6.0 Anthropology
Vanishing Treasures
"A handful of park managers began to compare notes about the deteriorating sites in their care; the result was a grassroots program called "Vanishing Treasures." The program is tackling the problem on three fronts: first, by documenting the rate of deterioration; second, by repairing structures in imminent danger (while fostering new techniques and materials); and third, by training a new generation of craftsmen before the older ones have retired." "Each of these initiatives has been infused with a wealth of ideas, thanks to the involvement of a wider range of professionals. Each has had success and failure. The failures, by and large, are tainted by a recurring theme: lack of funds." "Glenn Fulfer, superintendent of Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument, says the Vanishing Treasures Program is 'a last defense against the loss of these tangible symbols of America's heritage.' As the destruction continues apace, hopefully it's not too little, too late."
Mounds
"Although the first people entered what is now Mississippi about 12,000 years ago, the earliest major phase of earthen mound construction in this area did not begin until some 2,100 years ago. Mounds continued to be built sporadically for another 1,800 years. Of the mounds that remain today, some of the earliest were built to bury important members of local tribal groups, such as the Boyd, Bynum, and Pharr mound sites. These mounds were usually rounded, dome-shapes. Later mounds were rectangular, flat-topped earthen platforms upon which temples or residences of chiefs were erected. Examples of this type of mound can be seen at the Winterville, Jaketown, Pocahontas, Emerald, Grand Village, Owl Creek, and Bear Creek sites." Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. "Indian Mounds of Mississippi—A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary." 2001. http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/intro.htm.
Mounds Mounds Mounds
"Although the siege failed to force their surrender, the Natchez permanently abandoned their traditional territory as a result of it. Fewer than 300 of the Natchez eventually were captured by the French and sold into slavery in the West Indies. The remainder escaped to join other tribes as refugees. Today, people of Natchez descent live among the Creek and Cherokee Indians. " "The Grand Village of the Natchez Indians, designated a National Historic Landmark, is maintained as a park by the Mississippi Department of Archives and History. The museum exhibits artifacts excavated from the site and sponsors public education events and activities." "The Grand Village of Natchez Indians is located in Natchez." Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. "Indian Mounds of Mississippi—A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary." 2001. http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/intro.htm. Review what you've learned about the mound builders by clicking More Indian Mounds.
Archaeology (Bureau of Labor)
"Archaeologists examine and recover material evidence, such as the ruins of buildings, tools, pottery, and other objects remaining from past human cultures, in order to determine the chronology, history, customs, and living habits of earlier civilizations. Most anthropologists and archaeologists specialize in a particular region of the world." Easter Island statues "Archivists, curators, and museum technicians acquire and preserve important documents and other valuable items for permanent storage or display. They work for museums, governments, zoos, colleges and universities, corporations, and other institutions that require experts to preserve important records. They also describe, catalog, analyze, exhibit, and maintain valuable objects and collections for the benefit of researchers and the public. These documents and collections may include works of art, transcripts of meetings, coins and stamps, living and preserved plants and animals, and historic objects, buildings, and sites."
Archivists and Curators (Bureau of Labor)
"Archivists and curators plan and oversee the arrangement, cataloging, and exhibition of collections and, along with technicians and conservators, maintain collections. Archivists and curators may coordinate educational and public outreach programs, such as tours, workshops, lectures, and classes, and may work with the boards of institutions to administer plans and policies. They also may research topics or items relevant to their collections. Although some duties of archivists and curators are similar, the types of items they deal with differ. Curators usually handle objects with cultural, biological, or historical significance, such as sculptures, textiles, and paintings, while archivists handle mainly records and documents that are retained because of their importance and potential value in the future." "Archivists collect, organize, and maintain control over a wide range of information deemed important enough for permanent safekeeping. This information takes many forms: photographs, films, video and sound recordings, computer tapes, and video and optical disks, as well as more traditional paper records, letters, and documents. Archivists work for a variety of organizations, including government agencies, museums, historical societies, corporations, and educational institutions that use or generate records of great potential value to researchers, exhibitors, genealogists, and others who would benefit from having access to original source material." "Archivists maintain records in accordance with accepted standards and practices that ensure the long-term preservation and easy retrieval of the documents. Records may be saved on any medium, including paper, film, videotape, audiotape, electronic disk, or computer. They also may be copied onto some other format to protect the original and to make the records more accessible to researchers who use them. As various storage media evolve, archivists must keep abreast of technological advances in electronic information storage." "Archivists often specialize in an area of history or technology so they can more accurately determine which records in that area qualify for retention and should become part of the archives. Archivists also may work with specialized forms of records, such as manuscripts, electronic records, photographs, cartographic records, motion pictures, and sound recordings."
