a and p final exam

(U3)resting membrane potential

-70, a charge across the cell membrane due to ion distribution

(U3)myelin

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

(U3)metacarpophalangeal joint

Connects metacarpals to the proximal phalanges

(U3)sarcomere

Contractile unit of muscle fiber

List the four types of tissues

Epithelium Connective Nervous Muscle

(U3)EPSPs

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials generated by depolarization

compact bone

Hard, dense bone tissue that is beneath the outer membrane of a bone

List the steps of DNA replication in order

Helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between base pairs, and opens the strands The replication fork comes to keep the strands open and untwisted RNA polymerase comes and sets up some nucleotides DNA polymerase comes in after and begins to code for the new strand When all is done, ligase comes and glues it back up

(U1)Control center

Homebase; where the info goes in and out

Understand how hypertension can be treated by modulating ANS function

Hypertension is high blood pressure and can be treated with adrenergic receptor blocking drugs aka beta-blockers to decrease sympathetic tone in blood vessel smooth muscles

(U3)muscle fatigue

Inability of muscle to maintain its strength of contraction or tension; may be related to insufficient oxygen, depletion of glycogen, and/or lactic acid buildup

(U1)Explain how cholesterol contributes to the structure of the plasma membrane

Increase membrane stability

(U3)IPSPs

Inhibitory post synaptic potentials; post synaptic hyperpolarization because they decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire

(U1)Identify the stages of mitosis in order

Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase cytokinesis

(U3)non-striated

Involuntary muscle that is smooth and not marked with lines

(U3)rheumatoid arthritis

Seen in younger to middle-aged adults, often women Autoimmune disorder Starts with synovial membrane inflammation

(U3)absolute refractory period

Time from opening of Na+ channels until resetting of the channels Ensures that each AP is an all-or-none event Enforces one-way transmission of nerve impulses

Exonuclease

a broad class of enzymes that cleave off nucleotides one at a time from the 3' or 5' ends of DNA and RNA chains

(U1)Dynamic

a state of equilibrium, readjusting as needed

(U3)thin filament

actin

Somatic cell

any cell but egg or sperm

(U10 somatic cell

any cell by egg or sperm

(U1)give an example of each level of organization

atom- an iron atom molecule- NaCl organelle- mitocondria cell- blood cells tissue- nervous tisse organ- kidney organ system- respiratory system organism- human

DNA polymerase

attaches to the primase to start adding nucleotides

(U1) Monomer

basic building blocks of carbohydrates

(U3)tendon

connective tissues that transmit the mechanical force of muscle contraction to the bones

Messenger RNA

copies the code from DNA, as a message for RNA

Meninges

cover and protect CNS made of three layers: dura, arachnoid, and pia mater

(U3)period of contraction

cross bridge formation; tension increases

(U1)Hydrophobic

does not like water

Avascular

does not receive adequate nutrition/blood supply

DNA ligase

joins 2 DNA strands together- glue

(U3)anaerobic phosphorylation

lactic acid(30-40 seconds)

(U1) Hydrophilic

likes water

(U3)opposition

movement of thumb

(U1)Proton

positive charge. Weighs one d.m.u

(U3)demyelination

process of losing the myelin sheath of a nerve fiber

Limbic system

processes and experiences emotion (emotional brain)

Gyrus

ridges

(U3)inverse relationship between

stability and mobility

microfilaments

strands made of spherical proteins

Superior cervical ganglia

sympathetic efferent effectors of the face and head, superior trunk

Collateral ganglia

sympathetic ganglia which lie between the sympathetic chain and the organ of supply

(U1) primase

synthesizes short RNA sequences

Primase

synthesizes short RNA sequences

(U3)summation

the additive effect of several electrical impulses on a neuromuscular junction,

appendicular skeleton

the appendages(limbs)

(U3)motor unit

the basic functional units of skeletal muscle. Their activity represents the final output of the central nervous system, and their role in motor control has been widely studied

(U3)action potential

the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.

Leading strand

the continuous strand going 3' to 5'

(U1) osmosis

the diffusion of water across a membrane

Lagging strand

the discontinuous strand going 5' to 3'

vmyogram

the graph that records muscle twitch

Histology

the study of tissues

(U3)capsular

thickened part of fibrous layer

(U1)Covalent bond

two atoms bonded together

long-term memory

(LTM) limitless capacity

Short-term memory

(STM, working memory) temporary holding of information. Limited to seven or eight pieces of information

(U3)syndesmosis

(U3)bones connected by ligaments, bands of fibrous tissue interosseous membrane connection radius and ulna

Postganglionic neuron and axon

(outside CNS) celly body synapse with preganglionic axon in autonomic ganglia with a nonmyelinated postganglionic axon that extends to the effector organ

(U1)the homeostasis pathway in the body

1. Stimulus produces a change in the variable 2. Receptor detects change 3. Information is sent around the afferent pathway(input) to the control center 4. The control center gives an order 5. Information is sent along the efferent pathway(output) to the effector 6. Response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of the stimulus to bring the variable back to homeostasis

(U1)understand the levels of organization in order

1. atom 2. molecule 3. organelle 4. cell 5. tissue 6. organ 7. organ system 8. organism

(U1)List the steps of protein synthesis in order

1.Starts in the nucleus 2.then goes to the rough ER 3.And then Golgi 4.And then plasma membrane

(U3)neurotransmitter

A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a synapse. The cell receiving the signal, or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell.

