A and P, Unit 4 Exam

Hormonal process that governs the rate of RBC production

-Erythropoietin then stimulates red bone marrow which produces new red blood cells. -This increase in red blood cells, increases the oxygen carrying ability in the blood and brings it back to normal levels.

Groups of proteins found in blood

-Some plasma proteins present in the blood are albumin, globulin, fibrinogen and enzymes. -Albumin are about 60% of the plasma proteins, therefore being the largest, and are most responsible for maintaining osmotic pressure. -Globulins are about 36% of plasma proteins and they come in there different groups, alpha, beta and gamma. -The alpha and beta plasma proteins are transport proteins while gamma plasma proteins are also know as antibodies. -Fibrinogen are about 4% of the plasma proteins and they play a role in blood clotting.

Red blood cells details

-The range of red blood cells for men is 4.6-6.2 x 10^6 micro-liters. -The range of red blood cells for women is 4.2-5.4 x 10^6 micro-liters. There are two main functions for red blood cells. One is for transport. Oxygen is able to bind to hemoglobin which can then be transported to where it is needed in the body. Some carbon dioxide is also able to attach to the hemoglobin. The second function is to act as a buffer. Ions can be attached to the proteins which plays a role in blood pH levels. Red blood cells are anucleate which means they do not have a nucleus. They are a biconcave disk and they are small with about 7.5 um in diameter. They are filled with hemoglobin at about 95%. They do not have any motility and are just carried by the blood stream. A red blood cell can life for about 100-120 days. They are unable to repair themselves to the their lack of nucleus so where they are worn down they get recycled and new red blood cells are made. Red blood cells are formed in the red bone marrow such as in the sternum or hip.

Fluid matrix of blood and chemical composition

-a connective tissue which has a fluid matrix known as plasma. *components are water, electrolytes, nutrients, respiratory gases, hormones and plasma proteins* -About 90% of plasma is water. -Electrolytes in the blood help to maintain osmotic pressure and blood pH levels. -Nutrients from our food contribute amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, cholesterol and vitamins which can be transported throughout the body. -There are respiratory gases present such as oxygen from the air and carbon dioxide breathed out as a waste product. - There are several hormones present in the blood so that they are able to reach their target organs. -And lastly, plasma proteins take up about 8% of plasma and also contribute to osmotic pressure and water balance.

is high stroke volume an advantage or disadvantage

A high stroke volume is better because the heart doesn't have to work as hard. Every time the ventricles contract a high stroke volume allows the heart to eject more blood throughout the body, making the heart stronger.

Rh-negative (non-sensitized) vs. Rh-negative (sensitized) and which is more likely

A person that is Rh-negative sensitized has been exposed to Rh-positive blood and therefore has the Rh antibody present. This could be due to a transfusion or through a pregnant women with a Rh-positive baby. In contrast, a Rh-negative non-sensitized person, which is the majority of people, has not been exposed to Rh-positive blood. They therefore do not have the Rh antibody present. A Rh-negative person is more likely to be non-sensitized. This is due to the fact that the individual has to actually be exposed to Rh-positive blood in order to produce the Rh antibody.

Reticuloctye

A reticulocyte is an immature red blood cell. It is the finally step before the nucleus is ejected to become a normal red blood cell. There are usually about 1% of reticulocytes in the blood.

thrombus vs. embolus

A thrombus is an undesired clot that is stationary and located in a blood vessel. This can block blood flow, oxygen and nutrients. an embolus is a piece of a clot moving through the vascular system. This can travel to the lungs and cause a blockage or it may travel to the heart or brain depending on where it breaks off from. A blood clot lodged in the brain is what happens when a person has a stroke. An embolus is more serious.

voltage-gated slow calcium channels and their affect on depolarization/contraction of the heart

After sodium and potassium voltage-gate channels open, slow calcium ion channels open prolonging depolarization. This also prolongs the contraction period and produces a stronger contraction. The sarcoplasmic reticulum releases a lot of calcium into the cell and allows actin to attach to myosin. This also aids in the depolarization of the cell, allowing the action potential to spread. These channels will close and potassium channels will open leading to repolarization and the action potential comes to an end.

aneurysms

An aneurysms is when there is a balloon like out pocketing of an artery wall caused by the weakening of the structure of that vessel wall. This can cause clotting problems due to turbulent blood flow. The most common cause of an aneurysm is chronic hypertension. This places stress on all the arteries in the body.

intercalated disc and the structure and function of desmosome and gap junctions

An intercalated disc is an interlocking membrane fold with desmosomes and gap junctions. A desmosome is like a rivet which keeps two tissues from separating. A gap junction links cells together as if they are one cell which provides direct contact between cells.

"anastomosis" and list three types found in the body, the advantage of each type, and an area where each can be found.

Anastomosis is a connection between blood vessels that doe snot include capillaries. One type of anastomoses is called a shunt or arteriole Venus. This is when an artery goes around a capillary and continues on to a vein. This can be seen in the fingers and toes. These assist in controlling body temperature. A second type of anastomosis is an arteriole. This is when one artery will merge with another artery. This helps to maintain blood flow if one of the arteries gets blocked. This can be seen in the circle of willis in the brain. The third type is known as Venus. This is when two veins connect with each other. These are used for alternate drainage routes. They can be found in the intestines and around joints.

where in the blood do you find antigens that determine blood type

Antigens are located on the cell membrane of red blood cells. There are three types of antigens; Antigen A, Antigen B and Antigen Rh. Antibodies are dissolved or carried by the plasma. There are two varieties, antibody-A and antibody-B. You would expect to make antibodies for foreign antigens only.

antigen/antibody

Antigens are often glycoproteins that are cell surface markers capable of triggering an immune response. These markers tell your body that your cells belong there while recognizing foreign antigens such as another person's cells. Antibodies are plasma proteins that are produced by B-cells. Their purpose is for protection and to destroy any foreign antigens.

Describe how blood pressure changes as blood moves from the major systemic arteries through the systemic arterioles and the systemic capillaries

As we get further from the heart the arteries start to get smaller and smaller. From the aorta to the arterioles area there is a pulse pressure which means there is a differences between systolic and diastolic pressure. Once we get into the arteriole area we are getting less and less of a pulsing pressure. Once we move past the arteriole area to the capillaries there is no pulse pressure all the way to the venae cavae.

Define the term "osmosis", and state the terms under which osmosis across a membrane will occur.

At the arteriole end of the capillary there are forces pushing fluid out. At the venule end of the capillary there are forces sucking fluids in. Blood flows from left to right. It starts on the arteriolar end, enters the capillaries and continues to the venous end. Water will move from an area of low solutes to an area of high solutes so this will distribute the solutes throughout the blood and tissue fluids.

Define the term "autoregulation" in regard to blood flow.

Autoregulation is a quick, local response for tissues to regulate blood flow. This involves the use of local arterioles matching blood flow where it is needed.

systematic circuit vs. pulmonary circuit

Blood passing through the ride side of the heart is coming from the body so it is poor in oxygen due to the oxygen being used up by the body. This blood will then travel to the lungs to pick up oxygen and to drop off carbon dioxide. This is a pulmonary circuit because the poor oxygenated blood is traveling via the pulmonary valve away from the heart, to get to the lungs to get oxygenated blood and then return to the heart. In contrast, the left side of the heart is receiving oxygen rich blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins. The blood will then exit the heart via the aorta in order to pump oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. This is an example of a systematic circuit. Oxygenated blood is traveling away from the heart, to the body, and then returns to the heart with deoxygenated blood in order to repeat this process.

Using these values, explain why water moves in the manner described above A) at the arteriole end of the capillary, B) at the venule end of the capillary, and, C) for the capillary as a whole.

