7C. Attitude and Behavior Change

*associative learning* -- *operant conditioning* *reinforcement schedules* Overall, are *ratio* or *interval* reinforcement schedules *more effective*? Why?

*RATIO* Because you're being rewarded for a particular behavior instead of just at the end of a particular time frame

*Associative Learning* Both *classical* and *operant* conditioning are considered to be what type of *theories of learning*?

*Behavioral* theories of learning

*Attitudes* 1) What is an *attitude*? 2) What are the 3 components of *attitude*? (*ABC model of attitude*)

*attitude* = a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way (people, issues, events, objects, etc) 1) *Affective* = emotions -- shape our attitude 2) *Behavioral* = actions/behavior -- towards an object/subject 3) *Cognitive* = thoughts/beliefs/knowledge -- of object/subject

*Escape and Avoidance Learning* Which type of learning (escape or avoidance) results in problems? Not a good thing?

*avoidance learning* (*escape* learning is adaptive, constructive = good thing)

*Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change* Explain the *Elaboration Likelihood Model*

*more of a cognitive approach* -- focuses on the why/how of persuasion 1) *central route* -- message *quality* 2) *peripheral route* -- *superficial* cues

*Associative Learning* *operant conditioning* *The Skinner Box = operant conditioning chamber* What kind of *reinforcement* is the electrical grid?

*positive punishment* electrical grid = negative consequence

*Escape and Avoidance Learning* *Problem with Punishment* Example: A boy has social anxiety that manifests as blushing and stammering. The goal is to *reduce* this behavioral frequency, so *punishments* are considered. Solution from older brother: "Every time you blush or stammer when talking to someone, you have to pay me $5." *Does this work?* What is likely to happen?

*probably not* It just makes the younger brother *more* anxious, self-conscious, and insecure

*associative learning* -- *operant conditioning* *reinforcement schedules* What is the main difference between *simple* and *concurrent* reinforcement schedules?

*simple* reinforcement schedules make use of a *single general strategy* when trying to modify behavior

*Escape and Avoidance Learning* 1) What is *punishment*? 2) When is *punishment* useful? (6)

1) (both positive and negative punishment) = when a consequence of a behavior causes the behavior to become *less likely* 2) Punishment is useful in situations where the individual: - Knows *why* they are being punished - *recently* conducted the behavior - had the *capacity* to restrain themselves - had access to *alternative* choices that would have been rewarding/rewarded - receives a *reasonable* punishment (given the offense) - gets no *"hidden" reward* tied to the punishment (such as attention, getting out of obligations, a lot of affection after timeout)

*Associative Learning* *classical conditioning* 1) Which part(s) of the classical conditioning timeline is the most important (*necessary*)? 2) Which part(s) of the classical conditioning timeline is not as important? Why?

1) *Acquisition* 2) Extinction and spontaneous recovery (because these two steps don't necessarily always happen)

*Associative Learning* What are the two main categories of *associative learning*?

1) *Classical* conditioning 2) *Operant* conditioning

*Exposure Therapy* What are the 2 general kinds of *exposure therapy*? define both.

1) *Flooding* = a person is put into contact with *extreme measures* of the feared item or situation 2) *Systematic Desensitization*: A. 1st, person *identifies* their fears and lists all the attributes of this stimulus or situation B. Next, with help of therapist, person puts the list in a *hierarchal* order (with most anxiety-provoking situations at top) C. Then, person is taught *progressive relaxation* techniques D. Finally, person *approaches each situation* sequentially and doesn't move up the list until they can relax at a current level

*Social Learning Theory* *Observational Learning* What are 2 responses (behaviors) that are possible from children after they observe a "model" performing a certain behavior?

1) *Imitation* 2) *Non-imitation*

*associative learning* -- *operant conditioning* *simple reinforcement schedules* Example: Child is praised every time she says please and thank you at ages 2 and 3. By age 4, it's easy for her. 1) What type of *reinforcement schedule* is being used here? 2) What do you have to do to *motivate her more* when she reaches age 4 (when the behavior has become a habit)?

