A million flashcards for MCAT and i hate my life but i have no other plan

i hate math

-sqrt 10^n = 10^(n/2); e.g. sqrt 10^18 = 10^9 -10^x/10^y = 10^(x-y); e.g. 3*10^7/10^9 = 3*10^-2 -if log x/y = 12; then x/y = 10^12 -[H+]= y 10e-n; pH is between n-1 and n

veins

Blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart have lower pressure than arteries do not have muscular walls, except for vena cava venous valves are driving pressure pushing the blood to the heart

sec/ tert-butyl

CH3CHCH2CH3 -C(CH3)3

personality disorders

Cluster A: paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal (weird) Cluster B: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissitic (wild) Cluster C: avoidant, dependent, OCPD

Nernst equation

Ecell= E°cell - (RT/nF) (lnQ) RT/zF *ln[out/in]

amide vs amine

Compounds that have a nitrogen atom bonded to one side of a carbonyl group are classified as amides vs R3N; basic functional group; no more than 2 R groups are H and R cannot be a carbonyl

stereoisomers

Compounds with the same structural formula but with a different arrangement of the atoms in space. number of stereoisomers = 2^n, n= chiral centers (sp3 carbons with different groups attached)

survivorship bias

Concentrating on the people or things that "survived" some process and inadvertently overlooking those that didn't because of their lack of visibility.

newton's law of gravitation

Fg= Gm1m2/r^2 every object on earth exerts a gravitational pull on every other object G= 6.7e-11 inverse square law

arcuate fasiculus

Fibers that connect the areas involved in production and comprehension of speech

mindguarding

Filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group.

anaphase I

Homologous chromosomes move to the opposite poles of the cell. However, each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids joined to each other at the centromere. centromere does not split until anaphase II

tendon

Connects muscle to bone; connective tissue

pericardium

Double-layered membrane surrounding the heart. balloon that envelops the heart as a fetus that folds back on itself and forms a gap in between the two layers ; visceral sometimes called epicardium

electrostatic forces

E=F/q0; q0= test charge

intensity of a uniform electric field

E=V/d charged particles accelerate in electric fields

Energy and frequency

E=hv; E=hc/lambda

ritzer

McDonaldization (rationalization)

play stage

Mead's second stage in the development of role taking; children act in ways they imagine other people would

Game stage

Mead's third stage in the development of role taking; children anticipate the actions of others based on social rules -understand one person can have multiple roles -generalized other = expectations of society

mRNA surveillance

Mechanisms for the detection and elimination of mRNAs that contain errors that may create problems in the course of translation. -cells will degrade defective/ stalled transcripts

necrosis vs apoptosis

Necrosis: bad, damage to nearby cells caused by lysis Apoptosis: good; for normal functioning of cell. Cell shrinkage, caspase activation,

third law of thermodynamics

No system can reach absolute zero k= 0 is state of zero entropy

hemiacetal

OH OR C R R in constant eq with carbonyl cyclic hemiacetal; carbox and OH on same chain, OH can swing around and attack electrophile carbox C; carbox C is labelled #1

which is more polar, -OH or =O?

OH; can ionize more readily

acetal

OR OR C R R

native gel electrophoresis

Protein molecules attracted to charged end of a gel (usually the positively charged end) and are sorted into distinct bands based on how well they can move through the gel (based on either size or charge) Stronger/more charged or smaller proteins move fastest through the gel; homodimers have one band

stroke volume/ cardiac output

SV- amount of blood ejected from the heart in one contraction (systole) CO- volume of blood ejected from the left side of the heart in one minute; stroke volume x heart rate

fluid mosaic model

Structural model of the plasma membrane where molecules are free to move laterally (in 2D) within a lipid bilayer. cannot flip flop (hydrophilic regions stay out of middle) proteins anchored to cytoskeleton cannot move at all unsaturated acids= more kinks= more fluidity

teacher expectancy

Teachers treat students differently according to preconceived ideas about their capabilities. Influences students' achievements

shadowing

Technique where a participant is asked to repeat a word or phrase immediately after its heard

Bradford quantification

Technique which uses Coomassie blue to bind proteins so they can be put into a UV-Vis spectrophotometer and their absorption can be measured at 600nm.

Shine-Dalgarno sequence

The prokaryotic ribosome-binding site on mRNA, found 10 nucleotides 5' to the start codon. (upstream) complementary to pyrimidine rich regions

mutarotation

The rapid interconversion between different anomers of a sugar

specific activity

The ratio of enzyme activity to the total mass of protein in a sample.

snell's law

The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant, for a given frequency. n1sintheta1=n2sintheta2 law of refraction n2>n1; angle 2<angle 1 bend toward normal

Tautomerization

The rearrangement of bonds within a compound, usually by moving a hydrogen and forming a double bond -tautomers= constitutional isomers in equilibrium and readily interconverted

homology-dependent repair

This overarching class of DNA repair mechanisms uses complementary base pairing from the undamaged strand to fill in

p53

This tumor suppressor gene (TSG becomes inactivated by loss of function in BOTH alleles) causes cell cycle arrest in G1, providing time for DNA repair. If repair is successful, cells re-enter the cycle. If unsuccessful, apoptosis

Toricelli's result

Vefflux = √2gD D= distance from liquid surface to hole in tank

work for electrical field

W= -PE_elec where PE = qV can have points where potential is zero but field is not and vice versa

yolk sac

a specialized structure that leads to the digestive tract of a developing organism and provides it with food during early development first site of RBC synthesis in embryo

conduction aphasia

a speech disorder characterized by the inability to repeat words with intact spontaneous speech production and comprehension; usually due to injury to the arcuate fasciculus

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables operationalize = variable that is not directly measurable is defined in a way that it can be measured for the purpose of the study

olfactory epithelium

a thin layer of tissue, within the nasal cavity, that contains the receptors for smell odorant receptor = GPCR (ligand receptor) that opens cAMP gated ion channels

RFLP

a variation in the length of restriction fragments produced by a given restriction enzyme in a sample of DNA. Such variation is used in forensic investigations and to map hereditary disease. fragment length unique to individual

lytic cycle

a viral reproductive cycle in which copies of a virus are made within a host cell, which then bursts open, releasing new viruses

lysogenic cycle

a viral reproductive cycle in which the viral DNA is added to the host cell's DNA and is copied along with the host cell's DNA -dormant cycle -have to find a cell with a receptor they recognize in order to attach and enter -phage and plant viruses are naked (no envelope) -called prophage or provirus when enter cell's DNA -mitosis of cell copies viral DNA -stress triggers lytic cycle

PET scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

adenine vs guanine structure

a- NH2 sticking up g- =O sticking up, also has an extra N on the 6 membrered ring (3 total, a has 2 total)

trauma and stress related disorders

PTSD acute stress disorder adjustment disorders

chyme

Partially digested, semiliquid food mixed with digestive enzymes and acids in the stomach.

word association testing

Projective test; interviewer says a word, respondent must mention the first thing that comes to mind

acidic salts

comes from salt with a weak base, becomes conjugate acid that is more acidic than water. includes NH4+, Be2+, Cu2+, Zn2+, Al3+, Cr3+, Fe3+