By using these values we can determine net outward pressure. You take the amount of fluid going out (36 mmHg) minus the amount of fluid going in (26 mmHg) which makes a net outward pressure of 10 mmHg. Since this is a positive number there is 10 mmHg of fluid going out at the arteriole end. At the venule end, fluid is moving in. You can also determine the net inward pressure at the venous end. You take the amount of fluid going out (17 mmHg) minus the fluid going in (26 mmHg) which makes a net inward pressure of -8 mmHg. This amount shows that -8mmHg of fluid is going in at the venule end. There is slightly more fluid movement out than in. This is important for the circulation of solutes and fluid through interstitial space around cells. The 2 mmHg out puts enough fluid into the tissues to deliver what they need and the excess fluid is picked up by the lymph system.

changes in heart rate

Changes in blood pressure will be detected by baroreceptors in the carotid and aortic sinuses located in the right atrium. This will then cause the CA center and CI center to come into play based on if blood pressure is high or low. Let's say that blood pressure is high. Changes in the SNS and PNS activity will cause a decrease in heart rate which will lead to a decrease in blood pressure. Chemoreceptors can also alter heart rate. These are located in the carotid bodies, aortic bodies and the medulla. They can detect a drop in pH, increase in CO2 or a drop in oxygen levels which will all lead to an increase in heart rate. If we drop in heart rate, we would have to drop cardiac output which lowers blood pressure. So if heart rate is increased there is an increase in cardiac output which leads to an increase in blood pressure due to a greater volume of blood.

changes in peripheral resistance

Changes in peripheral resistance can occur due to changing the diameter of a blood vessel, particularly in the arterioles. This can increase or decrease the friction. This process involves the vasomotor center in the medulla. When the vessel is stimulated by the SNS it will contract, narrowing the vessel which will increase the firing rate of the nerve impulse. The firing rate can also be decreased by dilating the vessel and increasing the diameter. This frequency of the firing rate is only controlled by the SNS. Vasoconstriction causes an increase in BP "upstream". Where the vasoconstriction occurs, the blood pressure will back up behind it into those larger arteries. Vasodilation causes decreased BP "upstream". This will allow more blood to flow down which will have less pressure upstream. Baroreceptors also play a role in peripheral resistance. If there is an increase in blood pressure, baroreceptors will inhibit the vasomotor center which will send less nerve impulses. This will decrease the firing rate to smooth muscle in the vessels which will decrease peripheral resistance and therefore decrease blood pressure. The opposite is true for a decrease in blood pressure. Baroreceptors will stimulate the vasomotor center to increase firing rate which will increase peripheral resistance and increase blood pressure.

Contrast continuous capillaries, fenestrated capillaries, and sinusoids in terms of both their structure and their permeability.

Continuous capillaries have an endothelial layer completely surrounding the lumen. They have tight junctions which are a good barrier for large solutes. The movement of nutrients and waste must happen by simple diffusion through intercellular clefts. They therefore have very low permeability. They can be found in most systemic capillaries, the brain and the nervous system. In contrast, fenestrated capillaries have pores in the cytoplasm. These are going through endothelial cells. They are found where filtration is important such as in the brain, kidney and some endocrine glands. They are more permeable compared to the continuous capillaries due to having these pores. Lastly, the sinusoidal capillaries is made of endothelial cells that are very far apart with large gaps. This means that cells are able to fit through such as large proteins. This is good for free exchange of water solutes. These can be found in the liver, bone marrow and spleen. These therefore are very permeable.

List at least 2 other factors that could affect contractility of the heart and explain how each would alter stroke volume.

Contraction strength can also be altered due to exercise. If tension/stretch is increased this will lead to an increase in strength which then decrease ESV and increase SV. A final factor could be due to cuspid valve insufficiency. When this happens the valves don't meet or they pop back up in the other direction. This will cause an increase in ESV and a decrease in SV due to blood not being able to leave properly.

order of events for heart contraction

Depolarization first starts in the sinoatrial (SA) node or pacemaker in the right atrium. Specialized heart cells act to produce action potential. This action potential will spread through to all the heart muscles which will stimulate contraction. The SA node or pacemaker generates an action potential. This starts in the right atrium and is able to travel to the left atrium due to gap junctions. This spread of the action potential will cause all of the atrial muscles to contract. Then the impulse travels to atrioventricular node in the right atrium but pauses for 0.1 seconds. This allows the atria to complete empty before the signal goes to the ventricles to contract. Next the impulse will travel to the atrioventricular bundle and right down the septum of the heart. The impulse will then spread rapidly to the right and left bundle branches. Finally, the subendocardial conduction network will spread the depolarization to both ventricles. This will cause the ventricles to contract.

what causes these valves to open/close

During systole the ventricles will contract causing them the squeeze blood which applies force to the AV valves causing them to close so that blood can not flow back into the atrium. During this same contraction there will be increased pressure on the semilunar valves which will force them open so that blood can flow into the pulmonary trunk or aorta. After systole will be diastole. The blood that is pumped out can apply pressure in the opposite direction to the for the cups to come together so that blood can't flow back.

Explain why blood clots do not normally form inside intact blood vessels

Endothelial cells are coded with prostacyclin which repels platelets. This therefore does not allow platelets to build up in order to form a clot. Another reason why blood clots don't form is due to rapid blood flow. This prevents the build up of thrombin and other clotting factors by the chemicals getting washed away.

2 major factors that cause the pressure to drop.

Factors that can cause this pressure to drop is due to peripheral resistance. Two factors that effect peripheral resistance is blood vessel diameter and blood vessel length. The more friction we have on the walls, the slower that things are going to flow. For example, if we decrease the vessel diameter this will cause a decrease pressure due to the center becoming smaller which will slow down blood flow. Vessel length depends on the distance from the heart. This type of friction is additive and decrease blood pressure within the blood vessel.

List at least 4 of the minor fluids known collectively as transcellular fluids and state where each of them is contained.

Four minor fluids are cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, the vitreous and aqueous humor in the eye and the endolymph and perilymph within the ear. The CSF can be found in the spine and in brain. The synovial fluid is located in cavity of synovial joints. The vitreous and aqueous humors are located in certain areas of the eye. The endolymph and perilymph are located in certain areas of the ear.

List at least 4 other factors in the body that can influence blood pressure and describe how and why each could affect blood pressure.

Four other factors that can influence blood pressure are blood viscosity, blood vessel elasticity, changes in stroke volume and total body blood volume. If a person has thicker blood they have a higher percentage of red blood cells. This higher number of red blood cells increases peripheral resistance which then increases blood pressure. If you have thinner blood or less red blood cells you will have a lower blood pressure. Blood vessel elasticity can affect blood pressure due to the effectiveness that a vessel can stretch and recoil. If the vessel can't rebound well there will be a higher blood pressure. Stroke volume also plays a role in affecting blood pressure. If the heart muscle is weakened or damaged this could lead to a lower stroke volume which leads to lower cardiac output and a lower blood pressure. Lastly, a loss of blood volume leads to a decrease in blood pressure. This could be due to dehydration or a hemorrhage. If a person has excessive salt consumption, blood pressure will be higher due to more water being drawn into the blood stream therefore increasing blood volume.

Define the term "hypertension", and state at least 3 problems that hypertension can cause in the body.

Hypertension is abnormally high blood pressure where resting BP is at 140/90 mmHg or above. One problem that hypertension can cause is a stroke. This can happen from a blood vessel breaking and bleeding into the brain or by the blocking of an artery. Another problem is vascular disease. This is a blocked vessel which can blood blow flow and cause the heart to pump harder. A third problem is heart failure. Due to the heart pumping against excessive pressure, it can start to wear out.

what can occur in a transfusion of the wrong blood type

If a patient is given the wrong blood type a transfusion reaction will occur. This is known as an antigen-antibody complex. The antibodies in the patients blood will kill all of the antigens present in the donor blood if the blood is mismatched. This can then lead to a clumping of red blood cells and if this happens in a small blood vessel they can become clogged. This can lead to kidney failure due to large amounts of red blood cells being broken down.