Background
"As one of the principal stewards of America's heritage, the NPS is charged with the preservation of the commemorative, educational, scientific, and traditional cultural values of archeological resources for the benefit and enjoyment of present and future generations. The Service does this through (1) archeological resource stewardship within the national parks, and (2) assistance to partners, including Federal, State, tribal and local government agencies; individuals; and private organizations outside the national parks." "NPS Management Policies affirm a long-term commitment to the appropriate investigation, documentation, preservation, interpretation, and protection of archeological resources inside units of the National Park System. Some national parks, for example Mesa Verde NP and Colonial NHP, were established specifically for the commemorative, educational, and scientific values of their archeological resources. Other National Parks, for example Cape Cod NS, Yellowstone NP, and Olympic NP, were not established with archeological resources in mind, yet contain thousands of archeological sites. All of the archeological resources in parks are subject to the care and management required by laws, regulations, policies, Director's Orders and guidelines described and referred to here." "Archeological resources are nonrenewable and irreplaceable, so it is important that all management decisions and activities throughout the National Park System reflect a commitment to the conservation of archeological resources as elements of our national heritage. Although the Service may undertake actions that have both beneficial and adverse impacts on park resources, the Service is prohibited from taking or authorizing action that would, or is likely to, impair park resources or values. The value of these resources is enhanced when information from their study is used as a source for accurate and accessible public interpretation. Effective management of archeological resources requires cooperation with other programs within the NPS and with partners." "Historically, the NPS has contributed its expertise to assisting such partners in meeting their archeological management and stewardship responsibilities."
Archaeological Sites
"As these words are being written, thousands of ruins in the Southwest are threatened with deterioration and collapse. Some are World Heritage Sites and others are places of spiritual meaning for tribes; all are gems of the National Park System. Former Park Service Director Roger Kennedy calls the situation 'an undeniable crisis in care.' " "It is a problem long in the making. Throughout the century, the Park Service has had to repair ruins under the brunt of erosion and visitation." "The craftsmen were usually local people who traced their ancestry to the sites; the supervisors were a cadre of archeologists expert in indigenous architecture. The primary repair material was mortar made from Portland cement. Despite the skill of the work, by the 1970s it was clear that the cement was hastening, not halting, the destruction." "After a flurry of experiments with new materials, the problem was forced to the back burner by inflation, the disbanding of the repair unit, and the retirements of key personnel. For over a decade, the situation languished—with visitation and nature continuing to take their toll—only to resurface with a vengeance in the early 1990s."
Emerald Mound Site
"Designated a National Historic Landmark, Emerald is one of the largest mounds in North America. Covering 8 acres, Emerald Mound measures 770 by 435 feet at the base and is 35 feet high. The mound was built by depositing earth along the sides of a natural hill, thus reshaping it and creating an enormous artificial plateau. Two smaller mounds sit atop the expansive summit platform of the primary mound. The larger of the two, at the west end, measures 190 by 160 feet and is 30 feet high. Several additional smaller mounds were once located along the edges of the primary mound summit but were destroyed in the nineteenth century by plowing and erosion." Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. "Indian Mounds of Mississippi—A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary." 2001. http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/intro.htm.
Mounds again
"Eight hundred years ago, the lower Mississippi Delta was home to highly organized societies. There were roads, commerce, and cultural centers anchored by awe-inspiring earthen monuments. Wonders of geometric precision, these earthworks were the centers of life. However, mound construction was in a period of decline in the 1500s, when the first Europeans arrived in the region and brought with them epidemic diseases that decimated native populations across the Southeast." "As a result, by the time sustained contact with European colonists began about 1700, the long tradition of mound building was reaching its end." "These mounds are protected because they are owned by state or federal agencies committed by law to their preservation. Most of the mounds in Mississippi, however, are on privately owned land. As a result, many mounds have been irreparably damaged or completely destroyed by modern development and looting. Indian mounds, therefore, are critically endangered cultural sites. We hope that visiting the mounds described in this travel itinerary will help you appreciate these irreplaceable monuments of antiquity and better understand the importance of preserving those that remain." Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. "Indian Mounds of Mississippi—A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary." 2001. http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/intro.htm.