Succinate ubiquinone reductase

complex II in ETC aka succinate dehydrogenase

surfactants

compounds that lower the surface tension of water coat alveoli and reduces surface tension so they do not collapse

lactone/ lactam

cyclic ester/ cyclic amide

aspartate and glutamate

deprotonated (anionic) forms of aspartic acid and glutamic acid (how they are observed at physiological pH Asn and Gln are amide derivates of Asp and Glu

confounding variables

factors that cause differences between the experimental group and the control group other than the independent variable extraneous variables

alpha helix

favorable structure for hydrophobic transmembrane domain bc all the polar backbone regions are bonded to each other inside the helix and don't interact with hydrophobic membrane ; hydrophobic R groups radiate out from helix

mature ovum

female gamete that has completed meiosis and contains haploid cell analogous to spermatozoa

permanent bar magnet

field lines run north to south net force on magnet = 0 because Fb on north = -Fb on south (action reaction pairs)

white blood cell

fights infection and disposes of debris normal cell structure some amoeboid motility / chemotaxis (macrophages and neutrophils)

spleen

filters blood, destroys aged RBCs largest lymphoid organ

implantation

lining proliferates; develops crypts apposition: contact between the two cell layers adhesion: trophoblasts invade endometrium cytotrophoblasts separate syncitiotrophoblasts from pools of uterine blood (forms placenta) -happens a week after fertilization -corpus luteum for 3 months, then placenta takes over for last 6 (no actual mixing of blood)

cell theory

living things are composed of cells cells are monomers of organisms new cells arise from preexisting cells

immunohistochemistry

localizing antigens or proteins in tissues using labeled (colored or fluorescent) antibodies

pyridine

lone pair on nitrogen is localized to N because there are already electrons participating in resonance in the double bond to it for a molecule like thymine, the lone pair can delocalize and form a double bond between C and N so they are not localized to the N

wax

long chain fat esterified to alcohol, water proof barrier in plants

coenzyme A

long handle with sulfur at the end; CoA-SH pass acetyl units around; bond between S and acetyl is high energy so it is easy to transfer acetyl in Kreb's cycle activated acetyl= attached to CoA-SH

Hess's Law (heat summation)

if a reaction has several steps, the sum of energies in each step is the overall energy of the rxn becuase enthalpy is a state function (independent of path)

negative priming

if an ignored object suddenly becomes the attended object, then participants are slower at processing it implicit memory

Frank-Starling Mechanism

if muscle is stretched, it contracts more forcefully filling the heart with more blood causes it to stretch higher venous return= higher cardiac output

fermentation

if no O2 present, ETC cannot function; regenerates NAD+ in anaerobic conditions and allows glycolysis to continue

tolerance (immune system)

ignore the bodies normal structures some people can form self antigens (bad)- self antigens only produced by healthy cells, not cancer cells and a lower number of self antigens make tumor cells more susceptible to innate immune cells

bond strength

longer = weaker greater s character of hybrid orbital = shorter bond becuase s orbitals are closer to the nucleus than p

cis/ trans

look for equivalent substituents when assigning when there are no equivalent, use E or Z for naming; big dogs

pulmonary edema

large increase in arterial pressure, fluid forced out of capillaries into surrounding tissue

colon

large intestine absorption of *water* and ions from feces -does not excrete, but processes waste -can use active transport to excrete excess ions into feces -undigested materials broken down by colonic bacteria; stop bad bacteria from proliferating; supply vit k

group dynamics

larger groups are more stable (bc additional social ties that cannot all be broken as easily) but less intimate

thoracic duct

largest lymphatic vessel; in chest, empties in vein at neck; vessels in intenstines dump dietary fats into this duct

mole fraction

mols substance/total mols in soln

molality

mols/kg does not change with temp Molarity= molality when volume is small and solvent= water

dipole induced dipole force

momentary; permanent dipole in one molecule induces a dipole in a neighboring nonpolar molecule

ependyma

leaky barrier composed of ependymal cells (production and regulation of CSF) between the cerebrospinal fluid and the interstitial fluid of the central nervous system

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning); one event directly connected to another

telomerase

lengthens telomeres (5'-TTAAGGG-3') in germline, embryonic stem cells, white blood cells, cancer cells reverse transcriptase

recombination frequency

likelihood of two alleles being separated during crossing over in meiosis high if they lie far apart, *close together = unlikely to be separated during crossing over* =#recombinants/#offspring recombo = CROSSING OVER recombo genotypes always occur with similar freq

electric field lines

lines that represent both the magnitude and the direction of the electric field -exit positive charge and enter negative (eg. extracellular space to axon interior)

transformation

process in which one strain of bacteria is changed by a gene or genes from another strain of bacteria bacteria can internalize pure DNA in certain conditions

magnification

the ratio of an object's image size to its real size m= -i/o; i= image distance; o= object distance negative value= inverted; positive= upright image

mechanical advantage

the ratio of the output force to the input force; ratio of force applied with no machine to force applied with machine less force required when using a simple machine actual MA<ideal MA Fout/Fin= din/dout where d is distance from fulcrum

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

viral budding

the release of virions from the host cell through the cell membrane, a process which includes encasing the virion with an envelope composed of lipids from the host cell membrane envelope= antibody cannot reach epitope to block infection

coding strand (sense strand)

the strand of DNA that is not used for transcription and is identical in sequence to mRNA, except it contains uracil instead of thymine

collecting tubule

the structure in the nephron that collects urine from the distal convoluted tubule; first site where urine is present after distal tubule sends urine to calyx

publication bias

the tendency for journals to publish positive findings but not negative or ambiguous ones

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

activation synthesis model

the theory that dreams are produced when the brain attempts to make sense of random neural activity that occurs during sleep

mendel's law of segregation

the two copies of a gene segregate from each other during transmission from parent to offspring each gamete only carries one allele for a gene

Lorentz force

total electromagnetic field; Fe+Fb = q(E + vxB) particle can pass thru undeflected if qvB=qE; v=E/B

polygenic

trait controlled by two or more genes

situational approach

trait vs. state traits are stable, behavior is specific

when are introns spliced out

transcription (DNA -> mature mRNA) nucleus

nuclear factor

transcription factor (binds DNA) that promotes gene expression of various cytokines, endothelial adhesion molecules, and interferon regulatory factors (IRF) vary in different cells; can confer both temporal and spatial regulation of their target genes.

vas deferens

tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra

kcat

turnover number (molecules catalyzed per second in optimal conditions) Vmax / [E]

methylation

turns off expression by physically blocking transcription proteins and binds chromatin remodeling proteins that change DNA winding around histones

seminal vesicles

two small glands that secrete a fluid rich in sugar that nourishes and helps sperm move; on the surface of the bladder; secretes 60% of the volume in semen (nourishing fluid) into duct

statistical errors

type 1- reject a true null hypothesis; conclude there are differences when there are not type 2- fail to reject false null hypothesis; conclude no difference when there is

bipolar disorders

type I and II cyclothmic

cell mediated immunity

type of immunity produced by T cells that attack infected or abnormal body cells

cyanohydrin

OH CN C R R

gall bladder

An organ that stores bile and releases it as needed into the small intestine

aldehyde

An organic molecule with a carbonyl group located at the end of the carbon skeleton. R-C(=O)-H

alcohol fermentation

1. pyruvate decarboxylase: pyruvate-> acetaldehyde 2. alcohol dehydrogenase: -> ethanol used in making bread and wine (yeast)

meso compounds

"Meso compounds have a Mirror of Symmetry" Thus even though they may have stereogenic centers, they are achiral and so do not have enantiomers; not optically active