1) *continuous* 2) *sporadically* praise her

*Escape and Avoidance Learning* What are the two main categories of *aversive learning* (*aversive control*)? Define each.

1) *escape learning* = immediately removing oneself from a (usually) dangerous environment 2) *avoidance learning* = perceiving cues in the environment (*associations*) that might signify danger and then flee or avoid the environment/situation in the first place

*Factors that affect attitude change* *Behavior --> Attitude* 1) Explain the *foot in the door phenomenon* 2) Explain *role-playing* and how it relates to behavior-->attitude change

1) *foot in the door phenomenon* = we have a tendency to agree to *small actions first* and then later comply with *much larger actions* -- basic concept behind brainwashing/exploitation 2) *Role-playing* = when we're in a *new role*, we're trying to follow some type of *social quota* for that role. What first felt like *acting* starts to feel *normal* (starts to fit your attitude) -- doesn't happen to all people

1) What is *long-term potentiation*? How does this explain how humans learn? 2) How does *long-term potentiation* work? 3) What is *synaptic plasticity*?

1) *long-term potentiation* = connections between neurons strengthen -- one example of *synaptic plasticity* -- when the increased strength lasts for a long time -- physiological mechanism by which learning occurs 2) Neurons communicate using electrochemical signals through a *synapse* (between pre-synaptic neuron and post-synaptic neuron). *synaptic plasticity* = ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time (in response to increase or decreases in their activity)

*Social Learning Theory* *Observational Learning* 1) What is *imitation*? 2) when does *imitation* usually take place? 3) What does *no imitation* refer to? 4) Does *no imitation* always occur?

1) *mimicking* another person (animal) 2) Usually happens *soon after* observation has taken place (NO complex thinking required) 3) when observational learning occurs even when the individual doesn't immediately imitate the model/behavior 4) No, but individuals *may or may not* "act out" observed behaviors from long ago (requires MORE complex thinking)

*Social Learning Theory* *Observational Learning* 1) what is the *focus* of SLT? 2) What does *observational learning* refer to?

1) *observational learning* (aka *social modeling* and *vicarious learning*) 2) Refers to behavioral/cognitive processes of *observing* others and then committing that information to *memory*

*associative learning* -- *operant conditioning* *simple reinforcement schedules* 1) What is *continuous* reinforcement schedule? 2) When is *continuous* reinforcement schedule effective? 3) What happens over time with this schedule?

1) *reinforcement* is given *each and every time* that the learner engages in the action 2) In the *early stages* of behavior modification, this is very effective 3) BUT once the behavior starts to become a *habit*, it actually has *diminishing returns*

*associative learning* -- *operant conditioning* *intermittent reinforcement schedules* How well do these reinforcement schedules work? 1) Fixed-interval intermittent 2) Variable-interval intermittent 3) Fixed-ratio intermittent 4) Variable-ratio intermittent

1) *so-so.* Behavior tends to be *more frequent right before reward* is administered. People "cram" to meet goals. Not the best for developing a *habit*. 2) *yes, it increases behavioral frequency* (better than fixed-interval) 3) *yes, especially if the ratio pattern is through out in advance* (*frequent reinforcers* in the *beginning* and then it's good to *spread them out*) 4) *very well* (one of the *most effective* reinforcement schedules -- as long as the reward is *somewhat frequent*

*Associative Learning* *operant conditioning* Explain the basic idea of each: 1) Positive reinforcement 2) Negative reinforcement 3) Positive punishment 4) Negative punishment

1) + reinforcement = desirable behavior --> "goodie" (can be praise; doesn't have to be tangible) 2) - reinforcement = desirable behavior --> avoiding a "slap" 3) + punishment = undesirable behavior --> "slap" 4) - punishment = undesirable behavior --> removing a "goodie"

*Factors that affect attitude change* Explain how the *elaboration likelihood model* affects our *attitude change*: 1) What are 3 message characteristics that impact how we are persuaded for or against a certain message?