Indian Mounds...Natchez cont.
"Elaborate funeral ceremonies for the Natchez elite were conducted on the mound plaza. These rituals included the sacrifice of relatives and servants of the deceased. Natchez pottery vessels, as well as European trade goods obtained from the French, accompanied the dead. Two of the burials may have been those of the Great Sun, whose death in 1728 is mentioned in the historical sources, and his brother and war chief Tattooed Serpent, whose 1725 funeral was recorded in detail by the French." "Increasing French confiscation of Indian lands led to rapid deterioration of Natchez-French relations following the death of the Great Sun. The Natchez attacked nearby Fort Rosalie in 1729, killing most of the French garrison there. In response, the French organized a retaliatory expedition in 1730. They and their Choctaw Indian allies occupied the Grand Village, using the location to lay siege to the Natchez, who had withdrawn into stockaded fortifications to the south. During the siege, French troops used the central mound, formerly the site of the Great Sun's house, as an emplacement for their artillery. This confrontation marked the beginning of the destruction of the Natchez as a nation." Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. "Indian Mounds of Mississippi—A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary." 2001. http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/intro.htm.
Emerald Mound Site--more
"Emerald Mound, built and used during the Mississippian period between 1250 and 1600 A.D.,was a ceremonial center for the local population, which resided in outlying villages and hamlets. Its builders were ancestors of the Natchez Indians. By the late 1600s, the Natchez had abandoned Emerald and established their capital at the Grand Village some 12 miles to the southwest." "Emerald Mound Site, near Natchez Trace Parkway, is about 10 miles northeast of Natchez, Mississippi (milepost 10.3)." Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. "Indian Mounds of Mississippi—A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary." 2001. http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/intro.htm.
Building the Mounds—How Were Mounds Made?
"Imagine groups of workers toiling from dawn to dusk, gathering baskets of dirt. They carry their burdens to a clearing, dump the soil, and tamp it down with their feet. As the days pass they retrace their footsteps time after time until a shape emerges and begins to grow. An earthen mound is born. Over years of ceremonial use, multiple layers of earth are added during repeated episodes of construction, gradually building a mound of impressive height. Variations of this scene were repeated throughout Mississippi over a span of at least 1,800 years." Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. "Indian Mounds of Mississippi—A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary." 2001. http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/intro.htm.
Life Along the River 2
"Often symbolized in arts and crafts, the cult became more intricate as the culture evolved, with religion increasingly the means for rulers to assert authority." "Civic and ceremonial mound centers grew more ambitious. Towns usually had anywhere from one to twenty flat-topped temple mounds, which served as platforms for temples or other important structures, such as the houses of the elite. Centers of power such as Cahokia in Illinois—where the most impressive earthworks were built—hosted important festivals and ceremonies." "The archeological evidence paints a picture of bustling centers with houses of thatch and mud plaster stretching far among cultivated fields." "The rivers brought traders from afar, with not only basic items but luxury goods such as copper, mica, alligator teeth, and conch shells." "Though rich soil may have been plentiful, people still competed for land, induced, perhaps, by their increasing numbers. War seems to have become a more frequent means of control as time went on. Villages were enclosed in wooden palisades; the study of artifacts shows an increase in martial symbolism. Signs of violence on human remains underscore this development." "By about 1450 A.D., the cultures had declined dramatically. Some hypothesize they may have been too successful." "Competition for limited resources created tension, as did the class structure. Poor sanitation in the crowded river towns may have triggered epidemics. There is evidence of mass migrations, which points to widespread turmoil. By 1500, you could travel many miles in the once-populous valley before coming upon an occupied village." "This is the world Europeans found. The shapes along the river were silent and overgrown, and centuries passed before newcomers knew of the epic that had unraveled before their arrival."