Describe how changes in blood pressure or in the plasma protein level could affect water exchange between blood and interstitial fluid and how those changes could result in an edema.

If there is a rise in blood pressure more fluid is going to be moving out of the capillary. This excess fluid will be in the interstitial space which can lead to edema. A decrease in plasma proteins will also increase the amount of fluid out of a capillary and it won't allow any fluid in. This means there is no waste removal and an excess of fluid in the interstitial fluid which can lead to edema. Due to there being more fluid present in the interstitial fluid the lymph vessels aren't able to pick up the excess which can lead to swelling.

State values for each of these forces for both plasma and interstitial fluid at the arteriole end of a systemic capillary and at the venule end of a systemic capillary.

In capillary hydrostatic pressure there is a pressure of 35 mmHg which promotes the pushing of fluids out of the blood and into the tissues. Interstitial hydrostatic pressure opposes the capillary pressure but most of the fluid in the interstitial space is picked up by the lymph system. So under normal conditions HPif should be at 0 mmHg. A pressure can be present for HPif with conditions like edema. Capillary osmotic pressure uses plasma proteins, primarily albumin, to pull fluid into the capillary. This pressure is at 26 mmHg. The interstitial osmotic pressure is typically very low at 1 mmHg and pulls fluids out of the capillary. There can be small solutes present in the interstitial fluid so there isn't a lot of dissolved solutes to create suction. At the arteriole end, fluid moves out.

State the relationship that is needed between water intake and water loss in order to maintain a stable total body fluid volume.

In order to maintain total body fluid volume water intake must match water output.

Ischemia

Ischemia is a decrease in blood supply to a tissue which means there is a lack of oxygen. Myocardial ischemia is a decease blood supply or oxygen to a portion of the heart muscle. Infarction is when there is tissue death due to lack of blood flow. If ischemia is severe enough infarction can occur.

blood vessels of liver

It uses a hepatic portal vein which delivers blood from the digestive organs to the liver prior to returning to the heart. This allows the liver to have primary access to the nutrients from intestines and it also allows the liver to cleanse the blood before it returns to the heart.

Explain where lymph nodes are located and how fluid moves from the interstitial fluid to and through the lymph nodes.

Lymph nodes are found throughout the body but the largest areas are in the neck, armpits and groin areas. There is a maze like path that the lymph fluid has to wonder through. This is so the fibers can trap debris and the phagocytic cells can destroy invaders. There is only one efferent or exit vessels so that this fluid has to move around in the maze in order for macrophages and lymphocytes to do their job.

Describe the metabolic controls and myogenic controls that are involved in autoregulation.

Metabolic controls uses smooth muscle cells to constrict and dilate arterioles. When there is low nutrients and high waste the tissues are in need of more blood flow. This stimulates vasodilation which opens the precapilliary sprinters for gas exchange. This opening will increase blood flow. If there is proper blood flow in a tissue vasoconstriction will happen. This closes the precapillary sphincters which decreases blood flow. Myogenic controls are detected when there is a decrease in blood flow or a decrease in stretch on the arteriole wall. This will stimulate vasodilation which will increase blood flow to a tissue or organ. Therefore if there is an increase in blood flow there will be an increase in stretch on the arteriole wall. This will stimulate vasoconstriction which will decrease blood flow. This is also a protective mechanism or the small capillaries.

Infarction

Myocardial infarction is when there is tissue death to a portion of the heart muscle which can occur during a heart attack.

Normal hemoglobin values for men and women

Normal hemoglobin values for males are about 13-18 grams per deciliter. For women, the values are about 12-16 grams per deciliter.

Identify the 4 main avenues of water loss from the body and state typical daily amounts.

One avenue for water loss is lost in the urine which is about 1500 mLs. A second avenue is lost from the lungs which is about 300 mL. A third avenue is lost from the skin which is about 500 mLs. A fourth avenue is lost from feces which is about 200 mLs.

Identify the two components of the cardiac control center, relate each to the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, and describe where and how each affects the heart.

One component of the cardiac control center is the cardioacceleratory center (CA). This increases heart rate by using the sympathetic nervous system. The CA center has fibers that run to the SA node, AV node and the myocardium form the sympathetic ganglia. The CA effects the SA node by increasing HR due to more frequent depolarization. It effects the AV node by shortening the AV delay so that the ventricles can sync up with the atria faster. Lastly, it effects the myocardium by increasing the force of contraction. The second component is the cardioinhibitory center (CI) which decreases heart rate by using the parasympathetic nervous system.

describe at least 3 factors other than blood pressure that help move blood through systemic veins back to the heart.

One factor aiding in venous return is the skeletal muscle "pump". Skeletal muscle surrounds the major veins and every time you walk those muscles are contracting. This promotes inferior blood back to the heart. Another factor aiding in venous return is semilunar valves. These are found in most veins and prevent back flow from occurring. A third factor aiding in venous return is gravity. This promotes blood back to the heart from the superior regions.

List at least 3 examples that could alter stroke volume by affecting end-diastolic volume and explain how and why each could alter stroke volume.

One factor that can affect EDV is changes in venous return. For example, if a person is exercising effectively, this will increase their heart rate which leads to an increase in EDV. This then will increase stroke volume because more blood is being pumped to the heart which leads to more blood being ejected. Another factor related to venous return is excessive heart rate. This will decrease the EDV which will then decrease stroke volume. If the heart rate is too fast, not much blood is able to be pumped to the heart due to it not being able to fill up completely. This will then decrease the amount of blood that is going to be ejected. A third factor that can affect EDV is a valve abnormality such as cuspid valve stenosis. This means that there was a narrowing of a valve which allows less blood to flow through the valve. This will then decrease EDV and decrease SV because the full amount of blood is not able to get through the narrow channel.

List at least 3 examples that could alter stroke volume by affecting emptying and explain how and why each could alter stroke volume.

One factor that can affect ESV and SV is hypertension. This is when there is abnormally high pressure in the arteries which causes the heart to work harder than normal to eject the blood. Due to the pressure being higher, the heart cannot eject all of the blood so more stays behind. This leads to an increase in ESV and a decrease in SV. Another factor is damaged to the heart muscle which causes the heart to not contract as strongly. This means that the heart can't force the blood to exit which leads to to an increase in ESV and a decrease in SV. A third factor is valve abnormality. Semilunar valve stenosis is an abnormality when a the valve is open the tunnel is too narrow. This means that blood can't get out and more blood is left behind. This is also an increase in ESV and a decrease in SV.

3 factors that can increase the risk of intravascular clotting

One factor that can increase intravascular clotting is atherosclerosis. This is the build up of cholesterol and other substances inside a blood vessel which roughens the vessel lining. This causes the narrowing of the vessel which means that less blood can get through. Another factor that can increase intravascular clotting is slow blood flow. Blood that moves slower can allow the platelets products to build up which can activate enzymes and lead to spontaneously forming clots. A third way is from trauma and surgery which can also narrow the opening of a vessel.

factor that can retard or prevent clot formation and how each interferes with clot formation

One factor that can prevent clot formation is a vitamin K deficiency. Vitamin K is needed by the liver to produce clotting factors. Without these clotting factors clots are not able to form. A second factor to prevent clot formation is heparin which acts as an anticoagulant. In the intrinsic pathway, thrombin is reduced and anti thrombin 3 is activated. This reduces the amount of coagulation. A third factor to prevent clot formation is aspirin which is also an anticoagulant. Aspirin acts on prostaglandins which inhibit platelet adhesion and degranulation. A fourth factor that prevents clot formation is dicumarol. This factor blocks the use of vitamin K by the liver which prevents the synthesis of prothrombin and other clotting factors. There is therefore less of an immediate reaction and decreases clotting ability.