aldosterone

"salt-retaining hormone" which promotes the retention of Na+ by the kidneys. na+ retention promotes water retention, which promotes osmotic reabsorption of water by kidneys controlled by angiotensin II

frequency of allele

#allele copies/total gene copies e.g. heterozygous= 1 copy ex. if 20% of population is heterozygous and 10% is homozygous, frequency is 0.5*20% + 1*10%= 20%

hybridization

#atoms + #LPs ; 2= sp; 3= sp2; 4= sp3 make new orbitals with character of both s and p to make up for discrepancy between electron configuration theory e.g. sp3 takes character from 3 p orbitals and 1 s and all the 4 sp3 orbs are equal in energy; 25% s character and 75% p character

degree of unsaturation

((2n+2)-x)/2 x= number of H n = number of C d=1; one pi bond or one ring d=2; 2 pi bonds or 1 pi and 1 ring etc. ignore oxygen in calculation treat halogen like a hydrogen

transposons

(jumping genes) short strands of DNA capable of moving from one location to another within a cell's genetic material repeated sequences code for transposase; this catalyzes its incision and movement

mRNA processing

*5' cap* end of a pre-mRNA molecule modified by the addition of a cap of guanine nucleotide; need for translation *poly A tail* prevents from being digested

oxidation of alcohols

-primary to aldehydes and carboxylic acids -secondary to ketones -tertiary alcohols have no bonds to carbons and cannot be oxidized by losing H bonds or gaining O bonds

prophase I/II

*I* The chromosomes condense, and the nuclear envelope breaks down. crossing-over occurs-> gives variation and makes new chromosome synapsis-> homologous chromosomes find each other *II* The duplicated chromosomes and spindle fibers reappear in each new cell.

RNA pol I, II, and III

*I* transcribes rRNA *II* hRNA -> mRNA / miRNA (rRNA type) *III* tRNA, siRNA

LH, progesterone, and estrogen

*LH* Initiates ovulation and formation of corpus leuteum from leftover follicle; causes sperm production in males *p* produced by ovaries, secreted in response to LH; not directly involved with triggering ovulation *e* triggers LH surge; not directly involved with triggering ovulation

power vs. authority

*Power*: the ability to exercise one's will over others *Authority*: the socially approved use of power

lac operon Z,Y,A gene

*Z* codes for B-galactosidase (breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose) *Y* permease (transports lactose into cell) *A* transacetylase (transfers acetyl from A-CoA to B-galactosidase), not required for metabolism

sections of the sarcomere (smallest functional unit in striated muscle)

*a band* contains both actin and myosin (cause striation) *m line* attachment site for myosin *i band* actin not superimposed by myosin *h zone* contains m line, shortened during contraction, contains only myosin and no actin *z disc* lateral border of sarcomere

autocrine, paracrine, endocrine hormones

*a* local; secreted and bind to the same cell *p* acts on neighboring cell *e* function at a distance

formation of carbox acid derivatives

*acid halide* carboxylic acid + SOCl2; or + PX3 *anhydride* condensation of two carboxylic acids with loss of water; or carbox acid + acid halide *ester* carbox + alcohol; or halide, anhydride, another ester *amide* acid halide, anhydride, or ester + desired amine cannot be prepped from carbox acid directly bc amines too basic so acid-base rxn happens faster than addition-elimination rxn

Order of reactivity of carboxylic acid derivatives

*acyl chloride > acid anhydride > carboxylic acid > ester > amide decreases with increasing basicity of leaving group

problem solving

*algorithms* step by step, time consuming, leads to accurate answer *trial and error* series of potential answers, time consuming and unsystematic *insight* answer comes to you all at once all of the sudden, usually after you stop thinking about problem for a while, A-Ha moment *heuristics* fast and error prone, strategy or shortcut for approximate answers

auto vs auxotrophs

*auto* Organisms that make their own food *auxo* requires organic growth factor; does not survive on minimal media because cannot synthesize a molecule needed to live

enteric NS

-ANS branch -2 networks of neurons: myentic plexus (regulates gut motility, between longitudinal and circular) and submucosal (regulate enzyme secretion, blood flow, ion/water balance in lumen- sparse in anus, esophogus)

evolution

*convergent* distantly related species develop the same characteristics to adapt to similar environments *parallel* closely related species continue to evolve the same characteristics to adapt to similar environments *divergent* recently descended species develop distinct characteristics bc of contrasting environments

old brain

*diencephalon* thalamus and hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, pineal -end of continuous stalk *Rhombencephalon* the embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the hindbrain *Mesencephalon* the midbrain; a region of the brain that surrounds the cerebral aqueduct; includes the tectum and the tegmentum

identity development

*diffusion* low commitment and exploration, lack direction *foreclosure* high commitment low exploration/ adopt identity they have been assigned *moratorium* low commitment high exploration/ trying new things and thinking about career path but haven't settled *achievement* high commitment and exploration/ feel confident about choice and identity

efferent vs afferent neurons

*efferent* motor neurons that carry neural impulses away from the central nervous system and towards muscles to cause movement *afferent* Nerve cells that carry impulses towards the central nervous system

Gestalt stuff

*figure ground* recognize objects by distinguishing them from the background *similarity* similar objects are grouped together *proximity* near each other grouped together *common region* objects in same closed region grouped together *continuity* perceive smooth, continuous patterns *closure* we complete incomplete figures *focal point* what stands out visually captures and holds attention first

Michaelis-Menton assumptions

*free ligand* [S] is constant during reaction, which is only true in initial phase of rxn; [S] should be much much larger than [E] (saturating conditions) *steady state* [ES] constant, rate of product formation constant, when [S] depletes [ES] decreases and rxn slows down *irreversibility* rxn proceeds forward only bc reverse would slow product formation rate each only holds true in *initial phase* also [E] should be smaller than Km

phase changes

*fusion* solid to liquid (melting) *vaporization* liquid to gas *sublimation* solid to gas *deposition* gas to solid

germline vs somatic mutations

*germline* mutation in a cell that produces gametes; passed to offspring *somatic* occur in body cells; do not affect gametes; not passed to offspring

gray matter vs white matter

*gray* cell bodies; information processing (cortex) *white* myelinated axons

replication enzymes

*helicase* An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at the replication forks *DNA gyrase* relaxes supercoiling ahead of the replication fork reduces torsional strain *primase* An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.

bacterial flagellum

*hook* connects basal body and filament; transmits torque but does not provide rotation itself *filaments* recipient of rotation; propel bacteria *cell membrane* holds flagellum in place *basal body* molecular motor; generates torque