More about mounds...again
"Regardless of the particular age, form, or function of individual mounds, all had deep meaning for the people who built them. Many earthen mounds were regarded by various American Indian groups as symbols of Mother Earth, the giver of life. Such mounds thus represent the womb from which humanity had emerged. With such sacred associations, mounds were powerful territorial markers and monuments of social unity, reinforcing and perpetuating community identity and pride." Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. "Indian Mounds of Mississippi—A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary." 2001. http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/intro.htm.
DCA Functions (Department Consulting Archaeologist)
"Since the late 1950s, the DCA function has expanded beyond enforcement related to the Antiquities Act to a more general guidance role as required by the set of laws mentioned previously. Currently, the DCA is the program manager for the Archaeology Program, NPS." "The kinds of guidance and activities carried out today by this function include the following: Developing regulations and policy documents, often in concert with other federal agency officials, such as the uniform regulations for the Archaeological Resources Protection Act and the National Strategy for Federal Archaeology Coordinating joint archaeological activities and programs undertaken by federal and other public agencies Developing, maintaining, and coordinating the implementation of the National Archaeological Database 4. Developing and publishing technical and programmatic information related to archaeological preservation, including a series of technical briefs, professional studies, and guidelines 5. Providing for archaeological training in articular for continuing professional education 6. Maintaining information about incidents of looting and vandalism to archaeological resources on public lands 7. Maintaining and providing information about public education and outreach efforts for the public on the nature and value of archaeological resources.
Federal Archaeology Program
"The Federal Archaeology program is a general term that includes interpretation programs, collections care, scientific investigations, protection efforts, and public education and outreach efforts. The program covers activities on federal and tribal land as well as federally financed, permitted, or licensed actions on nonfederal land. Authorities, regulations, and guidelines define these activities to preserve, properly treat, and protect archaeological sites and objects, such as the Archaeological Resources Protection Act and the National Historic Preservation Act, especially Sections 106 and 110." The Tetons and the Snake River "The archaeological work involves the identification, evaluation, and nomination of historic properties to the National Register of Historic Places. The foundation for these activities and programs was laid by the authorities and protections provided by the Antiquities Act of 1906." "Dozens of federal agencies, such as the Bureau of Land Management, US Army Corps of Engineers, Forest Service, and National Park Service, have archaeological programs related to their own activities and responsibilities. The Secretary of the Interior is charged with providing general guidance and coordination for all of federal archaeology. The Secretary is required to report to Congress on federal archaeological activities under the Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act and the Archaeological Resources Protection Act. The Departmental Consulting Archaeologist accomplishes the report for the Secretary with the support of the Archaeology Program, NPS, and cooperation of dozens of federal agencies." "The position of Departmental Consulting Archaeologist (DCA) was created in 1927 to advise the Secretary of the Interior about archaeological matters handled by any bureau of the Department. For many years, the DCA primarily reviewed permit applications under the Antiquities Act of 1906 and made recommendations to the Secretary. Yet, even during the earliest years of the DCA function, other important activities were linked to the job." "These include advocating better protection of archaeological sites scattered over the lands of the Department, mainly in the Southwest; preventing unlawful excavation and gathering of objects of antiquity on federal and tribal lands; inspecting the orderly progression of archaeological field work under secretarial permit; and encouraging the publication of information through the scientific and educational institutions that carried out most of the early archaeological studies done under Antiquities Act permits."
Traders and Travelers
"The Mississippi and its tributaries, major highways of commerce and travel for centuries, gave rise to the bustling native communities of the lower Mississippi. Enriched by goods and materials from as far away as the Great Lakes, the Mississippians—the last in a line of mound builders—erected monuments whose majesty and complexity of construction still astonish." "The wealthy drove the trading system. Because they took their prized possessions to the grave (their status symbols) their children had to accumulate their own marks of rank. The demand for luxury items fostered trade across the region, and beyond." "Raw copper, likely from the Great Lakes area, was cut and delicately hammered into bracelets, beads, rings, ear spools, and embossed effigies of falcons and other birds of prey. From the Gulf of Mexico came marine shells called whelks or conchs, which were worked into perforated necklaces and large disks carefully decorated with intricate designs." "There was also a demand for tools and utensils, which villagers took to the grave to denote their own roles or status: for men, axes and fishhooks; for women, pestles and nut-cracking stones." "The Mississippian culture is gone now, but the artistry of the mound builders continues to lure looters to the mounds." "With few exceptions—such as the record of Hernando DeSoto's Spanish army—there are no documents of what travelers saw in the age of the mound builders. DeSoto's entourage, which traversed the valley in the 1540s, came when the cultures were in decline. DeSoto landed near Tampa Bay, Florida, and for two years trekked across what are now the states of Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Texas, and Louisiana. He visited a number of large communities in the Mississippi valley." "The legacy of the Mississippian mound builders lives on today in the rich archeological record, which includes materials like pottery, copper, and shell." "Retrace the steps of Hernando De Soto, exploring the valleys he discovered along the lower Mississippi, the communities there, and the picture of the region when he arrived."
