332 EXAM 2 QUESTIONS
1. ("Describe the methodology and the results from Eric Wanner's (1968) research study on sentence meaning versus sentence style Pics 6-9 // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge
A dissertation study (long-form piece of academic writing based on original research conducted by you.) by Eric Wanner (1968) illustrates circumstances in which people do and do not remember the exact wording of verbal information. Wanner asked participants to come into the laboratory and listen to tape-recorded instructions For one group of participants, the warned group, the tape began this way:::: The materials for this test, including the instructions, have been recorded on tape. Listen very carefully to the instructions because you will be tested on your ability to recall particular sentences which occur in the instructions.
1. ("Identify and explain the methods and results from Kahneman and Tversky (1973) research study on base rate neglect Pics 17-20 // (""Chapter 11: Decision Making
Base-Rate Neglect Many people are surprised that the open door in the preceding example does not provide as much evidence for a burglary as might have been expected. The reason for their surprise is that they do not grasp the importance of the prior probabilities. In fact, people sometimes completely ignore prior probabilities. In one demonstration of this, Kahneman and Tversky (1973) told one group of participants (termed the engineer-high group) that a person had been chosen at random from a set of 100 people consisting of 70 engineers and 30 lawyers. A second group (the engineer-low group), was told that the person came from a set of 30 engineers and 70 lawyers. Both groups were asked to determine the probability that the person chosen at random from the group would be an engineer, given no information about the person. In this condition, participants were able to respond with the right prior probabilities: The engineer-high group estimated 70 and the engineer-low group estimated .30. Then participants were told that another person, named Jack, had been chosen from the population, and they were given the following description:
6. ("Describe the methods and results of Corbett and Chang's (1983) experiment investigating how people identify the referent of ambiguous pronouns in sentences. Pics 43-46 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension
Corbett and Chang (1983) used a priming paradigm to show that participants consider multiple candidates for a referent. They had participants read sentences such as + Scott stole the basketball from Warren and he sank a jump shot. After reading the sentence, participants saw a probe word and had to decide whether the word appeared in the sentence. Corbett and Chang found that the time to recognize either Scott or Warren decreased after reading the sentence. They also asked participants to read the following control sentence, which did not require the referent of a pronoun to be determined: + Scott stole the basketball from Warren and Scott sank a jump shot.
3. ("Identify and explain the methods and results from Greene, Sommerville, Nystrom, Darley and Cohen (2001) fMRI research study investigating the effects of framing upon people's decisions in response to ethical dilemmas Pics 45-48 // (""Chapter 11: Decision Making
Evidence takes the form of framing effects, whereby people make different choices among equivalent alternatives depending on how the alternatives are stated (i.e., how the alternatives are framed). These effects occur because differences in the framing of alternatives can affect where people perceive themselves to be on the subjective utility;; saving might seem worth the effort, but it might not. Situations in which framing effects are most prevalent tend to have one thing in common — no clear basis for choice An interesting study in framing was performed by Greene, Sommerville. Nystrom, Darley, and Cohen (2001). They compared participants' responses to ethical dilemmas such as the following pair:
6. ("Identify and explain the methods and results from Cabeza, Rao, Wagner, Mayer and Schacter (2001) investigating the brain activation for regions of the brain for true items, new items and false memory items. Pics 50-53 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval
False Memories and the Brain a second list might contain bed, rest, awake, tired, dream, wake, snooze, blanket, doze, slumber, snore, nap, peace, yawn, drowsy. In the later test, participants are shown a series of words and must decide whether they have studied each word. There are three types of words: True (e.g, sewing, awake) — words that were in the lists studied False (e.g, needle, sleep) — words that are strongly associated with words in the lists studied but were not in those lists New (e.g, door, candy) — words that were not in the lists studied and are unrelated to any of the words in those lists
4. ("Describe and explain the results from study of Labov (1973) studying which items participants would call or identify "cups" and which items are considered as "bowls". Pics 52-56 // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge
Figure 5.15 shows a set of materials used by Labov (1973) in studying which items participants would call cups and which they would call bowls. The interesting point is that these concepts do not appear to have clear-cut boundaries. In one experiment, Labov used items 1 through 4 shown in Figure 5.15 plus a fifth item that continued the ever-increasing ratio of width to depth. // For item 1, that ratio is 1, whereas for item 4 it is 1.9, and for the fifth item, 2.5.
1. ("Describe the methods and results of J.D. Johnson, McDuff, Rugg and Norman (2009) study using brain imaging to investigate if the brain records experiences that we can no longer remember. Pics 3-6 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval
Johnson, McDuff, Rugg, and Norman (2009) report a brain imaging study that also shows that there are records of experiences in our brain that we can no longer remember. Participants saw a list of words and, for each word, were asked either to imagine how an artist would draw the object denoted by the word or to imagine uses for the object. The researchers trained a pattern classifier (a program for analyzing patterns of brain activity, as discussed in Implications 4.1) to distinguish between words assigned to the artist task and words assigned to the uses task, based on differences in brain activity during the two tasks.
2. ("Describe the methods and results of Allopenna, Magnuson & Tanenhaus (1998) eye fixation research study investigating the comprehension of spoken language. Pics 13-18 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension
Immediacy of Interpretation An important principle that emerged in more recent studies of language processing is the principle of immediacy of interpretation, which asserts that people try to extract meaning out of each word as it arrives and do not wait until the end of a sentence or even the end of a phrase to decide how to interpret a word. That is, participants spend more time on unfamiliar or surprising words. Participants also pause longer at the ends of constituents containing such words than at the ends of other constituents.
5. ("Identify and explain the results from Swinney's (1979) study investigating how people determine the meaning of ambiguous words Pics 34-36 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension
Lexical Ambiguity The preceding discussion was concerned with how participants deal with syntactic ambiguity. In lexical ambiguity, where a single word has two meanings, there is often no structural difference in the two interpretations of a sentence. A series of experiments beginning with Swinney (1979) helped to reveal how people determine the meaning of ambiguous words. Swinney asked participants to listen to sentences such as + The man was not surprised when he found several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room.
