7.3 New Imperialism

-Pre-1880: -By 1914:

-European interest in Africa-slave trade Europeans satisfied to deal with existing independent states rather than attempting to establish direct control over vast territories Remains of early exploration by old imperialists - did not penetrate the heart of the continent -Occupying powers included most large European states Only Liberia and Abyssinia (Ethiopia) remained independent

MOTIVES -"Civilizing mission" Tool of social policy: -Germany -Britain

-Missionaries demanded political and military support -Conservative nationalists hope that imperial expansion would deflect public interest away from demands for social reform However, acquired few colonies and played little role in colonial policy -Joseph Chamberlain - colonial secretary Argued for empire as a source of profit and economic security → would finance great program of domestic reform But made arguments way later more as a justification of what they had already done, not as a motive for why

NEW IMPERIALISM -More -Protectorates -spheres of influence -Actual number of Westerners involved in carrying it out was --Few -European racial -Short ---nary

-More intentionally imperial -non-Western territories over which Western nations exercised oversight without formal conquest or annexation Oversees the government without formally assuming responsibility for administration Usually de-facto colonies -arrangement whereby a European states, the US, or Japan received special commercial and legal privileges in part of an Asian or African state without direct political involvement -Actual number of Westerners involved in carrying it out was relatively small - soldiers and sailors, a few thousand administrators, merchants, and missionaries -Few immigrants - few involved at all -European racial arrogance -Short lived; < century -Reactionary

THE PARTITION OF AFRICA

-Economic and political competition Rationalization Raw materials: ivory, rubber, minerals, diamonds, gold -1878: King Leopold II of Belgium in Congo Berlin Conference, 1884-1885

EGYPT -what compared to others -status -Khedives -suez canal 1869 -British administrators after 1881 rebellion

-Richest and most populous -Semi-independent under Ottomans -Egyptian rulers Post Napoleon's failed invasion in 1798 → modernization attempts Building new harbors, roads, and modern army Sought to expand rule into Sudan → Borrowed money from European creditors to pay for this Forced farmers to grow cash crops to pay for loans Good when cotton prices are high, but terrible when prices were low after the US Civil War -major engineering achievement and international waterway -1881: the bankrupt government was overthrown by the army in a rebellion → Britain defeated the army and installed administrators to ensure repayment of their loans for the Suez Canal and access to the path to India

MOTIVES -exception -losing game for

-india -italy and germany

MOTIVES 1. Colonies = characteristic of power/Following British example 2. Anticipation of Ottoman decay = "The Eastern Question" 3. Geopolitical assumptions (strategic positions; military and naval bases)

1. Franco-Prussian War defeat → opportunities to compensate for lost prestige and territory Russia into Asia after loss in Crimean War Italy and Germany post unification US and Japan - essential to world status 2."The Eastern Question" Slow and steady decline European powers were anxious their rivals might profit from the weakness of the Ottoman Empire Tried to control the course of the loss of Ottoman authority Tensions between Austria and Russia → outbreak of WWI Turmoil in Middle East 3.Intruded in other parts of the world to protect their strategic interest and then had to decide how to manage the necessity of administering them Military and naval bases

GERMAN EMPIRE IN AFRICA

1884-85 Protectorates in Southwest Africa (Namibia), Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika Short-lived, failure Genocide in SW Africa against Herero people A German soldier guards Herero women and children in a prison camp in German South-West Africa in 1906.

NEW IMPERIALISM

19th - 20th centuries Africa and Asia no Slavery Protestant missionaries, not no RCC Imperialism of Free Trade, not no mercantilism

The Maxim

The Maxim was the first wholly portable machine gun, pictured here with its American-born inventor Hiram Stevens Maxim (1840-1916), who became a British citizen. Technological superiority in weaponry and naval ships accounted in large measure for the success of Western imperialism in the nineteenth century.