Hydrolase vs lyase

*hydrolase* breaks chemical bonds with water ATPase, protease, phosphatase *lyase* breaks chemical bonds without water or oxidation pyruvate decarboxylase; synthases (do not require energy input)

reactivity of carboxylic acids

*inductive effect* induction is electron withdrawing effect making carbonyl carbon more electrophilic and better able to react with nucleophile; increases reactivity; induction dominates resonance so acid chlorides are VIOLENTLY reactive; acid anhydrides are reactive, esters slightly reactive *resonance* increases electron density; donating effect; less electrophilic and less reactive; N is not super electronegative, more willing to donate electrons so resonance plays more of a role in amide bond, less reactive-> resonance dominates in this case *acid halides > acid anhydride > ester > amide*

internal vs external validity

*internal* extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study *external* extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

lysosomes vs peroxisomes

*l* degrade macromolecules by hydrolysis, releases building blocks; acid hydrolases; pH= 5 *p* produce H2O2 as byproduct, lipid breakdown, protects from radicals, catalase -> H2O + O2

deviance theories

*labeling* primary deviance leads to deviant label and social stigma causing secondary deviance (more serious violations) *strain* deviant behavior results from disconnect between goals and means for achieving those goals *differential association* learn deviant behavior through interaction with others

log/ lag/ stationary phase

*log* exponential growth of bacterial population *lag* prior to log; little to no cell division bc do not have ideal conditions/ need to produce component for division *stationary* equilibrium; metabolites deplete and waste accumulates

point mutation types

*missense* Most common base pair mutation; new codon makes sense in that it still codes for an amino acid *nonsense* changes codon to stop codon; shorter and usually nonfunctional protein

decarboxylation of acids

*need need need carbonyl beta to carboxylate group* bc unstable and can be decarboxylated (proceed thru cyclic transition state- net loss of CO2)

negative strand vs positive strand RNA

*negative* complementary to mRNA, genome must be transcribed by viral RNA polymerase to produce viral RNA *positive* -Viral single-stranded RNA that *can act directly as mRNA*; replicate genome in cytoplasm of host cell using own viral RNA-dependent RNA pol

other blotting methods

*northern* detects RNA *western* proteins *eastern* post-translational modifications of peptides

parallel vs antiparallel beta sheets

*parallel* N terminal portions align/ H bond pairs between backbones offset/ linking loops are NOT beta and run 360 degrees *anti* N lines up with C terminal/ H bond pairs between backbones directly aligned/ linked with beta turns (180 degree bend of chain)

capacitors in parallel and in series

*parallel* same voltage, Ceq= sum of capacitors in parallel; can solve for individual Qs just by using Q=C/V because both experience full V of battery, individual Qs add to get full Q of circuit; positive sides connected directly to each other, negative sides connectd directly to each other *in series* same charge; 1/Ceq = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + ... uppercase = max values, lower = time varying

parvo and magno pathway

*parvo* high spatial resolution, poor temporal (movement)// form *magno* high temporal (movement), poor sptial resolution, does not encode color// motion *parallel processing* magno, parvo, and color pathways happen simultaneously

culture

*popular culture* - anything that is mainstream (not necessarily referring to media) *high culture* relevant to only the wealthy and highly educated (collecting expensive artwork)

gram positive vs negative

*pos* dark purple, thick wall, can form endospores *neg* pink, thin wall, outer lipoplysac layer; will degrade antibiotics in periplasmic space; can have increased resistance to antibiotics and are usually more toxic

types of hormones

*proteins/ polypeptides* most of body's hormones; made in RER; go to golgi; excreted in vesicles; water soluble; receptors on cell surface bc hydrophilic/ polar; initiate cascade inside cell with signalling cascade with 2ndary messengers *steroids* comes from lipids (cholesterol); 4 ring system as backbone; receptors inside cell bc can pass thru membrane, they are the signal (direct); cortisol, sex hormones *tyrosine derivatives* sometimes act like proteins, sometimes like steroids (catecholamines [peptide like- epi, norepi, dopamine]; thyroid [steroid like])

pygmalian effect/ social facilitation

*pygmalion* higher expectations lead to an increase in performance *social facilitation* occurs when a participant completes a manageable task in front of an audience challenging might increase arousal above optimum and interfere with performance if task has not been practiced tend to perform worse in mere presence of others

RNA types

*rRNA* pairs with proteins to form ribosome *snRNA* splicing of pre-RNA *mirRNA* bind complementary sequences on target mRNA to inhibit expression *siRNA* RNA interference; binds and signals degradation

altruism

*reciprocal* behavior that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future; more likely to be nice to someone if we have to see them again in the future *kin selection* *cost signaling* hey look i have resources to do this thing *empathy* helping behavior around age 2; we have a tendency to help other people even if it does not help us

binocular depth cues

*retinal disparity* each eye transmits slightly different image to brain *convergence* how much eyes turn inward to see stimulus -requires input from both retinas -depth/distance for 3D images

eye anatomy

*sclera* white of the eye *choroid* middle, vascular layer of the eye, between the retina and the sclera; dark pigment to absorb excess light *retina* the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information *cornea* clear tissue that covers the front of the eye *lens* transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina *iris* ring of muscle forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

selection bias vs self-selection bias

*selection* in an experiment, unintended differences between the participants in different groups not representative of whole sample *Self selection* A bias that occurs because people who feel strongly about a subject are more likely to respond to survey questions than people who feel indifferent about it.

statistics

*t test* evaluate the size and significance of the difference between two means *p value* The probability level which forms basis for deciding if results are statistically significant (not due to chance); significantly different if below 0.05 (5%) *correlation* always -1<r<1; linear relationship btwn quantitative variables

temporal vs spatial summation

*temporal* Summation by a postsynaptic cell of input (EPSPs or IPSPs) from a single source over time. *spatial* Integration by a postsynaptic neuron of inputs (EPSPs and IPSPs) from multiple sources.

test intertest vs inter-rater reliability

*test intertest* can you obtain similar results over time *inter-rater* measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event

positive/negative controls

+ what results would look like when independent has max possible effect on dependent - results if independent has no affect e.g. handwashing exp; + = no bacteria transferred (untouched surface); - = touch surface with hands washed with only water and no soap

sublimation (defense mechanism)

- Rechanneling of drives or impulses that are personally or socially unacceptable into activities that are constructive.

tubulin

- protein that polymerizes into long chains or filaments that form microtubules, the hollow fibers that serve as a skeletal system for living cells -Microtubules have the ability to shift through various formations enabling a cell to undergo mitosis or to regulate intracellular transport.

Column (Flash) Chromatography

- separates by polarity - like TLC upside down & thru sand

world systems theory

-*core nations* take and exploit resources from periphery countries (poor) -*periphery nations*; export resources and depend on goods from other countries -*semi periphery* are in between (either rising up or falling down)

mitochondria

-2 membranes each with lipid bilayer -outer: smooth with pores (porin protein) -inner: impermeable and densely folded into cristae that extend into matrix -have unique genetic code, RNA pol, ribosomes, etc. -endosymbiotic theory -enzymes for kreb and pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in matrix; ETC and ox phos in inner membrane

SN1

-2 steps; carbocation can form -carbocation stability = 3 >2 > 1 > ch3 -rate = k[elec] becuase this is the rate limiting step - 50/50 attacks either side; racemic -increase rate by speeding up step with leaving group- more stable intermediate = faster rxn -polar protic solvents help stabilize carbocation and solvate leaving group/ act as nucleophile in solvolysis rxn (produce alcohol if water and ether in alcoholic solvent) -reactivity of substrate - 3 > 2>> 1 (bc carbocation) -carbocation can rearrange to more stable conformation

phallic phase

-3 to 6 -fixation leads to sexual dysfunction -oedipes and electra complex

latent phase

-6 to puberty -redirect libidinal energy to other sources such as school, friendships, etc.

resting potential of a membrane

-70mV

physical change

-A change in a substance that does not involve a change in the identity of the substance; does not effect intramolecular bonds, but does effect intermolecular bonds; e.g. phase change

Terpene

-A class of lipids built from isoprene moieties; have carbon groups in multiples of five. (C5H8) -can be linear or cyclic -mono= 2 isoprene units; sesqui= 3; di= 4 squalene= triterpene (6 units) -manufactures steroids, ear wax -terpanoids- isoprene skeleton with other elements