(U1)Understand how a positive feedback loop works and identify examples

A positive feedback loop happens when the response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus. One big change all at once in a bell-shaped graph. Blood clotting Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin

Explain what a sensory of motor homunculus shows and use it to predict what parts of the body have more or less nervous system input

A sensory homunculus is a map of the sensory nerves and which part of the body they control A motor homunculus is a map of the motor nerves and which part of the body they control

(U1) Describe the structure of ATP and ADP and explain how they are used in the process of synthesis and release in the cell

ATP is adenosine triphosphate and is used as energy currency. ADP is adenosine di-phosphate and is the remaining part of ATP after use for energy

Understand the overlap and differences between autonomic and somatic

Targets: autonomic innervates cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and gland vs. somatic targets skeletal muscles Anatomy: somatic has cell body in CNS and a single thick myelinated group A axon extended in the spinal or cranial nerves directly to skeletal muscles vs. autonomic pathways has a two-neuron chain of preganglionic and postganglionic neurons Neurotransmitter effects: all somatic motor neurons release ACh effect is always stimulatory vs. autonomic system in which preganglionic fibers release ACh (stimulatory) and postganglionic fibers release norepinephrine or ACh and effect can be with stimulatory or inhibitory depending on the type of receptor Overlap: higher brain center regulates and coordinates both systems and most spinal and many cranial nerves contain both somatic and autonomic nerves and coordinated response to environmental stimulus usually involves both skeletal muscles and visceral objects

Describe the three meningeal layers

The Dura mater is the most superficial layer attached to the brain Arachnoid space is between the dura and pia mater Pia mater is most deep

Describe the unique roles of the sympathetic division

The adrenal medulla, sweat glands, arrector pili muscles, kidneys, and all blood vessels receive only sympathetic fibers Thermoregulatory responses to heat: when body temp rise, sympathetic nerves dilate blood vessels allowing heat to escape and activate sweat glands. When the body temp drops blood vessels constrict The release of renin from the kidneys activate a system that increases blood pressure Metabolic effect: increases metabolism(not digestion), raises blood glucose levels and mobilizes fats for use as fuels

(U3)meniscus

C-shaped piece of tough, rubbery cartilage

(U3)period of relaxation

Ca2+ reentry into SR; tension declines to zero

(U1)List the elements found in each of the major biomolecules

Carbohydrates- C H O Lipids- C H O and sometimes P Proteins- C H O N S Nucleic Acids- C H O N P

(U1)List the 4 major biomolecules in the body and provide examples for each

Carbohydrates- sugars Lipids- phospholipids Proteins- amino acids Nucleic acids- DNA

Describe the general function of each brain region

Cerebral hemispheres: forms the superior part of the brain (83%); the executive suite of the brain and is the site of conscious awareness Diencephalon: provides relays and switching centers for sensory, motor, and visceral pathways Brain stem: consists of the midbrain, pons, medulla; controls automatic behaviors necessary for survival(lizard brain); connects cerebrum, diencephalon, and cerebellum to the spinal cord Cerebellum: connected by wormlike vermis; processes input from cortex, brain stem, and sensory receptors to provide precise, coordinated movements of skeletal muscles; also plays a major role in balance

List major limbic structures and describe their functions

Cingulate gyrus: expressing emotion via gestures, and resolves mental conflicts Hippocampus: helps form long-term memories Amygdaloid body: involves many aspects of emotion and emotional memory, especially extreme emotions such as fear, happiness, and sadness Olfactory bulbs, tracts, cortex: processes odor that can provoke emotion

Explain how CSF is formed and what happens if formation exceeds the rate of release

Composed of a watery solution formed from the blood plasma but less protein and different ion concentration Hydrocephalus is what happens when formation exceeds the rate the release

Explain the major functions of the pons

Connects higher brain center and spinal cord and deals with sleep, respiration, bladder control, hearing, equilibrium, etc.

(U3)intercarpal joint

Connects one carpal bone to another

(U3)summation (temporal, spatial)

Cumulative effect of the activity of multiple Presynaptic cells

(U3)axon terminal

The endpoint of a neuron where neurotransmitters are stored

Explain how the limbic system influences the formation of long-term memories

The hippocampus, amygdaloid body, and olfactory cortex help form long-term memories by impressing emotion into the memory

Understand the levels of ANS control

The hypothalamus is the boss and controls most of the functions, with the brain stem second in command. The limbic system and cerebral cortex help on a subconscious level

(U3)carpometacarpal joint

The joint between the wrist and the metacarpal bones; the thumb joint.