1) - *message characteristics* -- how well thought-out the actual message is (logical?), how well-written it is, does speaker speak well, length of message - *source characteristics* -- level of expertise/trustworthiness of speaker/message; physical environment of message - *target characteristics* -- characteristics of the listener of the message (mood, self-esteem, intelligence, etc) *ELM* = tries to explain how our attitudes are formed and how they can change 1) *central route* = lasting attitude change 2) *peripheral route* = temporary attitude change

*associative learning* -- *operant conditioning* *reinforcement schedules* *Reinforcement schedules* consist of what 2 categories of *schedules*? (how many in each)

1) 5 *"simple" schedules* (1 continuous, 4 partial) 2) ~6 *"concurrent schedules*

*Escape and Avoidance Learning* 1) What is the *problem* with *punishment*? 2) What happens when you *punish* people for *habitual, emotional behaviors*?

1) A lot of behaviors we *WANT* to reduce are steeped in powerful *emotions* (like anxiety and anger) 2) Can cause them to become *MORE upset* and then *MORE likely* to engage in the behavior

*Associative Learning* *classical conditioning* What are the 3 steps in the classical conditioning *timeline*?

1) Acquisition 2) Extinction 3) Spontaneous Recovery

*Social Learning Theory* 1) Who came up with SLT? 2)What is the argument of *Social Learning Theory* ? 3) What are the two categories of *Social Learning Theory*?

1) Albert Bandura 2) People learn through watching others, even when there are *no rewards or punishments* 3) Social Cognitive Theory & *Observational Learning*

*Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change* 1) Explain the *attitude to behavior process model* 2) Explain the *prototype willingness model*

1) An *event* triggers an *attitude* (will influence our *perception*) + *knowledge* = *behavior* 2) *behavior* = past behavior + attitudes + subjective norms + intentions + willingness + *prototypes* (models)

*Social Cognitive Learning Theory* According to Bandura, for social modeling behavior to be enacted, the individual (learner) must possess the following 4 elements:

1) Attention = paying attention in the first place 2) *Retention* = enough *memory encoding* of the behavior to retrieve it at a later date 3) *Reproduction* = the individual must have the physical/cognitive *capacity* to enact the behavior 4) *Motivation* = the behavior has the be "*worth it*" to the observer. If they admire the model and the behavior is easy to execute, they will likely enact it.

*Reciprocal Determinism* 1) What is *reciprocal determinism*? 2) What is the point of *reciprocal determinism*?

1) Bandura said that people's *dispositions, social context, and environments* often *reinforce* each other 2) These observations DO NOT happen in a vacuum. We're usually out in a very complex social environment (with multiple models and a lot going on every day)

*Diffusion Chain* 1) What is *diffusion chain* referring to? 2) What is the point of *diffusion chain*?

1) Behavioral and *cultural patterns* spread through social groups and across generations through *"chains of diffusion"*, whereby a learner in one situation becomes a model for a new learner. 2) observational learning does NOT just end. The behavior can spread *Trends spread geographically* (i.e fashion, online gaming)

*Associative Learning* *operant conditioning* *The Skinner Box = operant conditioning chamber*

1) Boxes were interactive 2) When animals perform certain behaviors, food dispenses (rewarded with food pellet or punished with electrical grid) 3) MORE than an association. It's actual *reinforcement*

*Associative Learning* *classical conditioning* Types of classical conditioning: Explain each. 1) Forward conditioning 2) Simultaneous conditioning 3) Trace conditioning 4) Temporal conditioning 5) Second-order conditioning 6) Zero contingency procedure

1) Forward = *typical form* of classical conditioning = *CS precedes the UCS* (first present the CS (bell) then present the UCS (meat)) 2) Simultaneous = CS is *presented at the same time* as the UCS (*weaker conditioned response* as compared to forward) 3) Trace = just *like forward conditioning*, but there is a *longer time lag,* which produces a *weaker conditioned response* 4) Temporal = when an US is presented at *regular intervals* as a way of developing an *association between* a particular *time of day* or *time interval* and a CR (*time* becomes the *CS*) 5) Second-order (higher-order) = after initial conditioning has occurred, you can *pair* the *CS with a new neutral stimulus* to elicit a CR. (a way of *"stacking" conditioned stimuli* on top of one another) 6) *Zero contingency procedure* = when the *CS is rarely and sporadically* presented prior to the UCS, but *NOT* with regularity. (*little-to-no conditioned response* develops)

*Non-Associative Learning* What are the two types of *Non-Associative Learning* ?