3 factors than can trigger myocardial infarction or heart attacks

One factor that can trigger myocardial infarction is atherosclerosis which can block block flow to a section of the heart. Another factor is abnormal clot formation which can create a lack of blood flow and cut of blood flow to a portion of the heart. A third factor is smooth muscle spasms. This could be due to drug use, tobacco usage and excessive stress. In smooth muscle spasms the arteries will constrict which prevents blood flow from getting to a portion of the heart muscle which can lead to ischemia.

3 other strategies for hypertension

One is diet such as decreasing saturated fats, salt and cholesterol. Another is exercise which can decrease stress and allow vasodilation. A third way is weight loss which can decrease the workload on the heart.

2 other mechanism that can help reduce or stop bleeding in small vessels

One other mechanism to stop bleeding is to produce a vascular spasm. This process is initiated by pain receptors which causes smooth muscle to contract when there is an injury. This can reduce blood flow/leakage. This process is an immediate reaction to injury and works best in small vessels. Another mechanism to stop bleeding is to create a platelet plug. When the endothelium layer is broken, the collagen and connective tissue is exposed. This allows platelets to stick to the collagen which activates the release of chemicals causing more platelets to attach from nearby.

List at least 3 other types of sensory input to the cardiac control center and describe how each would affect the cardiac control center and the heart.

One other type of sensory input is proprioceptors. Muscles and joints can detect changes in physical activity. This increase in activity will increase heart rate. They also detect more movement which leads to more energy and increase blood flow for more nutrients and oxygen. Another type of sensory input is chemoreceptors. These detect changes in the chemical composition of blood. They can detect a decrease in pH or an increase in CO2 which both lead to an increase in heart rate. The main goal of these receptors is to get more blood to the lungs to drop off CO2 and to pick up O2. This will also occur if there is a drop in O2. A third type of sensory input is body temperature. An increase in temperature lead to higher metabolic rate which will increase heart rate in order to get more oxygen. In contrast, a decrease in temperature will cause a decrease in heart rate due to a slower metabolic rate.

3 platelet factors other than platelet phospholipids and how each reducing bleeding

One platelet factor is serotonin which acts on the smooth muscle of the blood vessel and prolongs vascular spasm. Another factor is thromboxane A2. This factor has a dual action by prolonging vascular spasm and by promoting granulation. A third factor is growth factor. This factor acts at the site of the injury by helping make the endothelial cells grow faster to heal a wound.

Identify the 3 main sources of water for the body and state typical daily amounts.

One source of water intake is ingested fluid which is about 1600 mLs. Another source of water intake is ingested water in solid floods which is about 700 mLs. A third source of water intake is produced by cellular respiration which is about 200 mLs.

Describe the locations and functions of phagocytic cells and how they move from tissue to lymph node.

One type of phagocytic cells are macrophages. Some macrophages are in the lymph nodes cleansing the fluid while other macrophages are done in the tissues they move into the lymphatic capillaries where they take up temporary residence. Dendritic cells from the skin will phagocytize foreign parts and enter the lymphatic capillary to the lymph node. Lymphocytes are part of the immune and destroy foreign antigens. Macrophages and dendritic cells put the debris on their cell membrane to show to lymphocytes so they can destroy invaders.

4 levels of safety guard against transfusion reaction

One way that you can safe guard against a transfusion reaction is to have a blood bank of your own blood. This may be done if a person knows that they have an upcoming surgery. Another way is having a transfusion from someone in your family with the same blood type. A third way is to have a transfusion from someone not in your family with the same blood type. The final option for a safe transfusion is to have type O blood or another appropriate alternative. In options 2-4 they often will do a cross match where they mix the blood to see if there are other antigens present that could cause an issue before starting the transfusion.

fluid movement between fluid compartments

Pressure is going to move fluid out/in of the blood vessels through the processes of filtration and osmosis. Filtration allows the blood plasma to move to the interstitial fluid. There is a pressure that pushes fluid out of the blood and into the interstitial fluid. In order for interstate fluid to move to the blood plasma osmosis must occur. This allows fluid to be sucked back into the blood stream. Interstitial fluid to lymph vessels is also filtration because it can push its way into the lymphatic capillaries. Osmosis can move fluid back and forth between the interstitial fluid and the cell. The lymph vessel fluid is then able to move back to the blood plasma.

Maternal and fetal Rh blood types that can cause problems and why this problem doesn't occur till 2nd pregnancy

Rh problems can occur during pregnancy if the mother is Rh-negative but the baby is Rh-positive. During birth, blood vessels can tear and some of the babies blood can mix with the mother's. If the baby is Rh-positive then the mother will start producing antibody-D. This can be a problem for her second pregnancy. If that baby is also Rh-positive, antibody-D can pass through the placental barrier and destroy red blood cells of the baby. This does not effect the first pregnancy because antibody-D wasn't produced until after the baby was born. Another problem is if the mother already has antibody-D from previous Rh-positive exposure and the baby is also Rh-positive.

RhoGAM and how it prevents Rh problems

RhoGAM is an immune globulin made by somebody else. It is an antibody to Rh. This will destroy antibody-D making the mother non-sensitized again. This have to be given with every pregnancy to make sure that the mother becomes non-sensitized.

Describe how cancer cells can move from tissue into lymphatic vessels and relate this to treatments for cancer.

Some cancer cells can break off from the original site and spread into the lymphatic capillaries and then into the lymph nodes. If they get through the lymph node maze they can move into the blood and spread further. When cancer is detected a surgeon will remove lymph nodes to see if the cancer has spread and how far. If the cancer isn't in the lymph nodes then it hasn't started spreading yet. Although if it has spread to the lymph nodes and you can remove those then this reduces the risk of the cancer spreading further.

systole vs. diastole

Systole is when the heart is contracting while diastole is when the heart is relaxing.

Systolic pressure vs. diastolic pressure

Systolic pressure is the maximum pressure exerted when the heart is contracting. Diastolic pressure is the minimum pressure exerted when the heart at rest. These both usually refer to the activity in the ventricles.

relate heart sounds to the activity of these valves

The 1st heart sound is related to the AV valves closing. When they close there is an obstacle blocking blood flow which creates turbulence. This turbulence is what give the first heart sound. The 2nd heart sound involves the semilunar valves. When the ventricles are relaxed the semilunar valves will close which will also create an obstacle in blood flow. This also causes turbulence which is the second heart sound.

when the ventricle valve are opened/closed during systole and diastole

The AV valves are open during diastole and closed during systole. In contrast, the semilunar valves are open during systole and closed during diastole. These valves open and close depending on the pressure that is applied. For example, blood flowing into the heart reaches the atria first and applies pressure to allow blood to flow into the ventricles.

Relate the cranial nerve known as the vagus nerve to the cardiac control center, define the term "vagal tone", and describe the effect of vagal tone on the heart.

The CI center has fibers that run to the SA and AV nodes via the vagus nerves which is cranial nerve 10. CI effects the SA node by less frequent depolarization which decreases HR. It also effects the AV node by creating a longer AV delay to ensure that the atria have finished contraction. There is no effect on how forcefully the heart is contracting. Vagal tone is the constant input from the parasympathetic nervous system. The vagus nerves decrease resting heart rate to 70-80 beats/min. They are constantly putting the breaks on the SA node. Without the vagal tone, heart rate would be at about 100 beats/min.