4. ("Describe the methods and results of Knutson, Taylor, Kaufman, Peterson and Glover (2005) fMRI experiment responding to uncertain outcomes in the context of reward probabilities. Pics 54-57 // (""Chapter 11: Decision Making
It is generally thought that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is responsible for a more reflective processing of rewards, while the dopamine neurons in the basal ganglia are responsible for a more reflexive processing of rewards. A number of neural imaging studies seem consistent with this interpretation. In one fMRI study, Knutson, Taylor, Kaufman Peterson, and Glover (2005) presented participants with various uncertain outcomes, including in the magnitude and probability of rewards. For instance, on one trial participants might be told that they had a 50% chance of winning $5; on another trial that they had a 50% chance of winning $1 (i.e., the magnitude of the reward differed between trials). Similarly, participants might be told on one trial that they had an 80% chance of winning $5, and on another trial might be told that they had 220% chance of winning $5 (i.e., the probability of the reward differed between trials). Knutson et al. imaged the brain activity associated with each such gamble. As shown in Figure 11.10a, the magnitude of the fMRI response in the nucleus accumbens in the basal ganglia reflected the different magnitudes of rewards (but did not reflect differences in the probabilities of rewards). In contrast, as shown in Figure 11.10b, the fMRI response in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex did reflect differences in the probabilities of rewards (but did not reflect differences in the magnitudes of rewards).
2. ("Describe and explain how Kahneman and Tversky (1984) differentiate between subjective utility versus subjective probability Pics 35-39 // (""Chapter 11: Decision Making
Making Decisions Under Uncertainty So far we have mainly focused on how people assess the probability of events. Now we turn to how people make decisions in the presence of the uncertainty created by probabilistic events. Much of this research has been cast in terms of how people choose between alternatives. Most people, if asked to justify their behavior in this situation, would argue that there comes a point when one has enough money (if we could only convince some CEOs of this notion!) and that there really isn't that much difference for them between having $1 million and having $2.5 million. This idea has been formalized in terms of what is called subjective utility — the value that people place on things for whatever reason. For instance, as indicated by our example, the value that we place on money does not correspond linearly to the amount of money. Figure 11.8, which shows a typical function proposed for the relation of subjective utility to money (Kahneman & Tversky. 1984), has two interesting properties related to the way it curves on the "Gains" side and on the "Losses" side. On the "Gains" side, it curves in such a way that the amount of money must more than double in order to double its utility. The preceding example would illustrate this property if we valued $2.5 million only 20% more than $1 million. That is, if the subjective utility of $1 million is U, the subjective utility of $2.5 million is 1.2U. In this case, then, the expected value of choice A is 1 x U, and the expected value of choice Bis 5 x 1.20 = .6U. Thus, in terms of subjective utility, choice A is to be preferred.
5. ("According to the research by Warrington & Shallice (1984) [and] by Saffran & Schwatz (1994), damage to what region of the brain causes deficits in biological categories (ex. Animals, fruits and vegetables)? According to the research by Warrington & Shallice (1984) and by Saffran & Schwatz (1994), damage to what region of the brain causes deficits in artifacts (ex. Tools and furniture)? Pics 62-64 // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge
Natural Categories and Their Brain Representations Cognitive neuroscience data suggest that biological and artifact categories are represented differently in the brain. Much of this evidence comes from patients with semantic dementia, who suffer deficits in their categorical knowledge because of brain damage. Patients with damage to different regions show different deficits. Patients who have damage to the temporal lobes show deficits in their knowledge about biological categories such as animals, fruits, and vegetables (Saffran & Schwartz, 1994; Warrington & Shallice, 1984). These patients are unable to recognize such objects as ducks, and one patient who was asked what a duck is was only able to say "an animal." However, knowledge about artifacts such as tools and furniture is relatively unaffected in these patients.
3. ("Identify and explain the results from Ainsworth-Darnell, Shulman, and Boland (1998) ERP study investigating people's auditory comprehension of control sentences, syntactic anomaly sentences, semantic anomaly sentences and double anomaly sentences. Pics 24-27 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension
Neural Indicants of Syntactic and Semantic Processing Researchers have found two indicants of sentence processing in event-related potentials (ERPS) recorded from the brain. The first effect, called the N400, is an indicant of difficulty in semantic processing. It was originally identified as a response to semantic anomalies, although it is more general than that. Kutas and Hillyard (1980) discovered the N4oo in experiments in which participants heard semantically anomalous sentences such as He spread the warm bread with socks. About 400ms after the anomalous word (socks), ERP recordings showed a large negative amplitude shift. The second effect, called the P600, occurs in response to syntactic anomalies.
4. ("Describe the methods and results of Mason, Just, Keller and Carpenter (2003) fMRI study comparing people's comprehension between Unambiguous, Ambiguous Preferred and Ambiguous Unpreferred sentences. Pics 29-32 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension
Neural Indicants of the Processing of Transient Ambiguity Brain-imaging studies reveal a good deal about how people process ambiguous sentences. In one study, Mason, Just, Keller, and Carpenter (2003) compared three kinds of sentences, such as these: Unambiguous: The experienced soldiers spoke about the dangers of the 'midnight raid. Ambiguous preferred: The experienced soldiers warned about the dangers before the midnight raid. Ambiguous unpreferred: The experienced soldiers warned about the dangers conducted the midnight raid.
5. ("According to the research by Warrington & Shallice (1984) [and] by Saffran & Schwatz (1994), damage to what region of the brain causes deficits in biological categories (ex. Animals, fruits and vegetables)? According to the research by Warrington & Shallice (1984) and by Saffran & Schwatz (1994), damage to what region of the brain causes deficits in artifacts (ex. Tools and furniture)? Pics 62-64 // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge PART 2
PART 2 In contrast, patients with (DAMAGE) frontoparietal lesions show deficits In their knowledge about artifact categories but are unaffected in their knowledge of biological categories.
3. ("Describe the methods and results of Lewis and Anderson (1976) experiment investigating whether the fan effect could be obtained with material the participant knew before the experiment Pics 23-25 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 2
PART 2 (1) statements they had studied in the experiment; (2) true statements about the public figures (e.g., Napoleon Bonaparte was an emperor); and (3) statements about the public figures that were false in the real world and had not been studied. Participants had to respond to the first two types of statements as true and to the last type as false.