(U1)Homeostasis

The maintenance of stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in the environment

(U1)Understand how organ systems rely on one another to function

To pump blood, the muscular system is activated to pump the heart and circulate blood. To keep blood supplied with the origin, the respiratory system constantly sends oxygen and receives carbon dioxide. The urinary system keeps the acid-base balance for the blood. If you get a small cut then your nervous system is activated to find and send signals from the injured area. The integumentary system is being directly affected and I want to fix it.

Understand the visceral reflex arcs, their general components, and how they are similar and different from somatic reflex arcs

Visceral reflex arcs have the same components as somatic reflex arcs: receptor, sensory neurons, integration center, motor neuron, and effector. There are however three main differences: 1) visceral reflex arcs have two consecutive neurons in the motor pathways, 2) afferent fibers are visceral sensory neurons, 3) effectors are smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands

(U1)Explain how water interacts with ionic compounds

Water dissolves and dissociates ionic substances

Describe how an exaggerated local sympathetic response causes Raynaud's Syndrome

When the blood vessels constrict making the blood leave the digits which causes loss of normal hue of distal skin, pain, and a tingly sensation Can be triggered by cold or emotional stress

Cell cycle

When the cell grows and divides

(U3)excitable (cell)

a cell that talks

Choroid Plexus

a cluster of capillaries that hang from the roof of each ventricle, enclosed by a pia mater and a surrounding layer of ependymal cells. The CSF is filtered from the plexus at a constant rate

Tissue

a group of similar cells performing a similar function

(U3)articulation

a joint or juncture between bones or cartilages in the skeleton

Homunculus

a map showing the parts of the brain that are in charge of their body parts

Reticular activity system

a network of neurons located in the brain stem that project anteriorly to the hypothalamus to mediate behavior, and well as posteriorly to the thalamus and cortex for activation of awake EEG patterns

(U3)arthrosis

a non-inflammatory degenerative condition associated with aging

(U3)joint

a place where two or more bones meet

(U3)ligament

a short band of tough, flexible fibrous connective tissue which connects two bones or cartilages or holds together a joint.

Polarity

a structure and function that varies by region or "side" of cell

(U1) Enzyme

a substance that acts as a catalyst in living organisms

Tracts

a system of body parts or neurons that work together to perform a function

Visceral(autonomic) nerves

a system of nerves that regulate bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion, "flight-or-fight", "rest-and-digest"

Squamous

a thin layer of cells with a disc-shaped nucleus

(U1)Identify if a solution is acidic or basic based on pH

acidic is 1-6 7 neutral base 8-14

(U1)Hydrolysis

adding water back into the bond, breaking the bond

(U1) Saturated fat

all single bonds

(U1)The muscular system(muscles)

allows movements and facial expressions. Maintains posture, and produces heat

(U3)tendon sheath

an elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon subjected to friction

Dorsal root ganglion

an enlargement on the dorsal root and is the location of cell bodies of sensory neurons

Hydrocephalus

an obstruction blocks CSF circulation or drainage, resulting in increased pressure

(U1)The cardiovascular system(heart)

are blood vessels that transport blood and the heart pumps blood around

(U1)Monosaccharide

are monomers of carbohydrates

(U3)endomysium

areolar connective tissue surrounding EACH muscle fiber

(U3)neuroglia of CNS

astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells

spongy bone

at the end of bones, includes red bone marrow and trabeculae

(U3)origin

attachment to an immovable bone

(U3)insertion

attachment to movable bone

You and a few friends have snuck onto a rocket, blasted off, and have left earth's orbit. There you are bombarded by cosmic rays, the exposure to which, among other effects, has increased the strength of your desmosomes to superhuman levels. What new ability would this give you? a.Superhuman strength b.Skin with superhuman resilience (toughness) c.Rapid cellular regeneration

b. skin with superhuman resilience (toughness)

(U1)Blood glucose level is under homeostatic control by a negative feedback mechanism where the pancreas is the control center, insulin is the output, and liver, fat, and skeletal muscle cells are the effector(glucose uptake). If the liver, fat, and skeletal muscle cells were to become less responsive to insulin signaling, what would you expect the effect to be? a. The decreased blood glucose level b. The elevated blood glucose level c. Decreased insulin level d. Increased glucose levels in liver, fat, and skeletal muscle cells

b. the elevated blood glucose level

(U3)synchondroses

bar or plate of hyaline cartilage unites bone almost all are synathrotic temporary epiphyseal plate joints

(U1) Nucelotide

basic building blocks of nucleic acids

Subarachnoid space

between arachnoid and pia mater; contains CSF and large blood vessels of the brain

Transitional

between cuboidal and columnar, helps organs to stretch

Subdural space

between the dura and arachnoid mater

(U3)Sadie joints

biaxial, carpometacarpal joint of thumb

(U3)condylar joints

biaxial, wrist joints

(U1)Compare the process of biosynthesis and the process of hydrolysis

biosynthesis is enzyme-catalases formation of large molecules but hydrolysis is the breakdown of large molecules