What are PT test and PTT test and what each tells us about the clotting process

The PT test stand for prothrombin time. This test evaluates the bloods ability to clot via the extrinsic pathway. The PTT test stands for partial thromboplastin time. This evaluates the bloods ability to clot via the intrinsic pathway.

Rh factor, Rh-positive vs. Rh-negative

The Rh factor are a series of antigens that are described as weakly antigenic. A Rh-positive individual has the presence of this antigen on their red blood cell. In contrast, a Rh-negative person does not have the presence of this antigen on their red blood cell.

State the typical pressure in systemic venules and in the large systemic veins like the superior and inferior vena cavae.

The approximate pressure in the systemic venules is 15mmHg. The pressure in the large veins/vena cava is 10mmHg and almost goes to 0 mmHg. They veins have very low pressure when returning to the heart.

approx. systolic and diastolic pressure in the 4 heart chambers

The approximate systolic pressure in right and left atria is 10mmHg while the diastolic pressure is 0 mmHg. The systolic pressure in the right ventricle is 25 mmHg while the diastolic pressure is 0 mmHg. Lastly, the left ventricle has a systolic pressure of 120 mmHg while the diastolic pressure is 0 mmHg.

Describe how the input from each group of pressoreceptors affects the cardiac control center and the heart and how the effects help to maintain proper resting blood pressure and blood flow.

The arterial pressoreceptors are activated when there is an increase in blood pressure. This then stimulates the CI center and inhibits the CA center. Which means there is an increase in parasympathetic activity and a decrease in sympathetic activity. This leads to a decrease in heart rate which also decreases blood pressure bringing it back to homeostasis. a decrease in blood pressure the CA center will be stimulated and the CI center will be inhibited. This means an increase in sympathetic activity and a decrease in parasympathetic activity. This therefore leads to an increase in heart rate which increases blood pressure. The venous pressoreceptor in the right atrium can detect an increase in venous blood pressure. Increasing filling of the right atrium leads to more stretching. This stimulated the CA center and inhibits the CI center which is an increase in sympathetic activity and a decrease in parasympathetic activity. This then will increase heart rate which will increase the rate of movement of blood through the heart into the arteries. This increased pumping will lead to a drop in venous blood pressure due to more blood going out through the arteries.

structure/role/pressure of blood vessel

The arteries carry blood away from the heart and usually have a high pressure of about 90-100 mmHg. They have a thick wall to withstand this pressure due to the elastic give and rebound of systole and diastole. They also can adjust the lumen by constricting and dilating. The capillaries role is to exchange nutrients, gases and waste products. They have a thin barrier which is good for diffusion between the capillaries and the cells. They have a lower pressure at 30-10 mmHg. Their wall is not as thick as the arteries due to this lower pressure. The veins return blood to the heart and have a pressure of 10-0 mmHg. They also have a thin wall. The tunica externa help to support them due to this thin wall.

White blood cell details

The average range of white blood cells for men and women are 5,000-11,000 per microliter of blood. White blood cells are larger than red blood cells in size and range from 5 um- 24 um in diameter. They have a spherical shape but they are ability to change shape . White blood cells contain all the typical organelles and they also have a nucleus. The nucleus varies in shape depending on the type of white blood cell. Due to white blood cells being able to change shape, they are able to move on their own. They also use diapedesis to cross the capillary membrane to get into tissues. They will be carried to the area of an infection by the circulatory system. The life span of a white blood cell can be from hours to years or even up to a life time. This depends on the type of white blood cell.

Identify the region of the brain where you would find the cardiac control center and state the general role of this center as it relates to heart function.

The cardiac control center is located in the medulla and has a general role in controlling heart rate.

State the significance of the fact that the diastolic pressure of each of the heart chambers is 0 mm.

The diastolic pressure in the heart chambers has to be 0 so that blood is able to return to the heart. When the blood is coming back to the heart it already has a very low pressure so in order for blood to flow back into the heart that pressure has to be at 0. Pressure moves from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.

what causes hemophilia and how it interfers with the normal clotting process

The disorder hemophilia is caused by a genetic lack of clotting factors. Hemophilia A lacks factor VIII which is the most common. Missing one of the clotting factors can interrupt the clotting cascade which means that prothrombin and thrombin aren't formed resulting in no clotting. Even minor activity can result in prolonged bleeding.

doubled-walled sac that envelops the heart and the 3 layers of the heart itself

The double-walled sac that envelops the heart is called the pericardium. It is a tough, fibrous connective tissue that loosely covers the heart. This layer provides protection and anchors the heart. The inner visceral layer which is attached to the outer surface of the heart, is called the epicardium. This layer is a thin, transparent membrane. The next layer is called the myocardium. This is the muscle of the heart and it lies between the epicardium and the endocardium. The endocardium is the inner most layer of the heart. This layer is also a thin, transparent membrane which lines the inside of the chambers of the heart.

Describe the effects of dehydration versus water intoxication (hypotonic hydration) and list the general symptoms of each.

The effects of dehydration are thirst, dry mouth, lower urine production, low BP, fatigue and restlessness which can lead to coma and death. Hypotonic hydration is when there is an of excess water and a dilution of solutes. This has different effects than dehydration such as excess urination, perspiration, heat cramps, seizures, disorientation, coma and death.

Contrast the role of elastic (conducting) arteries with the role of muscular (distributing) arteries.

The elastic arteries are the largest and have the highest pressure. They are close to the heart and therefore conduct blood away from the heart to the rest of the body. Elastic arteries have stretch and recoils to help maintaining a smooth blood flow. They has large lumen for blood flow. These arteries can be found in the aorta, carotid artery and lilac artery. In contrast, muscular arteries are medium in size and they distribute blood to muscles and organs. They have a thick tunica media which makes it less elastic. These arteries are able to constrict and dilate in order to get blood flowing to a certain organ. This can be seen in the fight or flight response. Some examples of these arteries are the gastric artery and systemic artery.

end-diastolic volume

The end diastolic volume is the amount of blood in the ventricle just before contraction occurs. An average resting value for end diastolic volume is about 130 mL.

end-systolic volume

The end systolic volume is how much blood is left behind in the ventricle at the end of the contraction. An average resting volume for end systolic volume is about 60 mL.

3 stages of blood clotting

The first step of blood clotting is a vascular spasm. Step two is the formation of a platelet plug. The final step is coagulation or blood clotting.

5 specific types of WBC (percentage and functions)

The five specific types are neutrophil, eosinophil, basophil, lymphocyte and monocyte. Neutrophils are about 60-70% of white blood cells. Their main function is to kill bacteria by using their granules and to enhance inflammation through an increase in blood flow. Eosinophil are about 1-4% of white blood cells. They play a role in digesting parasites and causing inflammation. They also have a role in the allergy response. Basophil are 0.5-1% of white blood cells. These white blood cells have histamines and heparin. Histamines cause blood vessels to become more leaky such as watery eyes and a runny nose. Heparin is a blood thinner which decrease blood clotting abilities. Lymphocytes are about 20-40% of white blood cells. They play a role in the immune response by producing antibodies which directly attack pathogens. monocytes area bout 3-8% of white blood cells. These cells are phagocytotic and have strong appetites when active. Never let monkeys eat bananas

Identify the 4 major fluids of the human body and for each fluid state A) the compartment where that fluid is contained, and B) a typical volume.

The four major fluids of the human body are intracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, plasma and lymph fluid. The intracellular fluid is located inside of cells and has a typical volume of 28 L. The interstitial fluid is surrounding and in between cells and has a volume of 11 L. The plasma is within the circulatory system and has a volume of 2.5 L. Lastly, the lymph fluid is located in the lymph vessels and some is in the lymph nodes. Lymph fluid has a volume of 1 L and it gets circulated around.