1. ("Identify and explain the methods and results from Graf and Torrey (1966) experiment investigating sentence constituent boundaries. Pics 8-11 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension PART 2
PART 2 Constituent Structure Language is structured according to a set of rules that tell us how to go from a particular string of words to the string's meaning. we have learned to interpret the various types of phrases in which sentences are structured and to combine, or concatenate, the interpretations of these phrases. These phrase units are also referred to as constituents. We might expect that the more clearly identifiable the constituent structure of a sentence is, the more easily the sentence can be under- stood. CONSTITUENT [In English grammar, a constituent is a linguistic part of a larger sentence, phrase, or clause. For instance, all the words and phrases that make up a sentence are said to be constituents of that sentence. A constituent can be a morpheme, word, phrase, or clause.]
3. ("Identify and explain the methods and results from Greene, Sommerville, Nystrom, Darley and Cohen (2001) fMRI research study investigating the effects of framing upon people's decisions in response to ethical dilemmas Pics 45-48 // (""Chapter 11: Decision Making PART 2
PART 2 Dilemma 1: A runaway trolley is headed for five people who will be killed if it proceeds on its current course. The only way you can save them is to hit a switch that will turn the trolley onto an alternative set of tracks where it will kill one person instead of five. Dilemma 2: You are standing next to a large stranger on a footbridge that spans the tracks in between the oncoming trolley and the five people. The only way to save the five people is to push the stranger off the bridge onto the tracks below. He will die, but his large body will stop the trolley from reaching the others. In both dilemmas, you can perform an action that will result in the death of one person instead of five, or else you can do nothing, in which case five people will die. In the case of Dilemma 1, most people are willing to perform the action, but in the case of Dilemma 2, they are not.
2. ("Describe the methods and results of Allopenna, Magnuson & Tanenhaus (1998) eye fixation research study investigating the comprehension of spoken language. Pics 13-18 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension PART 2
PART 2 Eye movements have also been used to study the comprehension of spoken language. In one of these studies (Allopenna, Magnuson, & Tanenhaus. 1998), participants were shown computer displays of objects and geometric shapes, like the display in Figure 13.5. A participant would begin by fixating on the center cross and would then hear an instruction such as: Pick up the beaker Followed by an instruction such as: Now put it below the diamond
4. ("Describe and explain the results from study of Labov (1973) studying which items participants would call or identify "cups" and which items are considered as "bowls". Pics 52-56 // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge PART 2
PART 2 Figure 5.16 shows the percentage of participants who called each of the five objects a cup and the percentage who called each a bowl, under two different conditions. In one [1ST] condition (neutral context, indicated by solid lines), participants were simply presented with pictures of the objects. As can be seen, the percentage of cup responses gradually decreased with increasing width, but there is no clear-cut point where participants stopped using cup. At the extreme 2.5 width ratio, about 25% percent of the participants still gave the cup response, whereas another 25% gave bowl. (The remaining 50% gave other responses.)
3. ("Identify and explain the results from Ainsworth-Darnell, Shulman, and Boland (1998) ERP study investigating people's auditory comprehension of control sentences, syntactic anomaly sentences, semantic anomaly sentences and double anomaly sentences. Pics 24-27 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension PART 2
PART 2 For instance, Osterhout and Holcomb (1992) presented their participants with sentences such as The broker persuaded to sell the stock and found a positive wave at about 600 ms after the syntactic anomaly occurred (the object of the verb persuaded is missing). Of particular interest in this context is the relation between the N40o and the P600. Ainsworth-Darnell, Shulman, and Boland (1998) studied how these two effects combined by comparing ERP responses to sentences like the following:
2. ("Based on the dissertation studies by J.R. Anderson (1974) investigating the fan effect, identify and explain the 4 discrete steps of the spreading activation theory related to recognizing a sentence. Pics 16-21 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 2
PART 2 In one of my dissertation studies illustrating these ideas (Anderson. 1974), I asked participants to memorize 26 sentences of the form a-person-is-in-a-location, like the four example sentences listed below. As you can see from these examples, some persons were paired with only one location (1-1 and 1-2) and some locations with only one person (1—1and 2-1), whereas other persons were paired with two locations (2-1and 2-2) and other locations with two persons (1-2 and 2-2):
4. ("Describe the methods and results of Bradshaw and Anderson (1982) experiment the contrasting effects of redundant versus irrelevant information. Pics 31-33 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 2
PART 2 In the single condition, they had participants study just one fact: >< Newton became emotionally unstable and insecure as a child. In the unrelated condition, they had participants learn a target fact about the individual: >< Locke was unhappy as a student at Westminster. plus two unrelated facts: >< Locke felt fruits were unwholesome for children. >< Locke had a long history of back trouble. · In the related condition, participants learned a target fact: >< Mozart made a long journey from Munich to Paris. plus two additional facts that were causally related to the target fact: >< Mozart wanted to leave Munich to avoid a romantic entanglement. >< Mozart was intrigued by musical developments coming out of Paris.
6. ("Describe the methods and results of Corbett and Chang's (1983) experiment investigating how people identify the referent of ambiguous pronouns in sentences. Pics 43-46 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension PART 2 END
PART 2 In this case, only recognition of the more recently mentioned word, Scott, was facilitated. Warren was facilitated only in the first sentence because in that sentence, participants had to consider it as a possible referent of he before settling on Scott as the referent. The results of both the Corbett and Chang study and the Ehrlich and Rayner study indicate that the processing involved in determining pronoun reference lasts beyond the reading of the pronoun itself. This finding indicates that processing is not always as immediate as the immediacy-of-interpretation principle might seem to imply. The processing of pronominal reference spills over into later fixations (Ehrlich & Rayner, 1983), and there is still priming for the unselected reference after the sentence has been read (Corbett & Chang, 1983). Comprehenders consider multiple possible candidates for the referent of a pronoun and use syntactic and semantic cues to select a referent.