B cell

-A lymphocyte that produces proteins (antibodies) that help destroy pathogens. -from bone marrow -only effector (*plasma*) cells create the antibodies, not memory cells (pre-activated, dormant) -daughter B cells will have unique receptors from each other and from parent (shuffling of genes)

Acetylcholine (ACh)

-A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction -stimulates receptors until destroyed by acetylcholinesterase (hydrolyzes it)

cation

-A positively charged ion -does not react with water if group 1 or large 2 -stronger acid than water

antibody

-A protein that acts against a specific antigen -light and heavy chain/ constant and variable antigen binding region -classes differ by constant regions -IgG most common in plasma - binds PROTEIN not gene

parietal lobe

-A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch. -contains somatosensory cortex -spatial information- proprioception -cognitive mapping

enolate ion

-A resonance-stabilized anion resulting from the deprotonation of a carbon atom adjacent to a carbonyl functional group; DB can move -nucleophilic, negative charge, happens in alddehydes and ketones bc of acidity of protons -react starting reagent with something like H-, form H2 as product which bubbles out of soln and drives the reaction to completion to get complete formation -can also get complete formation if pKa acid right > pka acid left and Keq is >>>>> 1 (favors formation of weaker acid- strong wants to give up proton badly)

Pleiotropy

-A single gene having multiple effects on an individuals phenotype -gene expression can alter seemingly unrelated aspects of total phenotype

isoelectric focusing

-A specialized method of separating proteins by their isoelectric point using electrophoresis; the gel is modified to possess a pH gradient -low pH end at anode; deprotonate until charge is zero and they stop moving (move toward cathode)

noncompetitive inhibitor

-A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site, changing its conformation so that it no longer binds to the substrate. -Vmax decreases (higher y intercept) Km is unaffected (same x intercept) -A characteristic of noncompetitive inhibitors is that they bind the enzyme and the enzyme-substrate complex with the same affinity -the presence of an upregulating enzyme would keep km the same (increasing conc. does not affect affinity) and decrease the y int (increase vmax) giving the same shape of graph of noncomp inhib but opposite

Reliability vs. Validity

-A test may be reliable without being valid, but a test cannot be valid unless it is reliable -reliable = get consistent measurements -valid = get CORRECT measurements

coulumb's law

-Bigger Charges means stronger bonds -The closer the bonds the stronger the bonds F=kq1q2/r^2; electrostatic force between two charges

RNA interference

-Blocking gene expression by means of an miRNA silencing complex. -generally happens after mistake in RNA

factors that affect capacitance

-C depends on geometric factors only in the case of parallel plates, C is proportional to the plate area and inversely proportional to the separation distance of the plates. -as a capacitor discharges, the voltage across it falls

2 main components of bone

-CaPo crystals (form around collagen frame, strong and inflexible) -collagen

ligaments

-Connect bone to bone -supports movable joints

pyloric sphincter

-Controls passage of food from stomach to small intestine -excess food or acidity in duodenum constricts sphincter so more food does not pass through, controlled by nerves

carbohydrate fischer projection

-D sugars show second to last carbon as having oxygen to right -cyclic: OH on right of anomeric carbon are in alpha conformation

nuclear envelope

-Double membrane perforated with pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus. -outer layer continuous with ER -proteins with nuclear localization sequence can be transported in

oxidative phosphorylation

-ETC + chemiosmosis -NADH gives e- to compex 1, gets supercharges, passes it to CoQ (ubiquinone) -FADH2 to complex 2, does NOT get supercharged; passes to CoQ (common acceptor) -from CoQ to 3, supercharged, pass to CytC -from CytC to 4, supercharged -pass to O2 (final e- acceptor); splits into 2 ions, creates 2 water molecules -use electron gradient to power ATP synthase: ADP-ATP -2.5 ATP per NADH and 1.5 per FADH2 -electrons passed to slightly more electronegative carriers as they move down the chain, so the last (oxygen) has the greatest attraction for electrons

inductive effect

-Electron donation or withdrawal through the sigma bonds of a molecule. -stabilize through shared electron -decrease with increasing distance increases stability -also dependent on strength of donating or withdrawing group -electron withdrawing group increase acidity

Heat (Q)

-Energy that transfers from one object to another because of a temperature difference between the objects -Q>0 when heat transferred into system; Q<0 when heat out of system

mirrors

-Form images by reflecting light rays. -plane mirror = flat, image behind mirror, same size and distance as object, no inversion -curved mirrors = image of distant object appears to be at focal point -intersection point of rays determines location of image -if object between focal length and mirror, reflected rays cannot cross and image forms behind the mirror -real image = light rays focus at position of image, can be projected onto surface; always inverted -virtual = light rays do not focus at apparent location of image although they seem to come from there (forms behind mirror); always upright = f and i positive if on same side as human observer (same side as object for mirror and opposite side of object for lens)

Glycolysis overview

-Glucose + 2 NDA+ + 2 ADP + 2Pi -> 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H2O + 2H+ -net 2 ATP, use 2 to produce 4 -lack of NAD+ inhibits glycolysis -after PFK, committed to glycolysis because it has a super negative dG so it pretty much just goes forward and will not reverse; hexokinase and pyruvate kinase also irreversible and subject to allosteric regulation -PRODUCES 2 ATP PER GLUCOSE!! PLEASE REMEMBER -*ATP stores potential energy* -magnesium is required for all processes involving ATP -fruc-16bisphos can oNLY react in glycolysis

maslow

-Hierarchy of needs; physiological -> safety -> love and belonging -> esteem -> self actualization

tollen's test

-ID presence of aldehyde and hydroxy ketone, including reducing sugars -Ag(NH3)2+ oxidizes aldehydes to carboxylic acids -positive = formation of metallic silver mirror -ketones can tautomerize to aldehydes and then oxidize to carboxylic acids, giving a positive result -selective for aldehyde (mild oxidizing agent, easy to oxidize aldehyde)

innate immunity

-Immunity that is present before exposure and effective from birth. Responds to a broad range of pathogens. -nonspecific -skin, lysozyme in tears, saliva, blood, acidity of stomach, macrophages and neutrophils, complement system (20 blood proteins that can nonspecifically bind foreign cells and destroy)

Arrhenius equation

-K=Ae^(-Ea/RT) where k is the rate constant and A is pre-exponential (arrhenius) factor: how often particles -collide in correct orientation. -lnk= ln A - Ea/RT -increase T increases k because you are subtracting a smaller term -also rate constant (k) =rate/[A]^x[B]^y (need experimental data to do this) -rule of thumb- rate increases by factor of 2 to 4 for every 10 degree c increase

strong base

-Kb > 1 -Group 1 hydroxides (NaOH) -group 1 oxides (Li2O) -some group 2 hydroxides (Ba, Sr, Ca) -metal amides (NaNH2) -bad leaving group (OH is the WORST leaving group) -good electron donors bc cannot stabilize neg charge well; tend to form OH- ions