4 possible blood types and list antigens/antibodies present

The four possible blood types are type A, type B, type AB and type O. For type A blood, there are A antigens present and antibody-B in the plasma. For type B blood, there are B antigens present and antibody-A in the plasma. For type AB blood, there are both A and B antigens present and neither antibodies in the plasma. Lastly, for type O blood, there are neither A or B antigens present and both antibody-A and antibody-B in the plasma.

State the general function of lymph nodes.

The general function of the lymph nodes are to filter lymph fluid and they have an immune response. They survey for foreign material, present antigens and lymphocyte production.

State the general function of the lymphatic vessels in regard to the movement of fluid within the body.

The general function of the lymphatic vessels is to pick up interstitial fluid from the tissues and filter out any microorganisms or debris before sending it back to the blood.

part of an EKG that changes most when pulse rate increase with exercise

The interval between contractions changes most when pulse rate increases with exercise. There is a shorter interval between contractions when heart rate is higher.

chemical composition of fluids

The intracellular fluid has a chemical composition high in potassium, phosphate, magnesium and proteins. This is different from the chemical composition of the extracellular fluid which is high in sodium, chloride and bicarbonate ions. The bicarbonate ions are important for balancing pH levels.

Describe the role of the lymphatic system to the discussion above.

The lymphatic system is right next to the capillary bed. Once blood passes through the capillary bed from the arterioles it will drop off components to the cells and pick up other substances. Once fluid is dropped off to the tissue area the lymph vessels can pick up any excess fluid that was dropped off by the blood. They can then deliver it back to the bloodstream. This process is important to keep the hydrostatic and osmotic pressures where they need to be under normal conditions.

Compare and contrast the lymphatic vessel with the circulatory system in terms of A) the structure and location of capillaries, B) the structure of the vessels, C) the mechanisms that cause fluid to flow, D) the direction of fluid flow, and, E) the rate of fluid flow.

The lymphatic vessels are in most tissues except for the central nervous system, cartilage, teeth, bone and bone marrow. This is different from the circulatory system which has capillaries all over the body. The lymphatic capillaries are very permeable and made of a single layer of epithelial cells. The cells are not tightly joined so there are overlapping edges between the cells. These flaps can open or close depending on the pressure outside or inside the cell. These flaps allow will allow bacteria, viruses and cells to move into the lymphatic capillaries. The circulatory system also has a single layer of epithelial cells around its capillaries in order for exchange to occur. The lymphatic capillaries also have closed ends instead of a loop structure seen in the circulatory system. Both lymphatic and blood capillaries have large vessels with three layers and thin walls. As lymphatic large vessels merge together they are similar to veins. They also both have semilunar valves. The lymphatic large vessels are low in pressure and the largest ones are the ducts which are on the right and left side. Lymphatic fluid uses semilunar valves, a skeletal muscle pump, pressure gradient and smooth muscle in order to get fluid to flow. The mechanism are also present in the circulatory system. The direction of fluid flow for the lymphatic system is from a tissue towards ducts to the subclavian veins to the heart. Negative pressure pulls it towards the chest and gravity helps as well. This is a very slow process and this is a one-way system. The circulatory system goes from the aorta into smaller arteries then into the arterioles, capillaries, venules, to veins and back to the heart. The blood pressure in circulation is primarily due to the pumping of the heart. The lymphatic fluid rate is about 2-4 liters per day which is important for blood volume. The circulatory contains 4-5 liters of blood for the entire body.

major risk: antigens in blood donor or antibodies in donor blood

The major risk involves the antigens in the donor blood. Due to the large amount of antibodies present in the patient, the antigens present in the donor blood could all be destroyed in matched incorrectly. Vice verse, the antibodies present in the donor bag would not be able to kill all the antigens in the patient if mismatched due to the patient having a great volume of blood.

Relate the systolic pressure of each heart chamber to its musculature and to its function.

The muscle in the atria are thin due to their function. After the blood moves from the atria to ventricles the atria are responsible for topping off the ventricles by contracting the rest of the blood out of the atria. This is why the pressure is so low, it doesn't take much work. The right ventricle has thicker muscle than the atria but still has a lower pressure. This is due to the function of the right ventricle which is to send blood to the lungs. It doesn't have to go very far so this is why the pressure is 25 mmHg. The left ventricle has the greatest musculature. This is due to the left ventricle being responsible for sending blood to the rest of the body. In order for the blood to be pumped out to the rest of the body it needs to have a larger pressure of 120 mmHg.

circulatory systems of the fetus

The placenta is the site of exchange between a mother and the fetus. The mother forms a pool that bathes the fetal capillaries but they do not mix through the umbilical arteries. As the blood flows in the arteries exchange will occur and then it will exit from the umbilical vein. The umbilical cord has umbilical arteries which will carry O2 poor blood to the placenta for exchange. The umbilical cord also has an umbilical vein which will carry O2 rich blood back into the baby's body. The foramen ovale is an opening in the atrium septum which connects the rights and left atrium. This is so the fetus can bypass the lungs and the blood can go directly from the right atrium to the left atrium. The baby does not rely on the lungs, digestive tract or liver which in utero. Some will go to the lungs to allow them to continue to grow. The duties arteriesus is a vessel that connects the pulmonary trunk to the aorta. This is so the blood can travel to the rest of the body bypassing the lungs. The ductus venous allows the blood to bypass the liver.

Platelets details

The range for normal platelet counts for both men and women are 150,000-400,000 platelets/uL. The number of platelets can vary depending on where the blood sample is taken from in the body. One function of platelets is that they release chemicals to trigger a vascular spasm. They also help to form the platelet plug. They have a role in clotting. They contract the clot to make the clot more sturdy and stable. Platelets can release clot dissolving enzymes and they can secrete growth factor to aid in healing. Lastly, they have a role in the immune system by helping to close a wound to prevent pathogens from entering. Platelets are small and have an irregular shape. Due to not being cells, they do not have a nucleus but they do have some organelles. They also have granules which contain clotting chemicals. Platelets have no motility and are just carried along with the blood flow. Average life span is about 7-10 days. They are formed from stem cells in red bone marrow. They are formed due to pieces being broken off of megakaryocytes.

Describe the function of the spleen, thymus gland, tonsils, and Peyer's patches as they relate to the lymphatic system.

The spleen is a tough capsule and the largest lymphoid organ. It functions as a blood reservoir and as surveillance for the blood through macrophages and lymphocytes. The spleen can contract in fight or flight situations. This is also where worn out red blood cells can be destroyed. The thymus gland is a primary lymphatic tissue. It functions for t lymphocyte eduction. There are three sets of tonsils that function to help with ingested and inhaled pathogens. The tonsils contain macrophages and lymphocytes and have deep groves to trap invaders. The tonsils also have mucous membranes which help protect from outside invaders. Peyer's patches are along the intestinal tract. Phagocytes and lymphocytes can come and go as needed to deal with pathogens.

Describe the structure of a lymph node and relate the structure to its function.

The structure of a lymph node helps with its defensive functions. Lymph nodes have several afferent or incoming vessels where interstitial fluid can enter. Each lymph node is surrounded by a capsule with strands to divide it into different compartments.

2 major categories of white blood cells (structure and formation site)

The two major categories of white blood cells are granulocytes and agranulocytes. Granulocytes of granules containing different chemicals and are membrane bound. They also have a multi-lobed nucleus. This is different from agranulocytes which do not have granules in their cytoplasm. Another difference is that the nucleus for granulocytes is spherical or kidney shaped. One way that these two are similar is that they both are produced in the red bone marrow.

Identify and explain the cause of the 2 forces that can cause water movement in the body. Describe what effect these two forces have using the fluid inside the capillary as an example.

The two specific forces that can cause water movement in the body are hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure is the force of fluid against the capillary wall or a force against the interstitial space. The osmotic pressure is a force caused by the difference in blood solute concentration or by a difference in solute concentration within the interstitial space.