EFFECTS ON EUROPE positive

Economic boom - innovation, investment, and power Militarism Strategic outposts and supply stations Training and build-up Gained cultural diversity (food, art, ideas)

EGYPT

Battle of Omdurman, 1898 (vs. Sudanese) Capacity of European forces with modern weapons Sir Horatio Kitchener Near Khartoum 10,000 African vs. 48 British dead African imperialism → demonstrated potential for conflict involving great powers To secure control of Egypt: Britain extended power into Sudan → intrusion brought resistance by Muslim troops Expedition at Omdurman, 1898: Demonstrated awesome advantage of machine guns, artillery over muskets, spears British lost only 48 men to 10,000 for the Sudanese After victory: British troops almost fell into conflict with French (who controlled much of N and W Africa) at Fashoda War avoided Potential for further conflict in Africa shook Britain out of isolation; went shopping for allies

BOER WAR, 1899-1902

Boer: guerrilla tactics 450,000 Brits vs. 87,000 Boers British: international condemnation 1907: representative governments 1910: Union of South Africa Apartheid Rhodes' policies: eventually embroiled Britain in costly Boer War, 1899-1902; Boers' use of guerrilla tactics Brits sustained high casualties, immense expenses in securing victory 450,000 Brits vs 87,000 Boers; 22,000 British deaths Britain's use of concentration camps, scorched-earth policies led to international condemnation Public outcry; antiwar sentiment at home Demonstrated increased military and monetary investment needed to maintain British Empire After a series of bloody wars, the British arranged with the Boers for a white-only ruling class Apartheid "Separateness" - the policy that segregated non-whites and granted virtually no civil rights in South Africa to Africans

MOTIVES: -J.A. Hobson, Imperialism: a Study, 1902

British economist and journalist Opposed Boer War Blamed on influence of capitalists and bankers Capitalist economies overproduced → manufacturers and bankers wanted new markets for excess goods and capital Should restructure European economics to imperialism (as he understood it) would be unnecessary

BRITISH SETTLER COLONIES

Canada, 1760s James Cook, 1770s Australia New Zealand South Africa, 1820s Dutch already there (1650s) Canada - won by warfare, controlled since Seven Years' War (1763) Australia and New Zealand - established during James Cook's voyages of exploration Australia = penal colony New Zealand = missionaries Millions of immigrants - natives paid the cost British system of self governance spread → increasingly inclusive franchise Australian Commonwealth in 1901 New Zealand dominion status in 1907

BOTONY, ZOOLOGY, MEDICINE

Commercial applications Botanical gardens Medicine and the civilizing mission Cures for tropical diseases Kew Garden near London was the center of a vast network of botanical research. Joseph Dalton Hooker, its director, persuaded collectors from around the world to send specimens to Kew. Tropical plants were grown in its greenhouse, where British citizens could visit the grounds and see the plants that populated the far regions of the British empire. This photo shows Kew Palace, located in Kew Garden.

RUSSIAN EXPANSION

Crimean War defeat... Siberia Ottoman Empire 1907: agreement with GB for Afghanistan buffer state, Spheres of Influence in Persia Consolidation of control around the Baltic Sea Changing attitude toward nomadic societies 19th Century Russian Expansion The Transcaucasus Steppes of Central Asia Southern Middle East Explorers penetrated wilderness of Siberia in the 17th century - reached Pacific coast, 1637 18th century - established claim on Alaska, sold to US in 1867 Settlers moved into Siberia gradually; 1800-1914 = 7 mill settlers; 90% population was Slavic Moved Southward into warmer climates and the territories of the crumbling Ottoman Empire By 1830: Established control over northern coast of Black Sea, 1881: into C Asia and Trans-Caspian 1885: Turkestan Brought Russians to borders of Persia and Afghanistan British also had interests b/c of desire to protect holdings in India 1907: Russians and British: agreed to make Afghanistan buffer state between Russian Turkestan, British India; divide Persia into 2 spheres of influence Into Asia: occupation of Manchuria, attempt to move into Korea brought war with new imperialist power, Japan Conflict with Russia over resources in Manchuria: led to Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905 Japan shocked world by defeating Russians on land and sea; destroyed Russian fleet at Tsushima Strait Outcome represented first time in modern history: Asian power defeated European power in war Consequences from war: Russia turned back toward expansion in Balkans, setting stage for WWI Russia's weak showing led to Revolution of 1905, warm-up for Revolution of 1917 Japan demonstrated to rest of world that Europeans could be defeated by turning own weapons against them

EFFECTS ON WORLD pos

Establishment of infrastructure Transportation, sewage and water, etc. Education for upper classes More modern society and improved standard of living (?)