Hallucinogens

-LSD, weed (weed relaxes and inhibits like alcohol)

male arousal

-Parasympathetic -erection: dilation of arteries-> pressurization (P for point) -lubrication: bulbourethral glands secrete mucus

cDNA cloning

-RNA cannot be cloned directly -reverse transcriptase is used to transcribe single-stranded RNA into cDNA for cloning -does NOT involve RNA polymerase

prokaryotic transcription

-RNA pol needs sigma factor to begin (increases ability to recognize promoter and decreases nonspecific affinity for DNA) (sigma + core enzyme of pol = holoenzyme) -promoter prinbow box -in cytoplasm because no nucleus -occurs simultaneously with translation -have only one chromosome

reaction quotient

-Ratio of the concentrations of the products to the concentrations of the reactants at any point during the reaction aside from equilibrium, where each reactant and product in the expression is raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient. Commonly denoted by Q. -at eq Q = Keq -Q < Keq rxn proceeds forward; Q> Keq reaction goes in reverse direction in order to increase reactants because there is an abundance of products -[react] on denom so increasing that decreases Q

sulfhydryl, thioether

-SH, like an alcohol but with an S instead of an O -R-S-R, like an ether but S instead of O

general adaption syndrome

-Selye: body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion. experience exhaustion only after encountering stressor for an extended period of time -responses to various stressors are similar -decreased, then increased, then decreased resistance to stress

piaget stages

-Sensorimotor: 0-2; object permanence; stranger anxiety; experience world through senses -preoperational: 2-7; represent things through symbols; pretend play and language development; egocentric -concrete operational: 7-11; think logically and concretely; conservation; math concepts -formal operational: 12-adult; abstract and moral reasoning -also known for assimilation and accomodation (schemas)

NREM 2

-Sleep stage characterized by its periodic sleep spindles, or bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity. -About half the night is spent in this phase. -theta waves with k complexes and sleep spindles -relaxation of body

assimilation and accomodation

-assimilation: conform to existing schemas -accommodation: adjust schemas to new experience

Malthusian Theory

-Starvation is the inevitable result of population growth, because the population increases at a geometric rate while food supply can only increase arithmetically -malthusian catastrophe= resources cannot supply population -neomalthusian= advocates population control to decrease population strain -preventative checks= decrease birth rate -positive checks= increase death rate (large scale = catastrophe)

CD4 cells

-T helper cells -activate B cells (antigen needs to bind B AND T cell needs to bind for B cell to activate) -T cell receptor binds to certain antigens presented on antigen presenting; proliferate; some become effectors (raise chemical alarm by releasing cytokines), some become memory -naive cell = never had anything bound to it -all cells have different receptors

transesterification

-The process that transforms one ester to another when an alcohol acts as a nucleophile and displaces the alkoxy group on an ester. -add a new OR group while the original OR group gets protonated and turns back into whatever it was originally (alcohol)

resource model of attention

-We have a limited pool of resource on which to draw when performing tasks. Practicing a task diminishes task resource demand -we do not have the resources to multi task -factors: similarity (more similar = more difficult); difficulty; practice (automatic vs. controlled tasks)

coordinate covalent bond

-a covalent bond in which one atom contributes both bonding electrons; usually between electron poor ligands and an electron rich molecule to form a complex -coordination number = number of coordinate bonds; not necessarily = number of ligands -ligands interact with metal d orbs -strength of coordination bond depends on which d orbs have electrons in them

concentration cell

-a galvanic cell in which both compartments contain the same components, but at different concentrations -not standard (1 M) so it will have a potential difference and cause an electron current -electrons flow to cell with higher conc. of positive ions -reaction stops when [anode] = [cathode] -[anode] has lower concentration of positive ions (because it is negative)

faraday's law of electrolysis

-the amount of chemical change is proportional to the amount of electricity that flows through the cell

hydrogenation reaction

-a reaction in which hydrogen is added to a carbon-carbon double bond to give an alkane -strained ring gets turned into a linear chain (usually impossible to break C-C bond but in this case it is not happy) -happy rings (like cyclohexane) will not complete this

economic interdependence

-a reliance on others, as they rely on you, to provide goods and services to be consumed -division of labor on a global scale

stereotype threat

-a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype -if you are aware of a stereotype you are more likely to conform to that -stereotypes are weakest when individuals are familiar with each other and strongest when unfamiliar

reflex

-a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response -DOES NOT GO TO BRAIN -sensory neuron to motor neuron -stimulation of sensory neuron -> impulse -> spine via DRG -> transmitted either directly to effector neuron or indirectly thru interneuron (polysynaptic reflex arc)

MRI

-a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain; structural -high quality/ resolution -no x-rays

electrical synapse

-a type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore the action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell; AP spreads directly -important for smooth muscle -directly connected, as opposed to chemical that have a gap between terminal and target cell -less common than chemical

Treisman Attenuation Model of Selective Attention

-accounts for cocktail effect and more efficient than deutsh -instead of selective filter we have an attenuator (attenuate = weaken) that weakens but does not eliminate the unattended info; some gets through to perceptual processes still; assign meaning to unattended but it's not as high of a priority -if unattended is important, can switch over attention

lewis acid vs base

-acid = electron acceptor (electrophile) -base - electron donor (nucleophile) - nucleophilicity increases with more negative charge/ going down a group, going left in a period (more electronegative = better support of negative charge) - also called ligand -lewis acid/base rxns frequently form coordinate covalent bonds

ionizable groups

-acidic and basic chemical groups -intrinsic tendency to exchange protons with water (described by pka) -for an amino acid to have an ionizable side chain, it needs three buffering regions and three pkas (one for C, N, and R)

Bronstead

-acids donate protons, bases accept protons (e.g. OH to form water) -all acids and bases have conjugate bases and acids

exocrine secretion in digestive system

-acinar cells: secrete products to ducts- liver, gallbladder, pancreas, goblet (mucus) cells, gastric glands (acid, pepsinogen)

classical conditioning

-acquisition: learn conditioned response -extinction: stimuli no longer paired, conditioned response stops -spontaneous recovery: extinct response occurs again when conditioned stimulus introduced after a period of time -generalization: other related stimuli elicit conditioned response -discrimination: opposite of generalization -conditioned stimulus: can be something like autonomic sensations such as heart rate as long as it is the thing that is eliciting the learned response (e.g. in panic attacks caused by fear of panic attacks)

working memory- baddely

-active maintenance of information in short-term storage -phonological loop: hold/ process verbal/auditory info -visuospatial sketchpad: create mental image to remember visual info -central executive: directs attention and processing -episodic buffer: WM interacts with long term

blood path through nephron

-afferent arteriole -> glomerulus -> efferent arteriole -1/5 of blood will leak out of glomerulus bc vessel cells are fenestrated (holes); basement membrane makes sure only small things make through; tubule cells and podocytes; go to Bowman's space (filtrate) proximal tubule (reabsorb stuff don't want to lose)-> descending loop (thin wall, permeable to water, pulled out by osmosis)-> ascending (thick wall, permeable to ions, keeps concentration gradient) -> distal tubule (more reabsorption) -> collecting duct (now its pee)-> medulla; glomerular filtrate is most concentrated here -> renal calyx -> renal pelvis -> ureter (valves prevent backflow -> out of kidney to bladder

diamagnetic

-all electrons are paired -even number of electrons -all subshells occupied -no net magnetic field -repelled by external magnetic field -alkaline earth metals are diamagnetic bc valence is s orbital, which can only take 2 electrons

weak base

-ammonium (NH3) -amines -conjugate bases of strong acids

enzyme kinetics

-amount of product formed per unit time (V) depends on [substrate] and [enzyme] -reaction rate directly proportional to [s] if [s] is low -M-M equation shows hyperbolic dependence -*Vmax* reaction rate when the enzyme is saturated -*km* [s] at half max reaction velocity; Vmax/2 low Km= high affinity = STRONG ES complex

limbic system and conditioning

-amygdala : negative conditioning (taking something away) -hippocampus: positive conditioning (introducing something, whether good or bad)

common ion

-an ion that is common to two or more ionic compounds -mixing two compounds with common ion causes concentration of ion to increase, disturbing equilibrium and shifting the reaction to form a precipitate of whichever compound is less soluble (common ion effect)

glycogenolysis

-anaerobically generated -3 ATP per glucose -low atp/mass of glycogen because absorbs a lot of water -limited storage and does not last long -degradation begins with phosphorolysis (removes individual glucose units); NOT hydrolysis

