity of human memory, Translational research: a bridge from basic to applied research in which findings from basic research are then used to develop applications. -lessons from basic research to develop and test applications to health care, psychotherapy, or other forms of treatment and intervention. taking basic reaseach andappliryung it to help ( ex - those who take probiotics are less anxiets/depp) - basic research on the biochemistry of cell membranes might be translated into a new drug for schizophrenia
THE FOUR BIG VALIDITIES
Valid: reasonable, accurate, and justifiable; Validity is the appropriateness of a conclusion or decision. -Validity refers to the appropriateness of a conclusion or decision, and in general, a valid claim is reasonable, accurate, and justifiable Construct Validity External Validity Statistical Validity Internal Validity
RESEARCH VS INTUITION
Ways That Intuition Can Be Biased Being swayed by a good story Being persuaded by what easily comes to mind Failing to think about what we cannot see -PRESENT/PRESENT BIAS Focusing on the evidence we like best Being biased about being biased AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC
subject variable
a personal characteristic that differs across individuals - a variable that characterizes preexisting differences among the participants in a study
Empirical journal articles
a scholarly article that reports for the first time the results of a research study
scale of measurement
a set of measurement rules - The process of assigning descriptors to represent the range of possible responses to a question about a particular object or construct
operational definition
a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
meta-analytic study
a study about all the study of that topic a study that involves contrasting and combining results from different studies
subject variable
a variable that characterizes preexisting differences among the participants in a study - (cant change) =
Hypothesis
a very detailed statement about a very detailed statement
The Tuskegee Syphilis Study Illustrates Three Major Ethics Violations
about 35% of poor Black men living in the southern United States were infected with syphilis. Because the disease was largely untreatable at the time, - The researchers wanted to study the effects of untreated syphilis on the men's health over the long term. At the time, administering no treatment was a reasonable choice because of the risky and ineffective methods available in 1932 Early in the project, the researchers decided to follow the men infected with syphilis until each one died, to obtain valuable data on how the disease progresses when untreated. Infected men were told they had "bad blood" instead of syphilis. - All of them were required to come to the Tuskegee clinic for evaluation and testing, but they were never given any beneficial treatment - researchers conducted a painful, potentially dangerous spinal tap procedure - In 1943, the PHS approved the use of penicillin for treating syphilis, yet the Tuskegee Institute did not provide information First, the men were not treated respectfully. The researchers lied to them about the nature of their participation and withheld information Second, the men in the study were harmed. They and their families were not told about a treatment for a disease that, in the later years of the study, could be easily cured. Third, the researchers targeted a disadvantaged social group in this study.
Extraneous variables
any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study
RANDOM ASSIGNMENT
experimental method is the only method that allows a researcher to establish a cause-and-effect relationship because the researcher has so much control. - Random assignment: A procedure that uses a random event to assign people to the experimental or control group - Random assignment increased internal validity by allowing the researchers to control for potential alternative explanations.
manipulated variable
factor in an experiment that a scientist purposely changes; also known as independent variable - temp of classroom - variable a researcher controls, usually by assigning study participants to the different levels of that variable. = all varible stat from
variables
factors that can change in an experiment
fidelity
faithfulness; loyalty
opperational definition
definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured - a statement of the procedures used to define research variables - definitions need to be measurable To operationalize a concept of interest means to turn it into a measured or manipulated variable. = some are easy to do like weight. = -Other times, the concepts researchers wish to study are harder to operationalize because they are difficult to see, touch, or feel. Examples are personality traits, states such as "argumentativeness,"
Distinguish between legitimate journalism and disinformation in popular media.
disinformation is "the deliberate creation and sharing of information known to be false" .it takes many forms.
APA's Five General Principles
principles are intended to protect not only research participants but also students in psychology classes and clients of professional therapists 1, three of the APA principles (A, D, and E in the table) are identical to the three main principles of the Belmont Report (beneficence, justice, and respect for persons). Another principle is fidelity and responsibility Establish relationships of trust; accept responsibility for professional behavior (in research, teaching, and clinical practice). integrity Strive to be accurate, truthful, and honest in one's role as researcher, teacher, or practitioner.
RESEARCH IS BETTER THAN EXPERIENCE
reseach has why is research better than experiece? Behavioral research is probabilistic = which means that its findings are not expected to explain all the cases all the time (i.e., there are exceptions).
SCIENTISTS WORK IN A COMMUNITY
scientific norms -ideliy Merton's Scientific Norms: Universalism: Scientific claims are based on merit,(independent of the researcher's credentials or reputation.) and everyone can do science (everyone should be able to do it) Communality: Scientific knowledge is created by the community and should be freely shared. ( info shared for the grater good- ex Disinterestedness: Scientists pursue the truth and should not be influenced by money, politics, personal beliefs, and other biases. (the truth and facts should be our motivation in research ) Organized skepticism: Scientist question everything and always ask to see the evidence (question everything - see for yourself ) This allows for science to be self-correcting. =it discovers its own mistaken theories and corrects them. - y being open to falsification and skeptically testing every assumption, science can become self-correcting;
SCIENTISTS TEST THEORIES: THE THEORY-DATA CYCLE
since theory are something that we can oveseve = we can only thing test stuff that we can prove and see Studies don't prove theories and good theories are falsifiable. A theory should lead to hypotheses that, when tested, could fail to support the theory—in other words, falsifiability is a characteristic of good theories ?? Studies must be replicated, and the weight of the evidence must be considered. Scientist must be prepared to accept data that do not support their theory.
PRESENT/PRESENT BIAS
states that we notice what is present and thus fail to look for absences. we focus on thing that are present and not focused on things that are missing A bias in intuition, in which people incorrectly estimate the relationship between an event and its outcome, focusing on times the event and outcome are present, while failing to consider evidence that is absent and harder to notice.
SCIENTISTS MAKE THEIR WORK PUBLIC
why = to share /show thier work - what does this do ? = it is self correcting = allows for correction How do scientists share the results of their research with the scientific community? Submit it to a scientific peer-reviewed journalPeer review is a process in which a group of 2-3 expert researchers read and evaluate an article submitted for publications; the reviewers then decide whether the article should be revised, rejected, or published. -Anonymous (if a schinitiec jornal = atleaset 2 have reviwed it ) -Ultimately, peer reviewers are supposed to ensure that the articles published in scientific journals contain important, well-done studies This allows for science to be self-correcting. (btw - there is no insitive to replicate the the study )
CHAPTER 1: PSYCHOLOGY IS A WAY OF THINKING
why do we learn from this stuff = For your future career Evidence-based treatment - look for new info to incorporate new info =A psychotherapy technique whose effectiveness has been supported by empirical research. A GOOD CONSUMER -what do scientist value ===Empiricism (aka the empirical method or empirical research) ---the observations we see in the world, logical, =Systematic, rigorous, verifiable