1. ("Identify and explain the methods and results from Kahneman and Tversky (1973) research study on base rate neglect Pics 17-20 // (""Chapter 11: Decision Making PART 2 END
PART 2 Jack is a 45-year-old man. He is married and has four children. He is generally conservative, careful, and ambitious. He shows no interest in political and social issues and spends most of his free time on his many 'hobbies, which include home carpentry, sailing, and mathematical puzzles. Participants in both groups gave a .90 probability estimate to the hypothesis that this person is an engineer. No difference was displayed between the two groups, which had been given different prior probabilities for an engineer hypothesis. But Bayes's theorem prescribes that prior probability should have a strong effect, resulting in a higher posterior probability from the engineer-high group than from the engineer-low group. In another condition, Kahneman and Tversky presented participants with the following description: Dick is a 30-year-old man. He is married with no children. A man of high ability and high motivation, he promises to be quite successful in his field. He is well liked by his colleagues. This example was designed to provide no diagnostic information either way with respect to Dick's profession. According to Bayes's theorem, the posterior probability of the engineer hypothesis should be the same as the prior probability because this description is not informative. However, both the engineer-high and the engineer-low groups estimated that the probability was .50 that the man described is an engineer. Thus, they allowed a completely uninformative piece of information to change their probabilities. Once again, the participants were shown to be completely unable to use prior probabilities in assessing the posterior probability of a hypothesis. The failure to take prior probabilities into account can lead people to 'make some totally unwarranted conclusions.
1. ("Describe the methods and results of J.D. Johnson, McDuff, Rugg and Norman (2009) study using brain imaging to investigate if the brain records experiences that we can no longer remember. Pics 3-6 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 2
PART 2 Later, the classifier was applied to participants' brain activation patterns while they were shown the words again and asked to recall the type of task they had assigned to each word. The classifier was able to recognize from these patterns what task the word had been assigned to with better than chance accuracy. It was successful at recognition both for words that participants could recall studying and for words they could not remember, although the accuracy was somewhat lower for the words they could not remember. This indicates that even though we may have no conscious memory of something, aspects of how we experienced it may be retained in our brains.
2. ("Describe and explain how Kahneman and Tversky (1984) differentiate between subjective utility versus subjective probability Pics 35-39 // (""Chapter 11: Decision Making PART 2 END
PART 2 On the "Losses" side, this utility function is steeper than it is on the "Gains" side, meaning that the negative subjective utility that participants assign to losses is greater than the positive subjective utility assigned to equivalent gains. This might be illustrated by participants given the following choice: A. Gain $10 with 1/2 probability or lose $10 with 1/2 probability B. Nothing (no win or gain) with certainty Most participants would prefer B because they weigh the loss of $10 more heavily than the gain of $10. Kahneman and Tversky (1984) also argued that, as with subjective utility, people associate a subjective probability with an event that is not identical with the objective probability. They proposed the function shown in Figure 11.9 to relate subjective probability to objective probability. The function bows downward because very low probabilities are overweighted relative to high probabilities.
5. ("Describe the methods and results of Reder (1982) study on plausible inference versus exact recall for information Pics 36-39 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 2
PART 2 Reder demonstrated that people will display very different behavior, de- pending on whether they are asked to engage in exact retrieval or plausi- ble retrieval. She had participants study passages such as the following: The heir to a large hamburger chain was in trouble. He had married a lovely young woman who had seemed to love him. Now he worried that she had been after his money after all. He sensed that she was not attracted to him. Perhaps he consumed too much beer and French fries. No, he couldn't give up the fries. Not only were they delicious, he got them for free.
5. ("Identify and explain the results from Swinney's (1979) study investigating how people determine the meaning of ambiguous words Pics 34-36 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension PART 2
PART 2 Swinney was concerned with the ambiguous word bugs (meaning either insects or electronic listening devices). Just after hearing the word, participants would be presented with a string of letters on a screen, and their task was to judge whether that string made a word. Thus, if they saw ant, they would say yes; but if they saw ont (correct), they would say no. This is the lexical-decision task described in Chapter 6 in relation to the study of spreading activation. Swinney was interested in how the word bugs in the passage would prime participants' judgments. The critical contrasts involved the relative times to judge spy, ant, and sew, following the sentence with bugs. The word ant is related to the primed meaning of bugs, whereas spy is related to the unprimed meaning. The word sew defines a neutral control condition
4. ("Describe the methods and results of Knutson, Taylor, Kaufman, Peterson and Glover (2005) fMRI experiment responding to uncertain outcomes in the context of reward probabilities. Pics 54-57 // (""Chapter 11: Decision Making PART 2 END
PART 2 The Knutson et al. study found only that the ventromedial prefrontal region responds to probabilities of rewards, but other research has found that it responds to magnitudes of rewards as well. The region is generally thought to be involved in integrating the probability of succeeding in an action and the possible reward of success — that is, it is a key decision-making region. Recall that this is the region that was destroyed in Phineas Gage's brain (see Figure 11.1) and that Gage's resulting problems went beyond judging probabilities. Subsequent research has confirmed that people who have damage to this region do have difficulty in responding adaptively in situations where good and bad outcomes have different probabilities.
1. ("Describe the methodology and the results from Eric Wanner's (1968) research study on sentence meaning versus sentence style Pics 6-9 // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge PART 2
PART 2 The participants in the second group received no such warning and so had no idea that they would be responsible for remembering the instructions verbatim. After this point, the instructions were the same for both groups. At a later point in the instructions, one of four possible critical sentences was presented: 1. When you score your results, do nothing to correct your answers but mark carefully those answers which are wrong. 2. When you score your results, do nothing to correct your answers but carefully mark those answers which are wrong. // sentences 1and 2 (different in style but not in meaning) 3. When you score your results, do nothing to your correct answers but mark carefully those answers which are wrong. 4. When you score your results, do nothing to your correct answers but carefully mark those answers which are wrong. // sentences 1 and 3(different in meaning but not in style)
6. ("Identify and explain the methods and results from Cabeza, Rao, Wagner, Mayer and Schacter (2001) investigating the brain activation for regions of the brain for true items, new items and false memory items. Pics 50-53 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 2
PART 2 Typically, participants say they have studied most of the true words and reject most of the new words, but they have difficulty rejecting the false words. For example, Cabeza, Rao, Wagner, Mayer, and Schacter (2001 found that 88% of the true words and only 12% of the new words were accepted, but 80% of the false words were also accepted — almost as high a percentage as the true words. Cabeza et al. examined the activation patterns that these different types of words produced in the cortex.