6.07 More Indian Mounds
"The National Park Service's National Register of Historic Places, Southeast Archeological Center, and Natchez Trace Parkway, in conjunction with the Historic Preservation Division of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, and the National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers (NCSHPO) proudly invite you to discover Indian Mounds of Mississippi. This guide to the publicly owned, visitor-accessible American Indian Mound sites of Mississippi provides a compact source of information on these impressive landmarks of the ancient past. Viewing the mounds, the traveler will come face to face with a rich legacy of American Indian cultural achievement." "Many diverse Indian groups, drawn by the bountiful wildlife, warm climate, and fertile soil, made their homes in what is now Mississippi for thousands of years before the first Europeans and Africans arrived. Mounds built of earth are the most prominent remains left on the landscape by these native peoples. This latest National Register of Historic Places Travel itinerary highlights 11 mound sites, which include some of the best-preserved examples in Mississippi. Further information on mound sites in Mississippi and throughout the Lower Mississippi Delta can be found in the NPS's Archeology and Ethnography program's Ancient Architects of the Mississippi website." Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. "Indian Mounds of Mississippi—A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary." 2001. http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/intro.htm.
Effigy National Monument
"The monument preserves 206 pre-European contact American Indian mounds, of which 31 are effigies in the shape of bears and birds. A unique 'Effigy Mound' culture developed in this area of the Upper Midwest, placing thousands of mounds in the shape of animals across the landscape. Others are conical, linear or compound shapes; many of the conical are burial mounds. Eastern Woodland Indians built mounds from about 500 B.C. until the early European contact period. As a sacred site to the modern descendants of the mound builders, park access is offered via 14 miles of hiking trails; no self-guiding roadways exist in the park." "At first you see low rises on the landscape. Soon your eye begins to pick out regular patterns in the hills. If you trace the patterns, the "hills" turn into familiar shapes—animals rising in low relief out of the ground. These effigies are not the work of nature at all but were created by the people who lived here more than 1,000 years ago." "Effigy Mounds National Monument in Northeast Iowa was established by presidential proclamation in 1949. The monument preserves a representative and outstanding example of a significant phase of the prehistoric American Indian mound building culture and protects wildlife, scenic, and other natural values of the area. Prehistoric peoples built mounds at various times and places throughout the Americas. Only in the upper Mississippi River valley, however, was there a culture that specialized in ceremonial mounds called effigies—representations of living creatures such as eagles, falcons, bison, deer, turtles, lizards, and, in particular, bears."
Life Along the River
"The mound builders, among the first intensive farmers of the continent's eastern woodlands, thrived because of what they called the Three Sisters—corn, beans, and squash. The population exploded between 800 and 1400 A.D.; towns and cities crowded the Mississippi and its tributaries. " "With survival's burden lightened, arts and crafts blossomed. Interaction among communities became more formal and complex." "Political systems and alliances arose along with elaborate customs and religious rites." "The social structure was that of the chiefdom; allied communities were governed by an elite whose positions were inherited or earned by outstanding accomplishments." "The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, also known as the Southern Cult, dominated peoples' beliefs."
More About Mounds
"The shapes of mounds vary. They can be flat-topped pyramids, rounded domes, or barely perceptible rises on the landscape." Winterville Mounds, Mississippi "Mounds can stand alone or be in groups of as many as 20 or more, as at Winterville. Some mounds are arranged around broad plazas, while others are connected by earthen ridges." "How American Indians used the mounds also varied. The purposes of some of the most ancient mounds are still shrouded in mystery. Some societies buried their dead in mounds with great ceremony. Other cultures built temples atop the mounds, and worshipers approached by climbing steep stairs or ramps. Still other earthworks were symbolic pinnacles of power for leaders who dwelled atop them." Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. "Indian Mounds of Mississippi—A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary." 2001. http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/intro.htm.