1) Habituation 2) Sensitization

*Associative Learning* How is *associative learning* different from *sensitization*?

1) Many situations that produce sensitization ALSO produce classical conditioning, so *both types* of learning are often involved 2) Main difference is that *non-associative learning* (*sensitization*) is mostly limited to the realms of *sensory perceptions* - *sensitization* = *physiological* sensitivity - *associative learning* = behavior change is associated with the actual object/stimulus (not just the sound, smell, etc.)

What are the 3 main categories of *learning*?

1) Non-Associative Learning 2) Associative Learning 3) Observational Learning

*Social Learning Theory* *Observational Learning* 1) Observational learning doesn't rely on reinforcements and punishment, but it does *require* what? 2) Usually who are the "models"?

1) One or more *"models"* 2) Adults are models for children

*Exposure Therapy* 1) Does *flooding work*? What can it lead to? 2) Does *systematic desensitization* work?

1) Only in *certain situations.* Instead, flooding can result in a *heightened emotional reactivity* to the situation/object 2) YES! it can be useful for increasing *behavioral flexibility* in certain situations

*Non-Associative Learning* 1) What does non-associative learning (as a category of learning) refer to? 2) Does it almost always refer to a *physiological states and perception* or *conscious behaviors*?

1) Refers to the *processes* in which *repeated exposure* to a stimulus results in a *strengthening* or *weakening* of a response. *NO reinforcements or punishments involved* 2) *physiological states and perception*

*Social Learning Theory* 1) What did Bandura say about SLT? What did he think was powerful? 2) Give an example of this with children and behavior and punishments

1) Said *social bonds* and *interactions* are so powerful that they often *overshadow* other reinforcements or punishments 2) Children copy the actions of others even if they see that person *punished* for their behaviors

*Associative Learning* *operant conditioning* 1) What is *positive reinforcement*? 2) Give an example of *positive reinforcement* (student and hw) 3) What is *negative reinforcement*? 4) Give an example of *negative reinforcement* (student and hw)

1) Something *favorable* is *given/experienced* as a consequence of a person engaging in a *wanted* behavior 2) Student turns in HW on time in order to *receive* a good grade and *accompanying praise* 3) Something *unfavorable* is *taken away/avoided* as a consequence of a person engaging in a *wanted* behavior 4) Student shows up to class on time to *avoid* the embarrassment (or grade penalty) of arriving late

*Social Cognitive Learning Theory* 1) Later in life, Bandura renamed his perspective to *social cognitive theory*. Why? 2) According to *social cognitive theory* what is required during *social modeling behavior*?

1) To emphasize that *observational learning* is *NOT* passive. There is a *thought process* that occurs. (IT'S NOT JUST IMITATION) 2) *active cognitive reasoning*

*Associative Learning* *classical conditioning* Define the following 4 parts of *classical conditioning*: Give examples. 1) unconditioned stimuli 2) unconditioned response 3) conditioned stimuli 4) conditioned response

1) UCS = *the trigger* that elicits an *unlearned response.* Biological. (Smelling food, physical affection, touch of a hot iron) 2) UCR = the *effects of an UCS.* Salivation, release of oxytocin, pulling hand away) 3) CS = *a trigger* that was once *neutral* (no response), but after being *paired with an UCS*, it now creates a response 4) CR = Salivating from hearing the word "pizza." Oxytocin from hearing loved one's voice. Wincing at the sight of an iron.

*Associative Learning* *classical conditioning* 1) What is *classical conditioning*? 2) Are there rewards and punishments involved in *classical conditioning*?