MISSIONARIES

Evangelical Protestants Roman Catholics Gains for native women Tensions between missionaries and imperial administrators Evangelical Protestant missionaries Roman Catholic missionary advance Women benefited from becoming missionaries or from missionaries in their region; schooling and traveling, ban of foot binding Tensions between missionaries and imperial administrators Became informal spokespeople for Western civilization; left impression Assumption that native cultures were inferior Had to learn native languages to translate Bible Missionaries and indigenous religious movements clashed

THE JEWEL IN THE CROWN

Focus: Atlantic → Asia Challenges: Vast heterogeneous population Complex social and economic conditions Islam and Hinduism "Civilizing Mission" East India Company Indirect control - exploit political divisions India = most important part of the British empire Base for British military and economic power in Asia Huge population - market for British goods Major supplier of raw materials for British industrial revolution Tea, indigo, coffee, cotton, jute, poppy/opium Laws passed that prevented local Indian industries from competition with British industries Chief concern of imperial strategy is protecting commercial and military routes to India Challenges of controlling India Vast heterogeneous population Complex social and economic conditions Non-Western religions - Islam and Hinduism Already possessed sophisticated political and social hierarchies → European imperialists preferred to "plug in" to existing power structure to establish control (indirect imperialism to start) British East India Company Private company of merchants chartered by Parliament in 1600 Expanded authority across India through warfare and negotiation in late 18th-early 19th centuries Operated in India without regulation by British government Had its own company army - led by British army officials India had its own manufacturing base, but Britain turned it into a raw materials producer "Civilizing mission" Attempted to modernize its culture by building railroads, instructing population in English, educating elites at British universities so they might become effective civil servants Many students took the western ideas of nationalism and nationalism and used it later to establish movement for Indian independence

WESTERN AFRICA

France controlled much of sub-Saharan Africa The British had four West African colonies: Sierra Leone, Gambia, the Gold Coast (now Ghana), and Nigeria

NORTH AFRICA

French in Algeria post 1830 Declining Ottoman Empire French protectorate in Tunisia and Morocco Italy in Libya By WWI, all of North Africa was under some form of European control → Western powers dominated a largely Muslim population

Great Britain France Partition of Africa Japan US Russia

Great Britain: direct control of India, protectorate in Egypt, France: direct rule in Vietnam, protectorate in Tunisia Partition of Africa: Italy, Britain, Belgium, Germany, France, Portugal, Spain Japan: annexed Korea and Taiwan US: annexed Hawaii and Philippines Russia: dominated zones in Persia

effects on the WORLD neg

Immense loss of life, culture, identity, language, tradition Imposition of European systems Exploitation of labor and resources Little political or economic opportunities

MOTIVES Lenin, Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, 1916

Imperialism is the monopoly stage of capitalism - the last stage of a dying system Competition inevitably eliminates inefficient capitalists and therefore leads to monopoly Powerful industrial and financial capitalists run out of profitable investments in their own countries and persuade governments to gain colonies in less developed countries where they can find markets for products and sources of raw materials

-King Leopold II

In this 1906 cartoon, King Leopold II is depicted as a snake squeezing a Congolese rubber worker to death in his coils. In the background, a woman flees in horror, clutching a baby. Even though Leopold cultivated the image of a humanitarian ruler, he imposed brutal conditions on the Congolese. Leopold's policies in Belgium led directly to the death of half of the native population of his territory in only thirty years. (murder, exploitation, starvation, and disease)