Grand Village of the Natchez Indians
"These three platform mounds, an adjacent ceremonial plaza, and associated habitation areas mark the political and religious capital of the Natchez Indian chiefdom of the late seventeenth century and early eighteenth century. A number of French colonists who witnessed the use of the mounds at Grand Village recorded their observations. These eighteenth-century accounts offer a rare firsthand glimpse of mound ceremonialism, by then a nearly extinct holdover tradition from the precontact period." "The paramount chief of the Natchez, called the Great Sun, lived at the Grand Village. The French accounts describe both the Great Sun's house, which stood on Mound B at the center of the site, and a ceremonial temple, which stood on Mound C, the southernmost mound of the group. Within the temple, a sacred perpetual fire was kept burning day and night. Foundation remains of both the Great Sun's house and the temple were discovered during 1962 archeological excavations of the mound. Mound A, at the north end of the site, apparently was no longer in use by the time European chroniclers arrived. The mounds, which stand about 8 feet high, rose in several stages as the structures that stood on top of them were demolished and rebuilt in accordance with ceremony." Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. "Indian Mounds of Mississippi—A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary." 2001. http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/intro.htm.
Evaluation of Evidence
Archaeologists follow three basic steps to evaluate evidence: classification, dating, and interpretation. Lab technician taking notes Artifacts can be classified by either typology or seriation. Typology is the classification of artifacts according to their characteristics. Seriation is a relative dating method that places the artifacts of various sites from the same culture in chronological order. Archaeometry is the use of scientific methods such as radiocarbon dating to determine the age of an artifact. The two major methods used are relative dating and absolute dating. Relative dating gives information about the age of an object in relation to other objects. Absolute dating determines the age of an object in years.
Locating the Site
Archaeologists must determine the best sites to gather information. These sites may be located deep in the ground or under water. Changes in the landscape over the centuries make it even more difficult to find the correct archaeological site. Soils erode, volcanoes erupt, earthquakes create mountains, and water levels may rise or fall. Deciding where to look for evidence of an ancient civilization is not simply a guessing game. Archaeologists usually have a general idea where people have lived throughout history. Humans have always needed to locate food, water, and shelter sites. Sometimes these sites are easy to locate, and sometimes they may be discovered by chance. One of the traditional methods of finding a site is a foot survey. Archaeologists search an area at equal intervals to determine the quality of the site.
6.02 Gathering Information
Archaeologists study any items or evidence of how people lived in the past. There are three basic types of archaeological evidence that help archaeologists research cultures that no longer exist: Artifacts are objects than can be picked up and moved without changing their appearance or structure. An artifact may be a statue, a broken pot, an arrowhead, or an ancient tool. Features are objects that were created by a culture that cannot be moved. These existing features include tombs, temples, walls, roads, and houses. Ecofacts are any natural objects that are found in the same area as the artifacts. Ecofacts can be bones or seeds. Archaeologists also study fossils, which are the remains of plants, animals, or other organisms. Fossilization occurs when chemicals within living matter such as bones begin to turn into a type of stone. Fossilization is rare because it only occurs under specific natural conditions. A fossil may be a dinosaur footprint, a skeleton, or the imprint of a leaf in a rock.
Terminology
Archaeometry: the use of scientific methods such as carbon dating to determine the age of an artifact Cultural resources management: used to develop policies and procedures regarding the use and preservation of cultural resources Forensic archaeology: the use of scientific techniques to determine the identity of a deceased individual connected to criminal investigations Geochronology: the use of scientific procedures to determine the age of rocks, fossils, and sediments Marine archaeology: the study of underwater archaeological sites Paleontology: the study of the development of life on earth, including the fossil remains of plants and animals Paleobotany: the study of plants from former geological periods Palynology: the study of the spores and pollen of plants, both living and fossil Stratigraphy: the study of the layers of earth that have been deposited over a long period of time Taphonomy: the study of how artifacts and organism remains decay over an extended period of time
6.01 Archaeology In the Beginning
Did you ever visit a historical site such as Jamestown and wonder what it was like to live during that time period? Jamestown was founded in 1607 by a group of English settlers. The people of Jamestown faced various obstacles, such as finding reliable food and water sources and building adequate shelters. In addition, the winter of 1609 to 1610 was so brutal that it became known as the "starving time." How do we know this information about Jamestown? Written records and personal journal accounts of the settling of Jamestown provide valuable information about the history of New England. What happens if there is no written record? How would living conditions in Jamestown be known if there were no written documents of historic events? The field of archaeology provides information about Jamestown and its people and culture. In this lesson, you will learn how archaeologists gather evidence and information about the past.