Galvanic cell

-anode (negative) oxidized -electrons travel to cathode (positive) where reduction takes place -spectators balance charge but do not take place in redox -anode | anodic soln || cathode | cathodic soln -if conc. not specified assume 1 M -at eq, no voltage and battery dies

gastrula

-archentum (gut) -blastopore (anus)

cholesterol and fluidity

-at low temps, membranes have less spaces between them, but cholesterol inserts itself and causes an increase in fluidity -at high temps, membranes have more space and more fluidity, but cholesterol inserts and causes the phospholipids to pull together causing a decrease in fluidity -allows membrane to stay at stable level of fluidity

Viral entry

-bacteriophage create channel into cell so genome can be directly inserted (cannot be taken up because of cell wall) -non phage: push in on cell membrane so membrane forms around virus as it enters/ need to bind to a receptor

size exclusion chromatography

-beads contain tiny pores -small molecules enter the pores & get stuck so they elude later -large molecules don't fit in the pores so they move around taking a shorter path & elude faster -column material may interact with analytes via H bonds -aka gel filtration chrom; separates only on basis of size and not charge

limbic system

-between cerebrum and diencephalon -amygdala (fear), cingulate gyrus, hippocampus (memories/learning) links conscious brain to unconscious brain

Oral phase

-birth to one year -feeding -fixation on mouth

ionotropic vs metabotropic

-both are on postsynaptic membrane and bind a neurotransmitter as a ligand -effect of ionotropic is ion conductance -effect of metabo is through secondary messengers

glycogen

-branched structure with core enzyme (glycogenin) that initates glycogenesis by autoglycosylating -a-1,6 branch points; (linear = a-1,4) -branches every 8-12 glucose monomers (distinguished it from amylopectin) -RAPID source of glucose

stimulants

-caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine -increase release of neurotransmitters or decrease reuptake or both -speeds up body functions

acceleration

-can a with constant speed (changing directions); a is perp to velocity -a in same direction as initial velocity = object speed increases; opposite = speed decreases -a < 90° to v; speed increases and direction changes - 90 < a <190 = speed decreases and direction changes -uniformly accelerated motion (UCM)= a constant

storing energy

-capacitors store energy 1/2CV^2=1/2QV=Q^2/2C where V is the voltage across the capacitor -battery is a source of energy so it must store charge

intercalated discs

-cardiac cells connected to each other by these -regions of cell contact that contain desmosomes (prevents cell separation during contraction) and gap junctions (facilitate direct ion exchange for synchronized contraction)

pulley systems

-change direction, not the magnitude of tension -multiply force by number of strings pulling the object -Ft-mg=ma; Mg-Ft=ma; a=g(M-m)/(M+m); take a and plug into either equation to find tension -pulley on a ramp; Ft-mgsin=a

mixed inhibitors

-characteristics of both competitive and uncompetitive -greater affinity for free enzyme are more similar to competitive and increase Km' -greater affinity for ES complex more similar to uncompetitive and decrease Km

combustion

-chemical energy stored in bonds is released as thermal and kinetic energy by creating new lower energy bonds -produces flash of light and a loud sound -burn fuel (hydrocarbon, alcohol, other organic compound) in presence of oxygen -complete combustion forms CO2 and water

Preperatory stage

-children imitate the people around them; association with symbols -Mead

pregnancy

-constant high levels of estrogen and progesterone -inhibits LH; no LH surge = no ovulation -corpus luteum does not degenerate -embryonic stage (8 weeks) -fetal stage (8 weeks to birth) -partuition = birth -progesterone decreases contractions during pregnancy but can't during labor because of positive oxytocin feedback

heat capacity constant volume and pressure for monatomic ideal gas

-constant volume = 3/2 N kb = 3/2nR; molar = 3/2R -constant pressure = 5/2nR Cp= Cv + nR

reinforcement schedule

-continuous : every occurrence is is reinforced; rapid acquisition and rapid extinction -intermittent: sometimes reinforced; slower acquisition and greater persistence

GI muscle

-contracts periodically without stimulation (spontaneous depolarization) -functional syncytium- AP spreads to neighbors -enteric NS controls mobility -increase or decrease mobility with hormones -PNS stimulates mobility and relaxes sphincters

beta decay

-emits beta particles -more dangerous than alpha -negative beta particle= no change in mass number, but atomic number increases by one (converts neutron to proton) happens when there are too many neutrons -positive beta particle= positron emission = not enough neutrons; no change in mass but atomic number decreases by 1; converts proton to neutron -electron capture: same consequences as positron emission, except convert electron into neutron without positron or electron emission (atomic number decreases by 1 and mass stays the same)

Alzheimer's disease

-cortical, neuritic plaques= amyloid proteins and neurofibrillary tangles (tau proteins)

T killer cells

-cytotoxic / CD8 cells -releases lymphokines and interleukins -destroys abnormal host cells

Gibbs energy

-dG=dH-TdS dG increases when dH increase and when dS decreases -dH < 0 to form bond (energy released); > 0 to break bond (put in energy)

kidney

-deals with hydrophilic waste, excrete NA, bicarbonate, urea, waster (increased concentration makes them considered waste) -keeps concentration at optimum level (hemostasis) -roles: excrete filtrate, maintain constant solute concentration, selective reabsorption, maintain constant pH, maintain constant fluid volume by secretion (important for BP and cardiac output)

parkinsons

-death of cells that generate dopamine in basal ganglia and sibstantia nigra -does not impair language -L-dopa treatment (precursor to dopamine)

solubility of gas in liquid

-decreases as temperature increases -increases as pressure increases

keto-enol tautomerization

-deprotonate alpha carbon and protonate carbonyl oxygen C-C(=O)-C to C-C(OH)=C -can reprotonate from top or bottom

REM

-describes sleep in which vivid dreams typically occur; this type of sleep increases as the night progresses while stage 4 sleep decreases -resembles wakefulness (paradoxical sleep) -no movement -REM rebound= compensatory increase in REM after sleep disturbances

alimentary canal

-digestive tube that extends from the mouth to the anus -inside= lumen, continuous with space outside body -innermost lining= epithelial cells attached to basement membrane; folds (microvili) to increase surface area -apical surface separated from rest by tight junctions -> separates body fluids from extracellular environment -smooth muscle- longitudinal and circular layers

mitosis

-division of nuclei to make 2 daughter cells -each side of a chromosome is a sister chromatid, attached at centromere (exact copies) 1. prophase 2. prometaphase 3. metaphase 4. anaphase 5. telophase daughter cell has 2n chromosomes M phase also consists of cytokinesis (division to allow for the formation of the two daughter cells)