BRITISH IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

Joseph Chamberlain Cecil Rhodes Cape of Good Hope, 1815 Cape-to-Cairo Rhodesia Colonial secretary: Joseph Chamberlain favored creation of tariff union between Britain/colonies Fearing spread of independence movements: Chamberlain wished to bind Britain's colonies together by system of "imperial preferences" Gradually dominions (self-governing areas such as Canada) would achieve complete self-rule but maintain strong economic ties with mother country Chamberlain's idea later bear fruit with commonwealth system after WWI In reality, African imperialism seemed to belong to adventurers like Cecil Rhodes rather than statesmen like Chamberlain Britain already established in 1815 control of Cape of Good Hope on S end of Africa British policies disgusted Boers (Afrikaners: descendants of Dutch settlers) Dispossessing Dutch who trekked overland to create Orange Free State and Transvaal; 1835 forced to migrate on Great Trek Rhodes made prime minister of Cape Colony; dreamed of establishing Cape-to-Cairo connection to cement Britain's dominance of Africa; connected by railroad Rhodes: founded both diamond/gold companies: monopolized production of precious commodities, enabled him to gain control of territory N of Transvaal; named Rhodesia Went too far by trying to provoke war with two Dutch republics and forced to resign 1877: seized Transvaal; Boer revolt led British gov to recognize Transvaal as independent South African Republic Conflict b/w British/Boers: did not prevent either from massacring, subjugating Zulu and Xhosa peoples of region 1896: forced to resign after conspired to overthrow Boer gov of S African Republic w/out British approval

EARLY MODERN COLONIZATION

Late 15th - late 18th centuries Encounter, conquest, settlement, and exploitation of Americas Spanish, Portuguese, French, and English European trading posts in Africa and Asia Dutch East Indies Mercantilism Slavery

US IN ASIA AND PACIFIC

Matthew Perry → opening of Japan, 1853 Purchase of Alaska, 1898 Spanish American War, 1898

FRENCH IN ASIA

Missionaries in Indochina: Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos Expansion into Indonesia

EFFECTS ON EUROPE neg

More conflict/tension between European powers Arbitrary boundaries Loss of European life in wars

EFFECTS ON WORLD

Net benefit for colonizers vs. net loss for colonized Legacy of turmoil? Long-lasting effects: Exploitation of resources Arbitrary boundaries → civil wars, dictatorships, ethnic and cultural violence Low standards of living

MANCHURIA

Occupation of Manchuria Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05 Russia defeated → Revolutions of 1905, 1917 Japan: Europeans could be defeated Occupation of Manchuria, attempt to move into Korea brought war with new imperialist power, Japan Conflict with Russia over resources in Manchuria: led to Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905 Japan shocked world by defeating Russians on land and sea; destroyed Russian fleet at Tsushima Strait Outcome represented first time in modern history: Asian power defeated European power in war Consequences from war: Russia turned back toward expansion in Balkans, setting stage for WWI Russia's weak showing led to Revolution of 1905, warm-up for Revolution of 1917 Japan demonstrated to rest of world that Europeans could be defeated by turning own weapons against them

DUTCH IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

Orange Free State, Transvaal Great Trek, 1835 Important resources include fertile pastures and farmland, deposits of coal, iron ore, gold, diamonds, and copper Partially inhabited by the Afrikaners, or Boers, descendants of Dutch settlers

International Congo Association

Pursuit of African colonies got under way with founding of International Congo Association in 1878 by King Leopold II of Belgium 1876: created International Association for Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa Engaged Henry Stanley to establish Belgian settlements in Congo French also moved into territory north of Congo River Financed by private bankers - entirely personal rather than national concern Leopold's rule: one of harshest in Africa Ignored prohibition on slavery Plundered nation of rubber, ivory, did nothing while native population decimated by disease, overwork →Leopold's treatment of Africans so brutal other Europeans condemned actions Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness, 1902

THE BOXER REBELLION

Qing decline Open Door Policy 1899-1901: Boxer Rebellion Society of the Harmonious Fists Brutally suppressed by Western powers In 1900, an international force composed of troops drawn from Austria-Hungary, the French Third Republic, the German Empire, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States invaded China to put down the Boxer Rebellion, which had endangered Western missionaries and Western interests in China. In August 1900 these forces occupied Beijing. This contemporary print presents the image of a romanticized heroic assault by these foreign troops.