Explain why the veins of the body are sometimes referred to as a "blood reservoir" or "capacitance vessels".

The veins hold 2/3 of blood capacitance. This is why it is sometimes referred to as a blood reservoir due to the large amount of volume that the veins carry.

Describe how the velocity of blood flow changes as blood moves through the systemic arteries, capillaries, and veins, and relate these changes to the changes in total cross-sectional area that occur.

The velocity of blood flow is highest in the major arteries. It starts to decrease when you get to the arterioles. The velocity then slows dramatically at the capillaries. This happens so that exchange of nutrients can actually occur in the capillaries. Blood flow velocity starts to go back up when you get to the veins. As the cross-sectional area increases the velocity decreases. This is why the velocity goes down a lot at the capillaries because they have a large cross-sectional area due to there being so many. The velocity starts to increase at the veins because they have less of a cross-sectional area due to being larger and there being fewer of them. This is also true for the major arteries.

why is the waveform representing ventricular depolarization higher and has a different shape than the P-wave

The waveform for ventricular depolarization is high in amplitude due to there being lots of cells being stimulated. The shape is narrower than the atrial depolarization because it is happening so quickly. The atrial depolarization is not as high because it takes a while for the action potential to spread from the SA node to the other atrium and for the contraction to come to an end. Once the contraction finally reaches the AV node and is activated, this is when the rapid spread occurs also know as ventricle depolarization. It will spread to every myocyte, causing lots of cells to be stimulated which is represented in the high amplitude of the EKG diagram.

4 heart valves, location and function

There are two atrial ventricular valves, one on the right and one on the left, as well as two semilunar valves. The atrial ventricular valves lie between the atrial and ventricle chambers. There is one for the left side of the heart and one for the right side. The AV valves allow blood to flow from the atrium to the ventricle without back flow occurring. There is one semilunar valve where the pulmonary valve exits and one where the aorta exits. The pulmonary semilunar valve allows blood to flow from the right ventricle to the pulmonary truck without back flow. The aortic semilunar valve allows blood to flow from the left ventricle to the aorta without back flow.

Describe 3 locations of pressoreceptors that provide input to the cardiac control center.

There are two locations of pressoreceptors in the arteries. One location is in the carotid sinus and the other location is in the aortic sinus. These detect arterial blood pressure which is the force of fluid on the walls of the vessels. A third location is in the right atrium. This location is directly effected because the blood is coming from the body.

gap junctions and the spread of depolarization for atrial contraction

This allows the depolarization to start at the SA node in the right atrium and then travel quickly to the left atrium via these gap junctions. This is more signification for atrial contraction.

What actually causes the bleeding to stop

This final step is able to seal off the wound which causes the bleeding to stop.

how would regurgitation cause a heart murmur and state whether the valve is open/closed

This murmur would be heard when the valve is closed.

Identify the 3 major types of blood vessels and compare and contrast their structure. Tunica/layers

Three major types of blood vessels are arteries, capillaries and veins. The inner most layer known as the tunica interna is present in all three types of blood vessels. This is a simple squamous epithelial layer with a basement membrane and a loose connective tissue layer. This layer is also semi permeable. The capillaries only have this tunica interna layer. The tunica media which is the middle layer, can be seen in the arteries and veins but not in the capillaries. This layer is primarily smooth muscle with some elastic connective tissue. The outer most layer, tunica externa can also be seen in the arteries and veins but not in the capillaries. This layer has loose connective tissue with collagen and helps to reinforce the vessel. The veins also contain periodic semilunar valves to keep blood from back flow.

thrombocytopenia and the problem that this condition would cause

Thrombocytopenia is a reduced platelet number due to something that is damaging red bone marrow. This can lead to a decreased clotting ability. This condition could also lead to increased bleeding with injury, bruising and small vessel bleeding.

State the 2 main methods by which the body can regulate blood pressure rapidly on a minute-by-minute basis, and describe how and why each could affect blood pressure.

Two main methods that can regulate blood pressure rapidly is changing heart rate and changing peripheral resistance. A change in heart rate is due to the cardioaccelaratory and cardioinhibitory centers located in the medulla.

Define "volume depletion" versus "dehydration".

Volume depletion is a loss of water and solutes together. This could be due to a major trauma which could cause a loss of blood. Volume depletion has no effect on osmotic balance. This is different from dehydration which is a primary loss of water. Other components such as electrolytes, proteins and nutrient stay in the body. This causes a hypertonic environment due to salt concentrations being higher than normal which can throw off body systems. This also throws off osmotic balance.

Describe how resistance arteries (arterioles) regulate resistance in the blood vessel system and how resistance effects blood flow and blood pressure.

When the arterioles are full they regulate blood flow to the capillaries for nutrition and waste removal. They can close off blood flow in order to get nutrition to places where its needed. These blood vessels can constrict to adjust blood pressure up stream by keeping more blood in the larger vessels. If less blood is flowing out of the capillaries blood will back up in the larger vessels and exert more pressure. As the blood flows into smaller pipes, there is more friction and it is slowed down.

Describe how water balance can be affected by A) burns, B) vomiting or diarrhea, and C) fever or profuse sweating.

With a burn the barrier of skin is lost which can lead to fluid seepage due to nothing holding it in. This can then lead to increased fluid lose/evaporation from the body surface. With vomiting and diarrhea there is an increased fluid loss through the GI tract. This can lead to a salt/water imbalance. With a fever there is an elevated body temperature. This can increase perspiration and reparatory water loss. More water will evaporate into lungs and be released through breath.

varicosities

affects veins rather than arteries. In this vessel abnormality the periodic semilunar valve fails which causes leakage. This is caused by genetics, prolonged standing, obesity and pregnancy. These superficial veins will leak when they are closed which can lead to blood pooling. The main problem is aesthetic. In some cases it may cause venous return problems although this is more rare. This also may increase the risk of clot formation. Due to this blood pooling, blood flow will slow.

blood vessel of lungs

are made up of microscopic air sacs which are surrounded by capillaries. As the sac fill up, O2 will enter the blood stream and CO2 will be exchanged as waste. The pulmonary circuit of the lungs is around 15-20 mmHg which prevents fluid build up. Augoregulation also differs in the lungs. Local BP and O2 concentration is monitored depending on which air sacs are being used. These air sacs will receive more blood flow.

Identify the two largest lymphatic vessels and state where these vessels lead.

are the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct. The right lymphatic duct drains the right arm, right thorax and right head while the thoracic duct drains the entire left side, right abdomen and right leg.

typical blood pressure

for the aorta and major arteries is 120/80 mmHg.

blood vessels of brain

has independent blood flow and blood pressure regardless of what is happening in the rest of the body. For example, during exercise blood pressure can change suddenly so the brain vessels will vasoconstrict to limit this sudden change of blood pressure from entering the brain. The brain's blood pressure is therefore constant regardless of systemic changes. The blood brain barrier contains a combination of cells. It has capillary endothelial cells with tight junctions, astrocytes and periocytes. These all play a role in keeping the brain impermeable although some things are able to get through.

umbilical vein

has the higher oxygen content. This is so that blood can travel to the rest of the baby's body and therefore be used by the different tissues. These processes will close down once the baby takes its first breath.

blood vessels of heart

has the highest capillary density which allow good blood flow to occur. The heart uses collateral circulation which is an alternate blood flow pathway to the same areas of tissue. The heart can therefore develop new pathways around a blockage in small vessels. The heart also has myoglobin which in cardiac muscles cells and they can store their own oxygen to use when needed. During systole the coronary arteries will constrict and they can access myoglobin for oxygen due to the blood being sent to the rest of the body. During diastole these will dilate to allow blood flow to the heart and myoglobin is not needed so it can recharge with oxygen.