(U3)strcuture of fibrous joints

bones held together by dense connective tissue

(U3)synovial joint

bones separated by a fluid-filled joint cavity all are freely moveable(diathrotic)

(U3)cartilaginous joint

bones united by cartilage no joint cavity no highly moveable(synarthrosis and amphiprotic)

(U1)Dissociate

breaking up of compounds

(U1)The digestive system(stomach)

breaks down food for distribution to body cells

(U1) saturated fatty acid

carbon chain with single bonds

(U1) unstaturated fatty acid

carbon chains contain a double carbon bond

(U3)involuntary

cardiac and smooth

Preganglionic neuron and axon

cell body in the CNS with thin, lightly myelinated preganglionic axon extending to ganglion

(U1) Polymer

chains of monomers

(U1)Amilphilic

chemical compound possessing both hydrophilic and lipophilic properties.

(U3)circumduction

circling limb

(U1)The lymphatic system(blood cells)

cleans you and disposes of debris. Houses white blood cells(lymphocytes) involved in immunity

(U3)Z disc

coin-shaped sheet of protein on the midline of light I band

Columnar

column shaped cells

(U1)lyophilic

combined or dissolved in lipids or fats

Gene

composed of exons and introns, and hold genetic information

(U3)articular cartilage

consists of hyaline cartilage covering ends of bones and prevents crushing of bone ends

White matter

consists of mostly myelinated axons

Autonomic nervous system

consists of motor neurons that innervate smooth muscles, glands, and cardiac muscles, pathways use a two neuron chain

Gray matter

consists of neuron cell bodies and short NONmyelinated axons

(U1)molecule

consists of similar atoms

(U1)organelle

consists of similar molecules

(U1)tissue

consists of similar types of cells

(U4)Central Nervous System(CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal cord

Cuboidal

cube shaped cells

(U1)Chemical X can dissolve all sugar molecules regardless of whether or not they are monosaccharides or bound to other molecules. Which of the following components would NOT be affected by chemical X? a.ATP b.DNA c.Starched d. Cholesterol

d. cholesterol

(U3)A band

darker regions (myosin)

(U3)flexion

decreases the angle of a joint

Fissure

deep groves

(U3)intracapsular

deep to capsule; covered by synovial membrane

Insula

deep to the temporal lobe and lateral sulcus; functions of memory and sense of taste

subcutaneous layer

deepest layer of the skin (adipose connective tissue)

(U3)ostroarthritis

degenerative joint condition, due to earing down of articular cartilage in fingers, knuckles, hips, and knees

(U3)perimysium

dense irregular connective tissue surrounding a fascicle

(U3)epimysium

dense irregular connective tissue surrounding entire muscle

(U3)myofibril

densely packed, rod like elements

(U1)Receptor

detects a change

(U1)interrelatedness

different organ systems working together to perform similar functions/ ex. respiratory and cardiovascularr systems working to bring O2 in and distribute it to the blood

(U3)cartilage tears(menisci of knee)

due to compression and sheer stress, fragments may cause joint to lock or bind, rarely repairs itself, repaired with surgery

(U1)The urinary system(kidney)

eliminates waste from the body. Regulates water, electrolytes, and acid-base balance for the blood

(U1)Kinetic energy

energy in action

(U1)Nonpolar covalent bond

equal sharing of electrons

(U3)latent period

events of excitation-contraction coupling; no muscle tension

(U3)general characteristics of neurons

excitability, conductivity, extreme longevity, amitotic, high metabolic rate

(U3)nerve cells(neurons)

excitable cells that transmit electrical signals

(U1)Hypotension

expand

Basal

facing the body

Apical

facing the environment

(U3)symphysis

fibrocartilage unites bones amphiarthrotic intervertebral joints, pubic symphysis

Sympathetic division

fight-or-flight; mobilizes body during activity

(U3)synovial fluid

filtrate of plasma and hyaluronic acid that lubricates and nourishes articular cartilage

Epidermis

first layer of skin, keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

(U3)Dorisflexion and plantar flexion

flexing v pointing

Ventricle

fluid-filled chambers that are continuous from one to another and to the center of the spinal cord. They are filled with CSF and lined by ependymal cells.

Ventral horn

found anterior and is the location of motor neurons traveling to skeletal muscles and glands

Interneurons

found exclusively in the CNS; connect motor neuron and sensory neuron to exchange information (in between neurons)

Lateral horn

found laterally and is the location of autonomic motor neurons which travel to smooth muscle tissue

Dorsal horn

found posterior and is the location of interneurons

(U3)diarthrosis

freely movable joint

(U1)Ion

gained or lost an electron

(U1)Cytosol

gel like solution made up of water an soluble molecules such as protein, salts, sugars, etc.