3. ("Describe and explain Barsalou's (1999) amodal symbol system Pics 28-34 // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge PART 2 END
PART 2 Amodal Versus Perceptual Symbol Systems The propositional representations that we have just considered are examples of what Barsalou (1999) called an amodal symbol system. By this he meant that the elements within the system are inherently non-perceptual. The original stimulus might be a picture or a sentence, but the representation is abstracted away from the verbal or, visual modality. Given this abstraction, one would predict that participants in experiments would be unable to remember the exact words they heard or the exact picture they saw. // ants ate the jelly [versus] ants in the kitchen ate the jelly
2. ("Describe the methodology and the results from Mandler and Ritchey's study (1977) on memory for classroom scenes Pics 14-16 // // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge PART 2 END
PART 2 Had participants viewing a picture like Figure 5.5a been told that the picture illustrated the style of the teacher's clothing, the result would probably have been quite different. When people see a picture, they attend to and remember best those aspects that they consider meaningful.
4. ("Describe the methods and results of Mason, Just, Keller and Carpenter (2003) fMRI study comparing people's comprehension between Unambiguous, Ambiguous Preferred and Ambiguous Unpreferred sentences. Pics 29-32 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension PART 2
PART 2 The verb spoke in the first sentence is unambiguous, but the verb warned in the last two sentences has a transient ambiguity of just the sort described in the preceding subsection: It is not until later in the sentence that one can know whether the soldiers are doing the warning or are being warned. As noted, participants prefer the first interpretation. Mason et al. collected fMRI measures of activation in Broca's area as a function of time since sentence onset (see Figure 13.8). The sentences lasted approximately 6 to 7 seconds, and as is typical of fMRI measures, the differences among conditions show up only after the processing of the sentence is complete, corresponding to the lag in the hemodynamic response. As can be seen, the level of activation increases with the difficulty of processing and is greatest for the ambiguous unpreferred sentence.
2. ("Based on the dissertation studies by J.R. Anderson (1974) investigating the fan effect, identify and explain the 4 discrete steps of the spreading activation theory related to recognizing a sentence. Pics 16-21 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 3
PART 3 "ORDERED WRONG 1. The doctor is in the bank. (1-1) 2. The fireman is in the park. (1-2) 3. The lawyer is in the church. (2-1) 4. The lawyer is in the park. (2-2)" Participants were drilled on 26 sentences like these until they knew the material well. Then participants were presented with a set of test sentences that consisted of studied sentences mixed in with new sentences created by re-pairing people and locations from the study set, and participants had to recognize the sentences from the study set.
3. ("Identify and explain the results from Ainsworth-Darnell, Shulman, and Boland (1998) ERP study investigating people's auditory comprehension of control sentences, syntactic anomaly sentences, semantic anomaly sentences and double anomaly sentences. Pics 24-27 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension PART 3
PART 3 Control (no anomaly): Jill entrusted the recipe to friends before she suddenly disappeared. Syntactic anomaly: Jill entrusted the recipe friends before she suddenly disappeared. Semantic anomaly: Jill entrusted the recipe to platforms before she sud- denly disappeared. Double anomaly: Jill entrusted the recipe platforms before she suddenly disappeared.
6. ("Identify and explain the methods and results from Cabeza, Rao, Wagner, Mayer and Schacter (2001) investigating the brain activation for regions of the brain for true items, new items and false memory items. Pics 50-53 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 3
PART 3 Figure 7.11 illustrates such activation profiles in hippocampal and parahippocampal structures. In the hippocampus proper, true words and false words produced almost identical fMRI responses, which were stronger than the responses produced by the new words. Thus, these hemodynamic responses appear to match up pretty well with the behavioral data, where participants cannot discriminate between true words and false words. However, in the parahippocampal gyrus, an area just adjacent to the hippocampus, both false and new words produced weaker responses than the true words.
3. ("Describe the methods and results of Lewis and Anderson (1976) experiment investigating whether the fan effect could be obtained with material the participant knew before the experiment Pics 23-25 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 3
PART 3 Figure 7.7 presents participants' times in making these judgments as a function of the number (or fan) of the fantasy facts studied about the person. Note that the recognition time increased with the fan for all types of statements. Also note that participants responded much faster to actual true statements than to the fantasy facts they had studied. The advantage of true statements can be explained by the observation that these facts would be much more strongly encoded in memory than the fantasy facts studied.
1. ("Identify and explain the methods and results from Graf and Torrey (1966) experiment investigating sentence constituent boundaries. Pics 8-11 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension PART 3
PART 3 Graf and Torrey (1966) presented sentences to participants a line at a time in either of the two ways shown below. In form A, each line corresponds to a whole constituent, whereas in form B, there is no such correspondence (each line breaks in the middle of a constituent).
3. ("Identify and explain the methods and results from Greene, Sommerville, Nystrom, Darley and Cohen (2001) fMRI research study investigating the effects of framing upon people's decisions in response to ethical dilemmas Pics 45-48 // (""Chapter 11: Decision Making PART 3 END
PART 3 In an fMRI study, Greene et al. compared the brain areas activated when people considered an "impersonal" dilemma such as Dilemma 1 (where they just hit a switch, setting in motion a mechanical process that results in a person's death) with the brain areas activated when people considered a "personal" dilemma such as Dilemma 2 (where they push the person to his death). In the impersonal case, regions of the parietal cortex that are associated with cold calculation were active. In contrast, in the personal case, regions of the brain associated with emotion were active (such as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, discussed in the beginning of this chapter). Thus, part of what can be involved in making decisions in response to different framings of problems seems to be which brain regions are engaged.
5. ("According to the research by Warrington & Shallice (1984) [and] by Saffran & Schwatz (1994), damage to what region of the brain causes deficits in biological categories (ex. Animals, fruits and vegetables)? According to the research by Warrington & Shallice (1984) and by Saffran & Schwatz (1994), damage to what region of the brain causes deficits in artifacts (ex. Tools and furniture)? Pics 62-64 // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge PART 3 END
PART 3 It has been suggested (e.g., Farah & McClelland, 1991; Warrington & Shallice, 1984) that these deficits occur because biological categories are more associated with perceptual features such as shape, whereas artifact categories are more associated with the actions that we perform with them.