Answer Key
Dinosaur National Monument 1. Why is the Dinosaur National Monument special? Visitors can see fossils exposed on the cliff face of the Douglass Quarry. The site also provides one of the best snapshots of Jurassic dinosaurs found anywhere in the world. 2. What were the large dinosaurs that once roamed the region of the Dinosaur National Monument? The plant-eating group called Sauropods, which includes Apatosaurus, Barosaurus, Camarasaurus, and Diplodocus. 3. Which dinosaur was known as the plated lizard and weighed from two to five tons? Stegosaurus 4. Which dinosaur was thirty to thirty-five feet long, walked on two legs, and weighed over one ton? Allosaurus 5. What is an important difference between lizards and dinosaurs? The position of the legs on their bodies 6. When did the earliest dinosaurs appear? Approximately 200 million years ago 7. How do paleontologists name an classify dinosaurs? By the shape of their hip bones, teeth, feet, and other body parts 8. What is characteristic of Saurichians? Lizard-like hips 9. What is characteristic of Ornithischians? Bird-like hips 10. How did the earliest dinosaurs survive the changing conditions of the climate on earth? They adapted to changing conditions.
History of Archaeology
During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the humanists became interested in the ancient Greek and Roman empires. During the Renaissance, the Catholic church and nobles sponsored expeditions that collected ancient works of art. These works of art were treasured more for their aesthetic (the appearance of the work of art) rather than historical value. This collection of ancient art continued into the 1700s. In the 1700s, scholars became interested in stone tools and the recently discovered bones of extinct animals. Huge burial mounds in America also sparked an interest in the past. The French Army, under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte, also carried out excavations in Egypt in the early 1800s. A more scientific approach to the study of the past developed during the 1800s, when scholars discovered new information about the age of the earth. Charles Darwin published the Origin of Species in 1859, which brought the theory of evolution to the center of public debate. It was about this time that the field of archaeology became an independent field of study. The public's interest in the past was fueled by the discovery of a prehistoric skull in Germany. Archaeologists in Europe concentrated their research on the classical, ancient Middle Eastern, and European civilizations. American archaeologists focused their research on artifacts of the American Indians. The field of archaeology expanded significantly during the 1900s. Archaeologists studied ancient civilizations in Asia, the Americas, and other areas around the world. Archaeologists used techniques such as seriation (relative dating of artifacts) and stratigraphy (the study of the layers of earth that have been deposited over a long period of time) in their research. Another important development in archaeology was radiocarbon dating in the 1940s. In addition, the exploration of underwater archaeological sites expanded significantly with the development of new diving equipment. Since the mid 1900s, archaeologists have developed general theories about the connection of modern civilizations to ancient societies. The development of the magnetometer made it possible to locate archaeological evidence below ground. Archaeologists were also concerned with the preservation of historical sites in light of expanding urban areas. The United States Congress passed the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966, which established procedures that would protect historic sites in America.
6.06 Mound Builders
Remember that archaeology is the study of objects left by earlier people. Archeologists may study tools, artwork, and structures and examine why a civilization no longer exists. They may even examine the garbage left behind by these people to obtain clues about how earlier civilizations developed. The archeologist gathers, classifies, and interprets information. The National Park Service (NPS) is responsible for the management of the archeological and historical sites in the United States. On the next two screens, read the words of A. Durand Jones, the Acting Director of the National Park Service on October 12, 2004. Please note the seriousness of tone from the Director's Order regarding the responsibilities placed on the National Park Service.
6.08 Fossils and Dinosaurs Archaeological Sites
The National Park Service (NPS) plays an important role in the preservation of archaeological, cultural, and historical sites in America. Archaeologists from the National Park Service are working to protect these valuable sites from the pressure of park visitors, vandals, and natural forces such as erosion. These archaeologists are working at a variety of sites including the Little Bighorn National Monument in Montana, the Aztec Ruins National Monument in New Mexico, and the Flint Quarries in Texas.