1st stage of blood clotting, intrinsic and extrinsic pathways

in step one, there is a formation of the prothrombin activator via intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. The intrinsic pathway uses clotting factors within the blood while the extrinsic pathway initiates clotting factors from the tissue surrounding the vessel. The extrinsic pathway is more efficient due to there being fewer steps but the intrinsic pathway has a greater clotting effect. The first enzyme in the intrinsic pathway is activated by a negatively charged surface. This causes a cascade of enzymes being activated until the prothrombin activator is formed. This is similar in the extrinsic pathway except blood exposed release a tissue factor which along with calcium will activated the first clotting factor. This pathway also has a cascade which leads to a prothrombin activator being formed. In step two, prothrombin is converted to thrombin. Thrombin is able to catalyze the activation of other clotting factors which brings in more platelets, creating a platelet plug. This process will keep going and going. In the final step, thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin. The fibrin becomes insoluble and sticks together to stabilize the plug. This therefore traps formed elements/cells and seals the vessel by creating a clot.

anemia and types of anemia

is a condition when blood oxygen carrying capacity is lower than normal. One type is due to blood loss. This could be a traumatic event such as getting shot or it could be due to hemophilia which is a disease where you don't clot. Another type is aplastic which is a destruction in bone marrow therefore reducing red blood cells. This could be caused by chemotherapy. Another situation with low blood cell production is renal failure. A fourth type is hemolytic which is high red blood cell destruction. Malaria is one of the diseases that can cause this type.

Define the term "congestive heart failure", and describe 3 conditions that can result in congestive heart failure.

is a decrease in pumping efficiency due to an imbalance in cardiac output vs. venous return. This makes the heart work harder. One condition that can result in this is atherosclerosis. This condition is clogged arteries which leads to plaque in the arteries. Another condition is persistent high blood pressure. Due to the pressure being higher in the arteries the heart has to work harder to pump the blood out of the ventricles. A third condition is multiple heart attacks. Due to damaging the heart muscle, it can't pump as efficiently.

heart murmur and whether or not a heart murmur indicates disease of the heart

is an abnormal heart sound. This could be due to a sound other than the 1st or 2nd heart sound or they may sound different than they normally do. Most are called innocent due to no pathology or disease. A heart murmur doesn't always mean disease and could just be happening.

pulse pressure

is measured by the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure. The pulse pressure is due to the periodically stretching and rebounding of the arteries depending on the volume of blood.

Define the term "edema", and contrast edema caused by right side congestive heart failure with that caused by left side congestive heart failure.

is the abnormal accumulation of fluids in the tissues due to stretched blood vessels pushing the fluid out of the blood. Edema caused by left side failure leads to pulmonary congestion. This causes build up of fluids in the lungs known as pulmonary edema. edema caused by right side failure is called peripheral congestion. In this condition, blood collects in the organs and fluids are forced out initially in the feet and ankles, later leading to the spleen and liver.

Stroke volume

is the actual amount of blood that is being ejected for each cycle from either ventricle. An average resting volume for stroke volume is about 70 mL per beat. Stroke volume is determined by subtracting the end systolic volume from the end diastolic volume.

Cardiac output

is the amount of blood volume pumped out per minute from either ventricle. An average resting value for cardiac output is 5 liters/min. Cardiac output is determined by an individual's heart rate multiplied by the stroke volume.

Define the term "preload", relate preload to filling of the heart (end-diastolic volume), and explain its effect on heart contraction and stroke volume.

is the amount of tension present in the ventricular myocardium just prior to contraction. As we create more tension, the muscle is stretching which creates more tension in the muscle itself. The greater the end-diastolic volume leads to more stretching/tension. As we increase the stretch this causes a stronger contraction which leads to more stroke volume due to more blood being ejected.

Define the term "afterload", and explain its effect on emptying of the heart (end-systolic volume).

is the arterial blood "back pressure" that's pushing on the aortic and pulmonary valves. The pressure in the ventricles has to exceed the pressure in the valve in order to push the blood out of the ventricles and into those valves. With normal pressure there is a decrease in end systolic volume which leads to an increase in stroke volume.

clot retraction and fibrinolysis

is when platelets contract, making the clot more compact. This process pulls together the wound to help stabilize it and make it more compact. This also squeezes fluid out of the clot making it more rigid. is the break down of a lot after the tissue is repaired. This usually begins 2 days after a wound. There are chemical signals indicated by the vessel to activate plasmin which can break down fibrin.

leukocytosis (example of helpful and not helpful)

is when there are elevated levels of white blood cells. This condition is helpful when there is an infection in the body. More white blood cells are needed to fight the infection. This condition can be abnormal such as with cancer where white blood cells are being produced in abnormal numbers.

polycythemia and health problems

is when there is a greater than average red blood cell count in the blood. One consequence of polycythemia is viscous blood. This creates a sluggish blood flow which can increase blood clots. Another consequence is high blood pressure.

leukopenia and problems caused by it

is when there is a low white blood cell count. This can lead to a great risk of infection due to not having enough white blood cells to fight the infection

angina

is when there is chest pain caused by a lack of blood supply in the heart which is known as ischemia. This is often a warning sign.

Primary hypertension

is where the cause is unknown which is about 90-95% of cases.

four risk factors that can contribute to primary hypertension

obesity, stress, age and diabetes.

insufficiency/regurgitation as it relates to heart valves

occurs when the heart valve does not fully close which then allows back flow to happen. This could be due to an odd shape of the valve where the cups don't meet. If a valve is open when it should be closed, turbulence will occur.

blood vessels of kidneys

play a role in filtering the blood to remove bad substances as waste products and to keep good substances in the blood stream. They receive 25% of total blood volume in order for this filtration process to happen. They also have nephron units which consist of two capillary beds. One is the glomerulus which is where filtration occurs and the other is the peritubluar capillaries. This allows for the exchange of good and bad substances to occur.

Formed elements and blood cells (common and latin names)

red blood cells or erythrocytes, white blood cells or leukocytes and platelets or thrombocytes.

function of anticoagulants with the function of agents like streptokinase,urokinase, and tissue plasminogen activator.

retard or prevent coagulation by reducing the formation of new clots. They do no effect existing clots. This is different from clot busters which are involved in the process of getting rid of blood clots that have already formed. There is a protein called plasmin which digests fibrin and allows the clot to degrade and disappear. Tissue plasminogen activator is naturally created by healthy endothelial cells which digests fibrin. Streptokinase is a bacteria that is able to digest fibrin. A third clot buster is urokinase, which is found in the plasma that can activate plasmin. This is useful for breaking up blood clots where they shouldn't be in the body but must be given soon after the clot forms.

sternosis as it relates to heart valves and how this condition would cause a heart murmur and whether it would be heart when the valve is open/closed

s an abnormal narrowing of a heart valve. Since the blood is being pushed through a narrow opening this can create an odd sound due to turbulence being present. You would be able to heart a stenosis heart murmur when the valve is open.

usual medication/treatment for high BP

the use of pharmaceuticals. Diuretics can be used to decrease the volume of blood and are the most common. Calcium channel blockers decrease vasoconstriction which decrease contraction of the heart. Angiotensin covering enzyme inhibitor also decrease vasoconstriction. This can help control hypertension but these are not cures.

atherosclerosis

which can weaken spots in the vessel wall. Atherosclerosis starts out with injury to the vessel wall. Some ways that the endothelial wall can be injured are due to turbulent blood flow, high blood pressure or components of cigarette smoke. This process results in a sticky surface where lipids can adhere which leads to plaque formation. Plaque formation can restrict or cut off blood flow and a rupture can also occur, creating other problems.