4. ("Describe the methods and results of Mason, Just, Keller and Carpenter (2003) fMRI study comparing people's comprehension between Unambiguous, Ambiguous Preferred and Ambiguous Unpreferred sentences. Pics 29-32 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension PART 3 END
PART 3 Measures obtained using fMRI, such as those in Figure 13.8, can localize areas in the brain where processing is taking place, in this case confirming the critical role of Broca's area in processing sentence structure. However, fMRI measures do not reflect the fine-grained temporal structure of the processing.
1. ("Describe the methodology and the results from Eric Wanner's (1968) research study on sentence meaning versus sentence style Pics 6-9 // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge PART 3
PART 3 Note that some sentences differ in style but not in meaning // (sentences 1 and 2, and 3 and 4), whereas other sentences differ in meaning but not in style (sentences 1and 3, and 2 and 4), and that the sentences in each of these four pairs differ only in the ordering of two words To begin the test, please turn to page 2 of the answer booklet and judge which of the sentences printed there occurred in the instructions you just heard. On page 2, they found two sentences: the critical sentence they had just heard and a sentence that differed just in style or just in meaning. // For example, if they had heard sentence 1, they might have to choose between sentences 1and 2 (different in style but not in meaning) or between sentences 1 and 3(different in meaning but not in style).
4. ("Describe the methods and results of Bradshaw and Anderson (1982) experiment the contrasting effects of redundant versus irrelevant information. Pics 31-33 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 3 END
PART 3 Participants were then tested for their ability to recall the target facts immediately after studying them and after a week's delay. In each test, they were presented with names such as Newton, Mozart, and Locke and asked to recall what they had studied. Table 7.3 shows the results in terms of the percentage of participants who recalled the target facts. Comparing the unrelated condition with the single condition, we see the standard interference effect: Recall was worse when there were more facts to be learned about an item. However, the result is quite different when we compare the related condition to the single condition. Here, particularly after a week's delay, recall was better when there were more facts to be learned, presumably because the additional facts were causally related to the target facts.
2. ("Describe the methods and results of Allopenna, Magnuson & Tanenhaus (1998) eye fixation research study investigating the comprehension of spoken language. Pics 13-18 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension PART 3
PART 3 Participants would perform this action by selecting the object with a 'mouse and moving it, but the objective of the experiment was to study participants' eye movements preceding any action with the mouse. Figure 13.6 shows the probabilities that participants fixate on various objects in the display as a function of the time since the beginning of the articulation of the word for the object to be picked up (e.g, beaker).
5. ("Identify and explain the results from Swinney's (1979) study investigating how people determine the meaning of ambiguous words Pics 34-36 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension PART 3 END
PART 3 Swinney found that recognition of either spy or ant was facilitated if that word was presented within 400 milliseconds of the prime, bugs. Thus, the presentation of bugs immediately activates both of its meanings and their associations. If Swinney waited more than 700 milliseconds however, only the related word ant was facilitated. It appears that a correct meaning is selected during this time and the other meaning becomes deactivated. Thus, the two meanings of an ambiguous word are momentarily active, but context operates very rapidly to deactivate the inappropriate meaning, When an ambiguous word is presented, participants select a particular meaning within 700 milliseconds.
5. ("Describe the methods and results of Reder (1982) study on plausible inference versus exact recall for information Pics 36-39 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 3
PART 3 Then she had participants judge sentences such as: 1. The heir married a lovely young woman who had seemed to love him. 2. The heir got his French fries from his family's hamburger chain. 3. The heir was very careful to eat only healthy food. The first sentence was studied; the second was not studied, but is plausible; and the third neither was studied nor is plausible. Participants in the exact condition were asked to make exact recognition judgments, in which case the correct responses would have been to accept the first sentence and reject the second two.
1. ("Describe the methods and results of J.D. Johnson, McDuff, Rugg and Norman (2009) study using brain imaging to investigate if the brain records experiences that we can no longer remember. Pics 3-6 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 3 END
PART 3 These experiments do not prove that everything is remembered. They show only that appropriately sensitive tests can find evidence for remnants of some memories that appear to have been forgotten.
4. ("Describe and explain the results from study of Labov (1973) studying which items participants would call or identify "cups" and which items are considered as "bowls". Pics 52-56 // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge PART 3 END
PART 3 In the other [2ND] condition (food context, indicated by dashed lines), participants were asked to imagine the object filled with mashed potatoes and placed on a table. In this context, fewer cup responses and more bowl responses were given (especially for item 3, the midpoint of the sequence, with a 1.5 width-to-depth ratio), but the data shows the same gradual shift from cup to bowl. Thus, it appears that people's classification behavior varies continuously not only with the properties of an object but also with the context in which the object is imagined or presented. These influences of perceptual features and context on categorization judgments are very much like the similar influences of these features on perceptual pattern recognition (see Chapter 2).
3. ("Identify and explain the results from Ainsworth-Darnell, Shulman, and Boland (1998) ERP study investigating people's auditory comprehension of control sentences, syntactic anomaly sentences, semantic anomaly sentences and double anomaly sentences. Pics 24-27 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension PART 4 END
PART 4 Figure 13.7 contrasts the ERP waveforms obtained from midline and parietal sites in response to these various types of sentences. The critical words in these sentences are friends (in the syntactic anomaly and double anomaly) and platforms (in the semantic anomaly and double anomaly). The two types of sentences containing a semantic anomaly evoked a negative shift (N400) at the midline site about 400 ms after the critical word (the blue and green curves in Figure 13.72). In contrast, the two types of sentences containing a syntactic anomaly were associated with a positive shift (P600) at the parietal site about 600 ms after the onset of the critical word (the red and green curves in Figure 13.7). Based on the fact that a different brain region responds to syntactic anomalies than to semantic anomalies, Ainsworth Darnell et al. argued that these syntactic and semantic processes are separable in the overall process of language comprehension. ERP recordings indicate that syntactic and semantic anomalies elicit different responses in different locations in the brain.
2. ("Describe the methods and results of Allopenna, Magnuson & Tanenhaus (1998) eye fixation research study investigating the comprehension of spoken language. Pics 13-18 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension PART 4 END
PART 4 It can be seen that participants are beginning to look to the two objects that start with the same sound ("beaker" and "beetle") even before the articulation of the word finishes. It takes about 400 ms to say the word, and almost immediately after the word finishes, participants' fixations on the wrong object ("beetle") decrease, and their fixations on the correct object ("beaker") shoot up. Given that it takes about 200 ms to program an eye movement, this study provides evidence that participants are processing the meaning of a word even before it completes.