Somatosensory

general sensory information

(U3)inhibitory

gives a inhibitory response

(U3)excitatory

gives a stimulatory reponse

(U1) denatured

globular proteins unfold and lose their 3D structure which can be caused by increased temp or decreases pH

Basal nuclei

gray matter deep in the cerebrum that helps regulate motor output. Each hemisphere's basal nuclei include the caudate nucleus(pattern and rhythm of walking), putamen(movements at the subconscious level), and globus pallidum(regulation of voluntary movements). Functions include the influence of muscle movements, play a role in cognition and emotion, filters out incorrect responses, inhibits antagonistic/unnecessary movement

(U3)hip (coxal) joint

head of femur articulates with deep cup shape of acetabulum of coxa

(U3)the temporomandibular joint

head of mandible articulates with temporal bone

(U3)shoulder(gienohumeral) joint

head of the humerus fits in small, shallows glenoid cavity of scapula

(U1)use the structure of a body part of explain it function

heart is made of muscles(anatomy) that contracts and releases(physiology)

Helicase

helicase breaks the hydrogen bond of the base pairs creating two strands

(U3)coxal joint

hip joint

(U3)acetabulum

hip socket

(U3)example of synovial joints

hip, knee, shoulder, elbow

Replication fork

holds the two strands open

microtubules

hollow tubes of spherical proteins subunits called tubulin

(U1)Endocrine system(hormones)

hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and metabolism by cells

(U1)Physiology

how it works; THE FUNCTION

(U1)phospholipid

hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail creates the plasma membrane of our cells

(U1)Understand the biological significance of homeostasis in the body

if the body is unbalanced, it is left more vulnerable to disease and lagging negative feedback. This can lead to destructive feedback that destroys everything

(U3)synarthrosis

immovable joint

Identify the types of neurons found in each gray matter horn, and predict the function of each horn

Dorsal horn: where interneurons are located Lateral horn: the location of autonomic motor neurons and travels to smooth muscle tissue Ventral horn: where motor neurons travel to skeletal muscle and glands

(U3)tetanus

increases in stimulus frequency causes sustained, quivering muscle contractions

(U3)extension

increases the angle of a joint

(U3)bursitis

inflammation of bursa, usually caused by blow or friction

(U3)tendonitis

inflammation of tendon sheaths, typically caused by overuse

(U1)Afferent pathway

input

(U1)intracellular

inside the cell

(U3)suture

interlocking line of union between bones central suture line in the skull

Understand the concept of dual innervation, sympathetic and parasympathetic tone

Dual innervation: most visceral organs have dual innervation. It is usually antagonistic, sometimes cooperative (urinary, reproductive). Action potentials continually fire down axons of both divisions producing a dynamic antagonistic interaction. Works to precisely control visceral activity. The sympathetic division increases heart and respiratory rates and inhibits digestion and elimination. The parasympathetic division increases heart and respiratory rate and allows for digestion and discarding of wastes Sympathetic tone: continual state of partial construction of blood vessels Parasympathetic tone: slows the heart and dictates normal activity levels at digestive and urinary tracts, and is always slightly activated

List the three meningeal layers around the spinal cord and the spaces in between

Dura mater (superficial) Dural venous sinus Arachnoid space Subarachnoid space Pia mater (deep)

Identify the components of each space of the spinal cord

Dural venous sinus: blood circulation Subarachnoid space: contains CSF

(U1)Cytoplasm

is a gel like substance that holds all the organelles and free moving molecules in the cell

List the three main parts of the diencephalon and the major functions of each

Epithalamus: most posterior portion, forms the root of the third ventricle, and contains the pineal gland(secretes melatonin that helps regulate the sleep cycle) Thalamus: act as a relay station for information coming in the cortex. Sorts, edits, and relays ascending input (filters background noise in a crowded room) Hypothalamus: Houses mammillary bodies(act as olfactory relay stations), infundibulum(stalk that connects the pituitary gland and controls hormone release), and regulates hormones(blood pressure, part of limbic system)

(U3)articular discs (menisci)

Fibrocartilage separates articular surfaces to improve "fit" of bone ends, stabilize joint, and reduce wear and tear

(U1)Integumentary system(skin)

is the external body covering. It protects deeper tissue from injury and synthesizes vitamin D

(U1)The reproductive system(uterus)

is the production of offspring

(U3)structure of cartilaginous joints

joined by cartilage

(U3)fibrous joint

joined by fibrous connective tissue no joint cavity immovable (synarthrosis) three types: sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses

(U3)structure of synovial joints

joined together by ligaments with fluid-filled cavities separating bone surfaces

(U1) DNA ligase

joins 2 DNA strands together- the glue

(U1)The respiratory system(lungs)

keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide

Pyramidal cells

large neurons that allow conscious control of precise, skilled skeletal muscle movement

(U3)relative refractory period

Follows absolute refractory period Most Na+ channels have returned to their resting state Some K+ channels still open Repolarization is occurring Threshold for AP generation is elevated Only exceptionally strong stimulus could stimulate an AP

(U3)fatty pads

For cushioning between fibrous layers of capsule and synovial membrane or bone

(U3)elevation and depression

lifting of mandible v lowering of mandible

(U3)H zone

lighter region in the middle of the dark A band

(U3)I band

lighter regions (actin)