1) When *2 stimuli are paired* to produce a *new response* to a *previously neutral stimulus* 2) NO! The entire learning is based on associating a new neutral stimuli with previously conditioned/unconditioned stimuli. (rewards and punishments = *operant* conditioning)

*Associative Learning* *classical conditioning* 1) What is *stimulus discrimination*? 2) Give an example with a dog and hearing owner's car

1) When *similar stimuli* elicit *different responses* 2) Dog hears its owner's car around the block and begins wagging its tail, BUT *doesn't* respond to the sound of a stranger's car (even though the cars may be the same)

*Associative Learning* *classical conditioning* 1) What is *stimulus generalization*? 2) give an example with infants and smiling

1) When *similar stimuli* elicit *similar responses* 2) Infants smile *more* at people who *resemble* their caregivers

*Associative Learning* *classical conditioning* 1) What is *extinction*? 2) What is *spontaneous recovery*?

1) When the conditioned stimuli *stops producing the conditioned response* (carrots have no effect = go back to neutral = you *stop* associating carrots with nausea) 2) After extinction, *sometimes a spontaneous re-association occurs* (like reemergence of that conditioned response)

*Non-Associative Learning* 1) What is *sensitization* (aka *dishabituation*)? 2) Example of *sensitization* = *"the startle response"" explain. 3) Example of *sensitization* = *"reverse drug tolerance"" explain.

1) a stimulus produces a *more intense* response over time 2) when people return from combat, they sometimes have strong reactions to loud, sudden sounds and movements 3) whereas many drugs initially promote tolerance, some people actually become *sensitized* to the effects over time (i.e. advanced alcohol addiction = small of amount of alcohol can intoxicate them)

*Associative Learning* *operant conditioning* 1) What does *operant* conditioning use as a way of *changing behaviors*? 2) What is the *goal* of *all reinforcers* (reinforcement) (whether positive or negative)? 3) What is the *goal* of *all punishers* (punishment) (whether positive or negative)?

1) based on *positive* and *negative* reinforcements 2) to *increase* the frequency of a behavior 3) to *decrease* the frequency of a behavior

*associative learning* -- *operant conditioning* *intermittent reinforcement schedules* Explain each: 1) Fixed-interval intermittent 2) Variable-interval intermittent 3) Fixed-ratio intermittent 4) Variable-ratio intermittent

1) fixed-interval = reinforcement where the behaviors are rewarded after *predetermined periods of time* (learner *knows* that if they perform the behavior, they will be rewarded at a *specific* time) 2) behavioral response is rewarded after *unpredicted periods of time* 3) behavioral response is rewarded after a *predetermined number of behaviors* have been accomplished 4) behavioral response is rewarded after *an unpredictable number of behaviors* have been accomplished *R*ATIO stands for number of *R*ESPONSES (behavior) IN*TER*VAL stands for a particular *TERM* (timeframe)

*Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change* 1) Explain the *theory of planned behavior* 2) What are the 3 components that determine our *intention*?

1) image 2) intention is based on = attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control

*associative learning* -- *operant conditioning* *reinforcement schedules* 1) What is *shaping*? What does it refer to? 2) When does *shaping* result?

1) refers to *incremental, progressive* behavioral changes that are *reinforced* 2) Results in *complex learning* Each step is *very* intentional, incremental, progressive and geared to lead the learner to a precise behavior

*Associative Learning* *operant conditioning* 1) What is *positive punishment*? 2) Give an example of *positive punishment* (student and running in hallway) 3) What is *negative punishment*? 4) Give an example of *negative punishment* (student and running in hallway)

1) something *undesirable is given/experienced* as a consequence of a person engaging in an *unwanted* behavior 2) student is *chastised* by teacher for running in hallway 3) something *desirable taken away* as a consequence of a person engaging in *unwanted* behavior 4) Student *loses* recess for running in the hallway

*associative learning* -- *operant conditioning* *intermittent reinforcement schedules* 1) What does "*fixed*" mean in both interval and ratio intermittent schedules? 2) What does "*variable*" mean in both interval and ratio intermittent schedules?