5. ("Describe the methods and results of Reder (1982) study on plausible inference versus exact recall for information Pics 36-39 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 4
PART 4 Participants in the plausible condition were asked to judge whether the sentence was plausible given the story, in which case the correct responses would have been to accept the first two and reject the last. Reder tested participants immediately after studying the story, 20 min later, or 2 days later. Reder was interested in the response time for participants in the two conditions, exact versus plausible.
1. ("Identify and explain the methods and results from Graf and Torrey (1966) experiment investigating sentence constituent boundaries. Pics 8-11 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension PART 4 END
PART 4 Participants showed better comprehension of sentences in form A, demonstrating that the identification of constituent structure is important in the parsing stage.
3. ("Describe the methods and results of Lewis and Anderson (1976) experiment investigating whether the fan effect could be obtained with material the participant knew before the experiment Pics 23-25 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 4 END
PART 4 The most important result to note in Figure 7.7 is that the more fantasy facts participants learned about an individual such as Napoleon Bonaparte, the longer they took to recognize a fact that they already knew about the individual (e.g., Napoleon Bonaparte was an emperor). This shows that we can produce interference with pre-experimental material. Material learned in the laboratory can interfere with material learned outside of the laboratory.
6. ("Identify and explain the methods and results from Cabeza, Rao, Wagner, Mayer and Schacter (2001) investigating the brain activation for regions of the brain for true items, new items and false memory items. Pics 50-53 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 4 END
PART 4 The parahippocampus is more closely connected to sensory regions of the brain than is the hippocampus, and Cabeza et al. suggested that the parahippocampus retains the original sensory experience of seeing the word, whereas the hippocampus maintains a more abstract representation, which would explain why true words produce a larger hemodynamic response in the parahippocampus. Activation in the hippocampus is about the same for false memories and true memories, reflecting our difficulties in discriminating between what was experienced, what was inferred, and what was imagined.
2. ("Based on the dissertation studies by J.R. Anderson (1974) investigating the fan effect, identify and explain the 4 discrete steps of the spreading activation theory related to recognizing a sentence. Pics 16-21 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 4
PART 4 The recognition times displayed in Table 7.2 show that recognition time increases as a function of the sum of the two numbers used to classify the example sentences above — that is, sentences that could be labeled 1-1 are fastest to be recognized (sum of associations = 2), sentences that could be labeled 1-2 or 2-1 are next fastest (sum of associations = 3), and sentences that could be labeled 2-2 are slowest (sum of associations = 4).
1. ("Describe the methodology and the results from Eric Wanner's (1968) research study on sentence meaning versus sentence style Pics 6-9 // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge PART 4
PART 4 by looking at participants' ability to discriminate between different pairs of sentences, Wanner was able to measure their ability to remember the meaning versus the style of the sentence and to determine how this ability was affected by whether or not they were warned. The implications of Wanner's experiment are clear. First, memory is better for the meaning of the sentence in the instructions than for the style of the sentence. The superiority of memory for meaning indicates that people normally extract the meaning from a linguistic message and do not necessarily remember its exact wording.
5. ("Describe the methods and results of Reder (1982) study on plausible inference versus exact recall for information Pics 36-39 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 5 END
PART 5 Figure 7.9 shows the results from her experiment, plotted as the average response times as a function of delay. As might be expected, participants' response times increased with delay in the exact condition. However, the response times actually decreased in the plausible condition. They started out slower in the plausible condition than in the exact condition, but this trend was reversed after 2 days. Reder argued that participants respond more slowly in the exact condition after a lengthy delay because the memories of exact wording are getting weaker. A plausibility judgment, however, does not depend on any particular memory and so is not similarly vulnerable to forgetting, Participants respond faster in the plausible condition with delay because they no longer try to retrieve facts, which often have been forgotten, but instead immediately begin making inferences on which to base plausibility judgments.
1. ("Describe the methodology and the results from Eric Wanner's (1968) research study on sentence meaning versus sentence style Pics 6-9 // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge PART 5
PART 5 Moreover, memory for 'meaning was unaffected by whether participants were warned or not. // (The slight advantage for unwarned participants does not approach statistical significance.) Thus, participants retained the meaning of a message as a normal part of their comprehension process. They did not have to be cued (warned) to remember the meaning of the sentence. The second implication of these results is that people are capable of remembering exact wording if that is their goal — the warning did have a significant effect on memory for style.
2. ("Based on the dissertation studies by J.R. Anderson (1974) investigating the fan effect, identify and explain the 4 discrete steps of the spreading activation theory related to recognizing a sentence. Pics 16-21 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 5
PART 5 The increase in recognition time from fastest to slowest is not much more than a hundred milliseconds (1.225 - 1.115 = 0.11 5 = 110 milliseconds), but such effects can add up in situations like taking a test under time pressure: Taking a little more time to answer each question could mean not finishing the test.
1. ("Describe the methodology and the results from Eric Wanner's (1968) research study on sentence meaning versus sentence style Pics 6-9 // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge PART 6 END
PART 6 The unwarned participants remembered the style of the sentence in the instructions at about the level of chance, whereas the warned participants remembered it almost 80% of the time. Thus, although we do not normally retain much information about exact wording, we can do so when we are cued to pay attention to such information. After processing a linguistic message, people usually remember just its meaning and not its exact wording.