Explain how the structure and location of gray matter and white matter on the spinal cord is different from the brain

Gray and white matter is localized to one area in the spinal cord, with gray matter horns and what matter funiculi The cerebrum and cerebellum have islands of gray matter within white matter as well as an out cortex of gray matter

Explain what happens in each of the three subphrases of interphase

Growth- the cell increases in size Dna synthesis- new DNA is synthesized Growth - the cell increases in size

(U1)Describe the various roles of proteins in the phospholipid bilayer

Integral proteins function as transport proteins Peripheral proteins are loosely attached to integral proteins and include filaments on intracellular surface for membrane support, functions as cell-to-cell connections

(U1)Understand how a negative feedback loop works and identify examples

It identifies the signal and decides it is a negative charge and reduces or shuts down the original stimulus. There is minimal change over time Regulation of body temp by the nervous system

(U3)direct phosphorylation

Keratin phosphate (15 seconds)

List the general functions that are typically lateralized into each hemisphere of the brain

Left: language, math, and logic Right: visual-spital skills, institution, emotion, artistic, and musical skills

Describe the importance of the limbic system and RAS

Limbic system: emotional brain RAS: sends impulses to cerebral cortex to stay conscious and alert, filters out repetitive, familiar, or weak stimuli

vM line

line of protein(myosin) that bisects H zone vertically

(U1) glycolipid

lipid with a carbohydrate attached

Pons

located between midbrain and medulla oblongata; connects higher brain center and spinal cord

Gustatory

located in the insula and is involved in the perception of taste

Olfactory

located in the medial aspect of the temporal lobe(piriform lobe) involved in the perception of smell

Diencephalon

location of the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus; provides relays and a switching center for sensory, motor, and visceral pathways

(U1)Polysaccharide

long chains of linked monosaccrides

(U1)cytoskeleton

made up of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules

(U1) Quarantary Structure

made up of multiply polypeptide chains known as subunits

Transcription

making an RNA copy of the gene sequences

(U3)protraction and retraction

mandible out v mandible in

(U3)fascicle

many muscles fibers

(U3)striated

marked with thin, narrow grooves or channels

List the three major parts of the brain stem

Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata

describe the significance of the major midbrain and medulla oblongata structures

Midbrain: relay center for visual and auditory signals to the cerebrum. The major structures are corpora quadrigemmia which are four ridges that house the visual and auditory reflex centers and the substantia nigra which is functionally linked to the basal nuclei Medulla oblongata regulates:1) rate and depth of breathing, 2) force and rate of heart contraction, 3) cardiac output, 4)blood vessel diameter 5) blood pressure. Also regulates involuntary actions such as 1) vomiting, 2) hiccupping, 3) swallowing, 4) coughing, and 5) sneezing.

(U3)abduction

Movement away from the midline of the body

(U3)adduction

Movement toward the midline of the body

(U1)Understand how negative and positive feedback loops are similar and different.

Negative and positive feedback are similar in ways such as always communicating with the control center, and getting to the signal quickly. One difference difference is how positive feedback enhances the signal and negative feedback shuts it down

(U3)efferent neuron

Neuron that conducts impulses away from the CNS to muscles and glands.

(U3)afferent neuron

Neuron that conducts impulses toward the CNS from the body periphery.

(U3)aerobic phosphorylation

O2(hours)

Explain what the Okazaki fragments are and why they form during DNA replication

Okazaki fragments are part of the lagging strand. The lagging strand occurs because one of the template strands is being coded in the opposite direction. While DNA polymerase only codes from 3' to 5', this strand goes from 5' to 3'. To make up for this, the new strand has to be created in pieces(fragments) they will eventually be glued together.

(U3)sarcoplasmic reticulum

Organelle of the muscle fiber that stores calcium.

Cervical trunk ganglia

Preganglionic nerves from the thoracic spinal cord enter into the cervical ganglions and synapse with its postganglionic fibers or nerves

Explain how the three types of white matter tracts in the cerebrum are different from one another

Projection: vertical fibers that connect the hemispheres with the lower brain or spinal cord. The internal capsule is projection fibers on each side of the brain stem from a compact band and passes between the thalamus and some of the basal nuclei. Corona Radiata are projection fibers that radiate through cerebral white matter to the cortex Commissural: horizontal fibers that connect gray matter of two hemispheres (corpus callosum) Association: horizontal fibers that connect different parts of the same hemisphere

Identify the stages of mitosis in order and explain what occurs at each stage

Prophase- the chromatin condense into chromosomes Metaphase- the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell Anaphase- the chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite sides of the cell Telophase- a cleavage furrow is created forming two new daughter cells

Explain the function of the enzymes involved in protein synthesis

RNA polymerase- synthesizes RNA from the DNA strands mRNA- the synthesizes RNA tRNA- translates RNA into proteins

Splanchnic nerves (greater, lesser, least, lumbar, sacral)

most fibers from T5-L2 synapse in collateral ganglia outside of trunk forming several nerves