ANTHROPOLOGY

Racial thinking Imperial policy Peoples from colonized nations were transported to various world's fairs and similar exhibitions during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. They constituted living exhibitions, where they were expected to portray "native customs" or the like. Here at the St. Louis World's Fair of 1904 African Pygmies demonstrated beheading. In this and other similar examples, native peoples were frequently presented in demeaning roles that filled the expectations of spectators to see "exotic" behavior. Such performances and exhibitions served to convince the Western spectators of the superiority of their civilization over that of the peoples living in the colonized world.

QUEEN VICTORIA

Reigned 1837-1901 Duty and moral respectability Stability Age of Imperialism The British feeling of National Pride was reflected in Queen Victoria, whose reign from 1837 to 1901 was the longest in English history Her sense of duty and moral respectability reflected the attitudes of her age, known as the Victorian Age Height of British Empire's wealth and power More symbolic than directly powerful over the government → crucial for the relative stability of nineteenth-century British politics 1860s: Second Reform Bill Decision of whether to disestablish the Protestant religion in predominantly Catholic Ireland Sustained domestic peace which set Britain apart from the war-torn European continent.

BERLIN CONFERENCE

Response to possible opening of Africa Bismarck called in 1884-1885 Berlin Conference among great powers Imperial powers agreed to create Congo Free State as Leopold's personal fiefdom Devised procedures for orderly establishment of colonies Outlawed slave trade Claim territories - tell others of plans and show you can hold it Conference produced opposite of intended effect By establishing coastal control European nations could claim huge swaths of Africa's interior by drawing lines on map Usually with no regard for linguistic, tribal divisions Imperialists exploited Africans' lack of experience with European legal, economic concepts Tribal leaders often casually signing away trade, resource concessions By 1900: all except Liberia, Ethiopia fallen under direct European rule

THE SEPOY MUTINY, 1857

Rifle cartridges Brutally suppressed 1858: Government of India Act 1877: Act of Parliament → direct British imperial control 1885: Indian National Congress (Hindu) 1887: Muslim League Sepoy Mutiny = most extensive resistance against any European power in the 19th century Sepoys = Indian troops in the British army New cartridges for soldiers' muskets that the sepoys believed (falsely) were sealed with pork or beef fat (had to bite off the end to use it) Pig = unclean in Islam Cow = sacred in Hinduism Britain subdued Sepoy Mutiny with great brutality →dissolved East India Company →1858: Government of India Act: established direct rule - transferred political authority from the East India Company to the British Crown →PM Disraeli pushed through and 1877 Act of Parliament to declare Queen Victoria "Empress of India" Racist British attitudes and threatening missionaries threatened traditional ways of life → rise of resistance organizations

TOOLS OF IMPERIALISM

Steamboats Conquest of tropical diseases Quinine as a medical cure for malaria Firearms Machine guns Telecommunications Telegraphic cables

Joseph Conrad Heart of Darkness, 1902 Novella, three-part series in Blackwood's Magazine

The story details an incident when Marlow, an Englishman, took a foreign assignment as a ferry-boat captain, employed by a Belgian trading company. Although the river is never specifically named, readers may assume it is the Congo River, in the Congo Free State, a private colony of King Leopold II. Marlow is employed to transport ivory downriver; however, his more pressing assignment is to return Kurtz, another ivory trader, to civilization in a cover up. Kurtz has a reputation throughout the region.

THE OPIUM WARS (1839-42 + 1856-60)

Treaty of Nanjing Superior military technology Free trade → warfare China didn't want Western goods, but Europeans wanted to import Chinese goods, especially silk, tea, and porcelain Got them hooked on opium produced in India Britain tried to impose free trade of opium in China against the emperor's will Treaty of Nanjing, 1842: Britain gained control of Hong Kong Forced Chinese to allow Christian missionaries to operate in China Forced to open various ports to British merchants (subject to British law, not Chinese law) Second Opium War Britain and France allied to force foreign enjoys to establish embassies in Beijing Forced to open more ports Allowed missionaries to operate more freely

Underwater telegraphic cables

Underwater telegraphic cables were among the important inventions of the mid-nineteenth century utilizing then new electrical technology. Submarine cables amazed people of that era and the early twentieth century much as the Internet does today. These cables also allowed for unprecedented international communication. FTL Design