2. ("Based on the dissertation studies by J.R. Anderson (1974) investigating the fan effect, identify and explain the 4 discrete steps of the spreading activation theory related to recognizing a sentence. Pics 16-21 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 6
PART 6 These interference effects — that is, the increases in recognition time — can be explained in terms of activation spreading through network structures, // like the network structure in Figure 7.5, which represents the four example sentences above. According to the spreading-activation theory, recognizing a sentence (i.e. retrieving the memory of that sentence) would involve the following discrete steps:
2. ("Based on the dissertation studies by J.R. Anderson (1974) investigating the fan effect, identify and explain the 4 discrete steps of the spreading activation theory related to recognizing a sentence. Pics 16-21 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 7
PART 7 FOUR STEPS: 1. Presentation of a sentence activates the representations of the concepts in the sentence. // In Figure 7.5, the concepts are doctor, lawyer, fireman, bank, church, and park, which are each associated with either one or two of the four sentences. 2. Activation spreads from these source concepts to memory structures representing the associated sentences. // In Figure 7.5, the ovals represent these memory structures, and the arrows represent the activation pathways from the concepts. However, as noted above, the total amount of activation that can spread from a source is limited. This means, for example, that each of the two pathways from lawyer carries less activation than the single pathway from doctor. // In Figure 7.5, the thickness of each arrow represents the amount of activation it carries,
2. ("Based on the dissertation studies by J.R. Anderson (1974) investigating the fan effect, identify and explain the 4 discrete steps of the spreading activation theory related to recognizing a sentence. Pics 16-21 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 8
PART 8 3. As activation spreading down the pathways converges on the memory structures, the memory structures are activated to various levels. These activations sum to produce an overall level of activation of the memory structure. Because of the limitation on the total activation from any one source, a memory structure's activation level is inversely related to the sum of associations of the source concepts. 4. A sentence is recognized in an amount of time that is inversely related to the activation level of its memory structure — that is, the greater the activation level, the less time required to retrieve the memory and recognize the sentence. vice versa.... Or, to put it in terms of associations, the greater the number of associations of the source concepts, the more time required to recognize the sentence.
2. ("Based on the dissertation studies by J.R. Anderson (1974) investigating the fan effect, identify and explain the 4 discrete steps of the spreading activation theory related to recognizing a sentence. Pics 16-21 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval PART 9 END
PART 9 So, given a structure like that shown in Figure 7.5, participants should be slower to recognize the sentence involving lawyer and park than the one involving doctor and bank (as is the case in Table 7.2) because more paths emanate from the first set of concepts. // The increase in reaction time related to an increase in the number of memory structures associated with a concept is called the fan effect // It is so named because the increase in reaction time is related to an increase in the fan of activations emanating from the network representation of the concept (see the fans in Figure 7.5).
1. ("Identify and explain the methods and results from Graf and Torrey (1966) experiment investigating sentence constituent boundaries. Pics 8-11 // (""Chapter 13: Language Comprehension
Parsing As we will see, the first stage of language comprehension —parsing—involves processing of a number of different aspects of language, including syntactic-semantic interactions and various types of ambiguity. We will also review some of the neural correlates of this processing, and at the end of this section, we will return to the question of the modularity of language (first discussed in Chapter 12). PARISING = [analyze (a sentence) into its parts and describe their syntactic roles.]
5. ("Describe the methods and results of Reder (1982) study on plausible inference versus exact recall for information Pics 36-39 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval
Plausible Retrieval In the foregoing analysis, we spoke of participants as making errors when they recalled or recognized facts that were not explicitly presented. In real life, however, such acts of recall often would be regarded not as errors but as intelligent inferences. Reder (1982) has argued that much of recall in real life involves plausible inference rather than exact recall. For instance, in deciding that Darth Vader was evil in Star Wars, a person does not search memory for the specific proposition that Darth Vader was evil, although it may have been directly asserted in the movie. The person infers that Darth Vader was evil from memories about the Stars Wars movies.
3. ("Describe and explain Barsalou's (1999) amodal symbol system Pics 28-34 // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge
Propositional Representations In an attempt to become more precise about what is meant by "meaning," cognitive psychologists developed what is called a propositional representation. The concept of a proposition, borrowed from logic and linguistics, is central to such analyses. A proposition is the smallest unit of knowledge that can stand as a separate assertion that is, the smallest unit that one can meaningfully judge as true or false. Thus, a propositional representation is a representation of the meaning of something as a set of propositions. //// (a) In amodal symbol systems neural representations from vision are transduced in an amodal representation such as a frame, semantic network or feature list. These amodal representations are used during word understanding.
4. ("Describe the methods and results of Bradshaw and Anderson (1982) experiment the contrasting effects of redundant versus irrelevant information. Pics 31-33 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval
Relatedness Protects Against Interference There is a major qualification about the situations in which interference effects are seen: Interference occurs only when one is learning multiple pieces of information that have no intrinsic relationship to one another. In contrast, interference does not occur when the pieces of information are meaningfully related. An experiment by Bradshaw and Anderson (1982) illustrates the contrasting effects of related versus unrelated Information. These researchers looked at participants' ability to learn some little-known information about famous people, under three condi- tions: single, unrelated, and related:
2. ("Based on the dissertation studies by J.R. Anderson (1974) investigating the fan effect, identify and explain the 4 discrete steps of the spreading activation theory related to recognizing a sentence. Pics 16-21 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval
The Fan Effect: Networks of Associations The interference effects discussed above can be understood in terms of how much activation spreads to stimulate a memory structure (refer back to the activation equation in Chapter 6). The basic idea is that when participants are presented with a stimulus such as cat, activation will spread from this source stimulus to all of its associated memory structures. However, the total amount of activation that can spread from a source is limited; thus, the greater the number of associated memory structures, the less the amount of activation that will spread to any one structure.
2. ("Describe the methods and results of Lewis and Anderson (1976) experiment investigating whether the fan effect could be obtained with material the participant knew before the experiment Pics 23-25 // (""Chapter 7 Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval
The Interfering Effect of Preexisting Memories Do such interference effects occur with material learned outside of the laboratory? As one way to address this question, Lewis and Anderson (1976) investigated whether the fan effect could be obtained with material the participant knew before the experiment. We had participants learn fantasy "facts" about public figures, in the form of statements such as Napoleon Bonaparte was from India. Participants studied from zero to four such fantasy facts about each public figure. After learning these "facts," they proceeded to a recognition test phase, in which they saw three types of sentences:
2. ("Describe the methodology and the results from Mandler and Ritchey's study (1977) on memory for classroom scenes Pics 14-16 // // (""Chapter 5 Representation of Knowledge
The conclusion in this study is very similar to that in the Wanner (1968) experiment reviewed earlier. Wanner found that participants were much more sensitive to significant (i.e., meaningful) changes in a sentence than to changes in style; Mandler and Johnson (1976) found that participants were more sensitive to significant changes in a picture than to changes in minor details. This is not because people are incapable of remembering such details, but rather because people do not attend to details that do not seem important.