(U1)Negative feedback loop

most used; response reduces or shuts off original stimulus

Generally describe the location of sensory, motor, and association areas of the cerebrum

Sensory areas are located in the cerebral cortex, The motor area is located in the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe The association areas are located in the cerebrum: the prefrontal cortex, temporal, parietal lobes, and limbic system

(U1)Explain the similarities and differences between ionic, polar covalent bonds, nonpolar covalent bonds

Similarities: gain or loss of electrons, want to fill the valence shell Differences: ionic and polar covalent have unequal sharing of electrons which nonpolar are equal in sharing, ionic is the complete transfer of electron, covalent is sharing of electrons

List the steps of protein synthesis in order

Starts in the nucleus then goes to the rough ER And then Golgi And then plasma membrane

(U3)multiaxial

movement in or around all three planes

(U3)uniaxial

movements in one plane

(U3)biaxial

movements in two planes

(U3)rotation

movements made about the longitudinal axis and in the transverse plane

(U3)inversion and eversion

movements of the sole of the foot medially or laterally

(U3)ball-and-socket joints

multiaxial, shoulder and hip joints

Stratified

multiple layers of cells

(U3)muscle fiber

muscle cell

(U3)sarcolemma

muscle cell membrane

(U1)list the four main types of tissue

muscle, nervous, connective, epithelial

White rami communicantes

myelinated postganglionic fibers; contains sympathetic neurons only

(U3)thick filament

myosin

(U1)Electron

neg charge, weighs nothing, is involved in bonding to other atoms and molecules

(U3)motor neuron

neurons that carry impulses AWAY from CNS to effectors

(U3)sensory neuron

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

(U3)interneuron

neurons that transmit impulses from sensory receptors in the skin or organs TOWARD the CNS

(U3)rough ER

nissel bodies

(U1)Neutron

no charge. Weighs one d.m.u

(U3)plane joint

nonaxial, intercarpal joints

Gray rami communicantes

nonmyelinated postganglionic fibers; contains sympathetic neurons only

(U1) Unstaturated fat

one double bond

(U3)gliding

one flat bone surface glides or slips over another similar structure intercarpal joints

Simple

one layer of cells

Semiconservative replication

one of the old strands joins the new strand

Gland

one or more cells that make and secrete an aqueous fluid called secretion

(U3)chemically-gated ion channel

open and close in response to chemicals, such as neurotransmitters (ex. acetylcholine), hormones, and ions such as H+ and Ca+2; involved in generating graded potentials.

(U1)Decomposition

opposite of synthesis, the breakdown of one substance into 2 or more simpler substances

Contralateral

opposite side of where the structure is

(U1)organ system

organs made of up of different tissues come together to perform a function

(U1)efferent pathway

output

(U3)extracapsular

outside the capsule

(U1) extracellular

outside the cell

(U1) Tertiary structure

overall three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide

(U3)myoglobin

oxygen storage unit

(U3)supination and pronation

palm up vs. palm down

Mitosis

part of cell cycle, divides the cell into 2

(U1) mitosis

part of the cell cycle, divides the cell in 2

(U3)gomphosis

peg-in-socket joint teeth in alveloar join

(U1)Stimulus

produces changes in the variable

(U3)multiple sclerosis

progressive demyelination of neurons in CNS autoimmune disorder; oligodendrocytes attacks immune cells

Somatic neuron

project outward of the CNS and connect directly to the muscles

(U1)Skeletal system(bones)

protect and supports body organs and provide the framework for muscles

(U3)contractile protein

proteins that mediate sliding of contractile fibers

pump vs channel

pump is active, works against gradient channel is passive, works toward gradient

Association areas

receives input from multiple sensory areas and sends outputs to multiple areas. Allows us to give meaning to information received, stores in memory ties to previous experiences, and decide on actions

(U3)dendrites

receptive (input) region of neurons

(U3)bursae

reduces friction where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together

(U3)sprains

reinforcing ligaments are stretched or torn, common sites are ankle, knee, lumbar region, partial tear repairs slowly due to poor vascularization

(U3)cross-bridge cycle

repeated sequential interactions between myosin and actin filaments at cross-bridges that cause a muscle fiber to contract

(U1) active transport

requires carrier proteins

Sympathetic trunk ganglia

resembles a pearl necklace; string composed of axons, pearls composed of sympathetic trunk ganglia housing cell body

(U1)The nervous system(neurons)

responds to internal and external changes by activating the correct muscles and glands

(U1)Positive feedback loop

response enhances or exaggerates original stimulus. It happens at once with one big change.