Surveying the Site
The archaeologists must survey a site by drawing a map or creating a grid before excavation can begin. Any visible artifacts are also gathered before excavation. The archaeologist may use a metal detector or magnetometer to locate buried items. Archaeologists who work under water may employ some of these same techniques to examine a site. An archaeologist may use sonar scanning to detect underwater artifacts.
6.03 Public Archaeology
The archaeology of the United States is a valuable historical and cultural resource for all citizens. Each state has an archaeologist who monitors all types of historical and cultural artifacts, features, fossils, and ecofacts. The National Park Service (NPS) is the principal federal agency that oversees the archaeological resources of the United States. The NPS is part of the U.S. Department of the Interior.
Excavation
The excavation of a site involves removing soil. Excavation tools can range from tractors or backhoes to a small penknife and a brush. The material found at the different layers, or strata (specific layers of earth), of soil is recorded for future study. Once an object is located, it is then described, counted, and photographed. The archaeologist may also analyze the soil in a laboratory. Many excavations have uncovered broken pieces of pottery called potsherds. The archaeologist must now examine the material that was gathered during the fieldwork at the dig site.
Archaeology
he origin of the word archaeology comes from the Greek archaia (meaning antiquarian lore or ancient things) and logos (theory). Archaeology can be divided into historical archaeology and prehistoric archaeology. The main difference between these two disciplines involves the availability of the written record of a civilization. European archaeologists connect their research to the field of history. Many archaeological studies in Europe and Asia have a written history connected to the area or civilization being researched. In North America, few written accounts regarding our country exist before 300 years ago. Because of the lack of written records, archaeology is considered a branch of anthropology in America. Archaeology is the study of objects left by earlier people. Archaeologists may study tools, artwork, and structures. They may even examine the garbage left behind by ancient people to obtain clues about how earlier civilizations developed. An archaeologist might examine why a civilization no longer exists. In essence, the archaeologist gathers, classifies, and interprets information. The work of an archaeologist exists in the areas of the natural and social sciences. The natural sciences of biology, botany, zoology, and geology provide valuable information to archaeologists in gathering and classifying information. The social sciences form the basis for the historical interpretation of information gathered in the field. Much of the information being interpreted is part of the humanities. Archaeologists, therefore, draw from all three categories of knowledge in the course of their research on the history of mankind.\ The study of archaeology covers the entire history of mankind. No one archaeologist can cover this vast amount of knowledge. For this reason, the field of archaeology is divided according to categories, fields, geographical regions, and historical time periods. Some ancient civilizations are so important to archaeology that a separate discipline based on geographical regions has been created. For example, the field of Egyptology focuses specifically on the archaeological record of ancient Egypt. Other disciplines include Assyriology and Classical Archaeology, which are the study of Ancient Greece and the study of Ancient Rome, respectively. Other regions of study include Africa, the Americas, Australia, and Europe. Some archaeologists study a specific time period, such as the medieval period or today's modern world. A paleontologist studies the time period of the development of life on earth, including dinosaur fossils. Some archaeologists conduct their field studies underwater, examining the remains of shipwrecks or past civilizations.
Archaeology Program: Legal Background of Archaeological Resources Protection
http://www.nps.gov/archeology/pubs/techbr/tch11a.htm
Archaeology & Big Bend
http://www.nps.gov/bibe/learn/historyculture/archaeology.htm
Archeology at Curecanti
http://www.nps.gov/cure/learn/historyculture/archeology.htm
Selected Archaeological Terms
http://www.nps.gov/efmo/learn/education/glossary-of-terms.htm
6.09 Dinosaur National Monument
http://www.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/dino/overview.html
Shiloh Indian Mounds Another mound building site was discovered in the state of Tennessee at Shiloh. This was the site of a Civil War battle that was fought on April 6 and 7 in 1862.
http://www.nps.gov/shil/learn/historyculture/upload/Mounds.pdf
Digging Dinosaurs
http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/dino/lowebb.jsp
The Federal Archaeology Program
https://static.k12.com/calms_media/media/1431500_1432000/1431509/1/21b0f106a56ab50047265d67e207a699a30a3576/17-6-3.pdf