1) the learner *knows* when they will be rewarded 2) the reward is *unpredictable* (they hope it's going to happen, but they don't know when or how frequently)

*Non-Associative Learning* 1) What is *habituation*? 2) Give an example of *habituation* with movie theater and popcorn

1) when a stimulus produces a *less intense response* over time 2) Walking into a movie theater, initially, the *smell of popcorn is really strong*. But, by the time you leave, you *hardly notice it.* = your senses have *habituated* (adapted)

*Associative Learning* *operant conditioning* How is the following scenario an example of *negative punishment*? A child, who is picking up litter after school, is left behind when the others go to a park.

Behavior (picking up litter) --> consequence (something positive is being removed = child is left behind when others go to park) --> *lower* likelihood of engaging in behavior

*Associative Learning* *operant conditioning* How is the following scenario an example of *positive punishment*? A child is laughed at for picking up litter after school.

Behavior (picking up litter) --> unpleasant (undesirable) experience (laughed at) --> *lower* likelihood of engaging in behavior *Positive punishment is NOT when a person is being punished for a positive behavior* *It has NOTHING to do with the qualitative assessment of the behavior, whether its positive or negative*

*Exposure Therapy* What does *exposure therapy* refer to?

Behavioral psychology techniques in which *situations are structured* to give the person experience with the *upsetting situation*

*Avoidance Learning/Conditioning* Why are humans so *prone to avoidance* (why is it that avoidance type anxiety based behaviors are so prevalent in people)? Explain it using the *Drive Reduction Theory*

DRT says people are *more motivated to avoid discomfort and tension* than they are to seek comfort and pleasure Ex: When people are hungry, they obtain food to end the discomfort of hunger *more* than to experience the pleasure of eating (although both motives have a role)

*Escape Learning/Conditioning* Example: (continued) Maybe younger brother was once in a situation where other kids threw rocks at him at recess as part of a "joke" because he "talked funny" What action would be considered *escape learning*?

If he ran away = escape learning (he removed himself from an undeniably unpleasant environment) *Good/constructive learning*

*associative learning* -- *operant conditioning* *concurrent reinforcement schedules* What is the difference between *intermittent* and *concurrent* reinforcement schedules?

In *concurrent* = individual gets rewards based on *2 schedules.* Results in *multiple rewards* - A LOT of reinforcement

*Associative Learning* *classical conditioning* Does *extinction* and *spontaneous recovery* ALWAYS happen?

NO! Sometimes, conditional learning is *permanent*

*Associative Learning* What does associative learning (as a category of learning) refer to?

The process through which a previously neutral stimulus elicits a change in behavioral responses as a consequence of the *repeated pairing of the stimulus and the response*

*Avoidance Learning/Conditioning* Example: (continued) Maybe younger brother was once in a situation where other kids threw rocks at him at recess as part of a "joke" because he "talked funny" What action would be considered *avoidance learning*?

The younger brother might begin to avoid situations where public speaking is likely, and he might even start avoiding groups of kids altogether - none of these situations he's avoiding are inherently dangerous/unpleasant, but they've become *associations* for him - so, anything he begins to *associate* with the bad experience, he begins to *avoid* int he future

*associative learning* -- *operant conditioning* *reinforcement schedules* What is the whole *goal* of *operant conditioning methods* research?

To figure out: What enables behaviors to be learned the most *quickly* and with the greatest *frequency* and *consistency*

*Associative Learning* *classical conditioning* Explain *acquisition* using the example of having a stomach virus. Explain where/how UCS, UR, CS, CR, neutral response (NS) play into *classical conditioning*?

UCS = stomach virus; UR = nausea NS = cooked carrots 1) UCS + UR (*biological* response) 2) UCS + NS (linking to experience of having stomach virus) + UCR --- all 3 are starting to get linked in your mind 3) eventually, you might get to the place where NS (cooked carrots) invokes the UCR (nausea) - When this happens the NS (cooked carrots) is now called the *CS* (still cooked carrots) 4) Now, the CS (cooked carrots) ---> CR (nausea) *NOT* coming from a biological response; coming from a *learned association*