Parasympathetic division

rest-and-digest; keeps body energy use as low as possible even will be carrying out maintenance activities (digestion)

reticular layer

second layer of the dermis, made of irregular dense connective tissue

(U3)gouty arthritis

seen in middle aged to older men, due to increased level of uric acid crystals

(U1)Polar

separation of electric charge

Sulcus

shallow grooves

(U3)Three factors determine stability of joints to prevent dislocations

shape of articular surface(minor role) ligament number and location(limited role) muscle tone(most important)

Epithelium

sheet of cells that cover the bodies surfaces and cavities

(U1) Okazaki fragment

short sequences of DNA nucleotides

Okazaki fragment

short sequences of DNA nucleotides

(U1)Hypertension

shrink

(U1)organ

similar tissues

(U3)amphiarthrosis

slightly movable joint

(U3)nonaxial

slipping movements only

(U3)glial cells(neruoglia)

small cells that surround and wrap delicate neurons

(U3)joint (synovial) cavity

small, fluid-filled potential space that is unique to synovial joints

(U1) atom

smallest unit of matter

(U3)glenoid cavity

socket in scapular that receives head of humerus

(U3)structure of each joint determines its

stability and mobility

(U1)Base

starts at 14 with the most basic, and end at 7 being the least basic

(U1)Acid

starts with 7 being the least acidic, and 1 being the most acidic.

Integration

stimuli that are received from sensory receptors that are communicated to the NS to process information

(U1)Potential energy

stored energy

axial skeleton

the bones that are part of the skull, face, chest, and abdominopelvic region

(U1)Energy

the capacity to do work or put matter into motion

(U3)cell body

the center of the neruon

(U1) cytokenesis

the end of mitosis, two fully formed cells

Cytokinesis

the end of mitosis, two fully formed cells

(U3)axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Exocrine

the externally secreted substances( sweat, oil)

papillary layer

the first layer of the dermis, made of areolar loose connective tissue

(U1) interphase

the first stage of the cell cycle, before mitosis the organizes all the chromatin

(U1)Biosynthesis

the generation of natural products through enzymatic reactions

Horns

the gray matter of the spinal cord

(U3)elbow joint

the humorous articulated with radius and ulna

Endocrine

the internally secreted substances (hormones)

(U3)Powerstroke

the key force-generating step used by myosin motor proteins

interstitial growth

the length growth of the bone

(U3)threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Trabeculae

the matrix inside spongy bone

(U1) Anatomy

the physical stuff; where things are and what they do; THE STRUCTURE

(U1)Setpoint

the physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates

Complementary

the relationship between the nitrogenous base pairs

(U1)pH

the scale of acids and bases; 7 is neutral, 1 is most acidic, and 14 is most basic

Dermis

the second layer, papillary(areolar loose connective tissue) and reticular(dense irregular connective tissue)

(U1) Primary Structure

the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

Hemispheric lateralization

the tendency for some functions to be controlled by one side of the brain

appositional growth

the width growth of the bone

(U3)myosin

thick, extend the length of the A band and connected at the m line

(U3)actin

thin, extends across I band and partway into A band and are anchored into Z disc

(U3)knee joint

tibiofemoral joint is a hinge joint femoral patellar joint in plane joint

(U1)Dehydration synthesis

to bring a bond by dehydrating it

Innervation

to supply with nerves

intermediate filaments

tough, insoluble protein fibers constructed like woven rope composed of tetrameter fibrils

Association tract

tracts that connect cortical areas within the same hemisphere

Commissural tract

tracts that connect the same cortical areas on opposite hemispheres (corpus callosum)

(U1)Ionic bond

transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another. One becomes a cation and one becomes an anion

Transfer RNA

transfers the information to proteins

Translation

translating the gene sequence into proteins so it can carry out the job

(U3)humeroulnar joint

trochlea of humerus and trochlear notch of ulna

(U3)regulatory protein

tropomyosin and troponin, regulates contracile

Celiac ganglia

two large irregularly shaped masses of nerve tissue in the upper abdomen and innervate most of the digestive tract

(U3)articular (joint) capsule

two layers thick External fibrous layer: dense irregular connective tissue Inner synovial membrane: loose connective tissue that makes synovial fluid

(U1)Polar covalent bond

unequal sharing of electron

(U3)hinge joints

uniaxial, elbow

(U3)pivot joints

uniaxial, proximal radioulnar joints

(U3)structural protein

used for support such as connective tissue and keratin that forms hair and finger nails

(U1) simple diffusion

when a molecule can move across the plasma membrane without any problems

(U1)organism

when all the organ systems work together to create smooth functions

(U3)hyperpolarization

when the action potential goes down and does not action potential

(U3)depolarization

when the action potential hits the threshold and shoots up

(U1) selectively permeable

when the cell membrane only lets in a select kind of molecule into the cell

(U1) facilitate diffusion

when the molecule is helped across the plasma membrane. ex. Na K pumps

(U1)Triple bond

when there are 3 bonds

(U1) Double bond

when there are two lines between the atoms

(U1)Single bond

when there is one line between the 2 atoms

(U1)cell cycle

where the cell grows and divides

Interphase

where the cell grows and spends most of its time (G1, S, G2)

Projection tract

white matter tract that connects the cortex with other areas in the CNS

(U3)voluntary

willing; unforced, skeletal muscle