Enzymes

-do not affect thermodynamics (dG) -lowers Ea, increase rate of neg dG reaction -kinetic role when isolated, thermodynamic role when coupling reactions -do not act on transition state, act to produce transition state -does not effect Keq -induced fit says shifting structure to alter shape of active site requires energy -increases rate constant

linkage

-do not display independent assortment -two genes will assort together if on the same chromosome

intensive property

-does not depend on amount of material present (opposite of extensive- e.g. thermal energy) -temp

monoamines

-dopamine (pleasure, reward), norepinephrine (alertness, memory formation), serotonin (positive mood, satisfaction) -catecholamines are a subset of monoamines -have a single amine group in structure -associated with emotional regulation -monoamine hypothesis: biomedical model of depression; lacking the monoamines

drive-reduction theory

-drive= urge originates from physiological uncomfyness; e.g. thirst; negative feedback; want to maintain homeostasis -phys need -> aroused state -> engage in behavior to reduce state -more intense of a need increases drive

Hund's rule

-electrons occupy orbitals of the same energy in a way that makes the number of electrons with the same spin direction as large as possible -occupy orbitals singly before pairing -alkaline earth metals are diamagnetic because valence is s orbital which can only take 2 electrons

bohr model

-electrons orbit nucleus -electrons with increased energy orbit at greater distance -quantized energy states -En= -2.178e-18/n^2 -shell = n = circular orbits -subshells = orbital = 3D region around nucleus where electron is likely to be found, each subshell has 1+ orbitals of same energy -2 electrons max per orbital

oxidation states

-element in standard state = 0 -sum of states for neutral molecule = 0 -sum of states for ion = ion's charge -group 1 metals = +1, etc. -F/ halogens= -1 -H= +1 when bonded to something more electronegative and -1 when less electronegative than C -O = -2; exception = -1 in peroxides -metal will never have a negative oxidation state group valence- nonbonding - bonding (almost same as formal charge but not bonding/2)

alpha decay

-emits 4/2 helium (helium nucleus = alpha particle)

titrations

-equivalence point is where moles OH = moles H+ initially present -half equivalence point [HA] = [A-] -weak acid; equivalence point > 7 -weak base; equivalence point < 7 -When the acid and conjugate base concentrations are equal, the pH of a buffer equals the pKa of the acid. -for acid base, analyte must be fully dissolved before it can be measured (analyte = acid = dissolve in base and titrate with acid)

effusion

-escape of fluid into a cavity through a small hole -effusion rate depends on speed (fast = collides more)

escape and avoidance

-escape: get away from aversive stimulus by engaging in behavior -avoidance: perform behavior to ensure aversive stimulus is not presented

fatty acid synthesis overview

-essential fatty acids are all polyunsaturated; omega 6 (linoleic) and free FA are very reactive; omega 3 (ALA, EPA, PHA) -palmitate is formed from excess carbs to store energy in cytoplasm -alkanes with carboxylic acid head -double bonds always cis (Z)

prok vs euk NADH

-euk need to get NADH into mitochondria using glycerol phosphate shuttle which uses 2 ATP, so only 1.5 ATP per NADH are produced -prok do not have mitochondria so they get full 2.5 ATP per NADH (2 more overall than euk)

rate law for uni/bimolecular elementary reactions

-exception to rule that you cannot determine rate law from balanced equation -first order for uni (A -> B) -second order for bi (A + B -> C)

dispersion

-exception to wave rule -EM waves at difference frequency travel at different speeds when traveling thru certain media -increase index of refraction, increase bending of light (increase f, decrease speed, bend more) -chromatic abberation: formation of blurry images bc of dispersion effects thru a lens -refractive index of light increases with frequency

transduction

-excision of viral genome from host DNA accidentally takes some of host's DNA -can transfer DNA from one bacteria to another via phage -junk DNA: when lysogenic viruses are dormant for too long and undergo mutations that lose viral ability (theory for introns)

Keq

-expresses the relationship between products and reactants of a reaction at equilibrium with respect to a specific unit -[prod]/[react] raised to their coefficients -types include Ka, Kb, Ksp -solids and pure liquids are not included because conc. will not change -can use gas partial pressure as conc. (Kp) -Keq < 1 favors reactants; = 0 at equilibrium; Keq > 1 favor products

intrinsic vs extrinsic pathway coagulation

-extrinisic is activated by the original vessel break (involves tissue factors) leads to activation of a molecule that eventually activates thrombin -thrombin activates a bunch of guys in the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways; positive feedback -negative feedback; thrombin leads to antithrombin -thrombin creates plasmin from plasminogen to break mesh -hemophilia caused by problems with intrinsic factors; not extrinsic pathway

Type IIA muscle

-fast twitch -more mitochondria -resist fatigue better than IIB -oxidative fibers

Type IIB muscle

-fast twitch, great force -white -no mitochondria -fatigue quickly

block to polyspermy

-fast: depolarize egg membrane to prevent fusion -slow: Ca2+ influx caused by depolarization hardens zona pellucida and causes swelling (cortical rxn)

lipids

-fats (triglycerides) store energy in adipose; more efficient at energy storage than carbs because of packing and energy content (more reduced, so oxidizing releases more energy) -phospholipids: barrier of cellular environments -cholesterol: building block of steroid hormones

beta-oxidation overview

-fatty acids broken down into acetyl coa to form ketones -forms majority of energy available in liver -short/med chain diffuse into mitochondria -long chain: carnitine transport -very long chain: oxidation in peroxisome -if FA has odd number of carbons, final three Cs converted into propionyl-CoA -unsat with cis bonds need to be isomerized to trans bonds before oxidation -sustained in starvation/ fasting

beta oxidation steps

-fatty acyl coa dehydrogenase: fatty acyl coa-> acetyl coa -each round cleaves a 2 carbon acetyl coa except for last (cleaves 4C fatty a coa) -1 FADH2, NADH, and n+1 acetyl coa produced per round -ketone body= product -main goal is to generate fuel -need more NAD+ than FAD to harvest ATP

EM

-fields oscillate at same f as charge that created it -E&M in phase, perp to each other and direction of propogation (transverse waves) -direction of polarization = direction of e field oscillation -do not require a medium, waves can travel thru vacuum (constant speed in vacuum- c)

Messiner's corpuscles

-fine (light) touch and vibration in non-hairy (glabrous) skin in papillary dermis -fast adapting; stops firing after a while; needs constantly changing stimuli to fire, not just constant stimuli -laminar (epithelial) disks shift to allow sodium to leak in and fire AP -ex. putting on a shirt

bone shapes

-flat= protection -long= support/ movement -diaphysis = shaft -epiphysis= ends, covered in cartilage

lymph (fluid) and nodes

-fluid squeezed out of blood vessels (capillaries); only called lymph once in lymph vessels -lymph composed of dilute fluid, 1/2-1/3 protein than what's in blood (more small proteins bc can get out easier) -need more protein in blood vessel so some fluid can be taken back up osmotically; 20L squeezed out, 17 L goes back in -filtered by lymph nodes or WBCs -lymph nodes (police stations) have B and T cells (lymphocytes) in them; will go through at least one node before going back to blood -have around 600 nodes in body; super small, 1-25mm

ovarian cycle

-follicular phase: follicle matures (FSH) -ovulatory phase: secondary oocyte released on day 14 (LH) -luteal phase: form corpus luteum, 2 week lifespan ovarian hormones direct uterine cycle

electric field

-force per unit charge (E=F/q) -Electric field = kQ/r^2; r is distance from Q (source) -field is not same in all directions at same distance because vector takes direction into account instead of just magnitude -increased density of lines = stronger field -field vector always tangent to field line

lens

-form image by refracting light -converging = convex; refract parallel light toward focal pt (positive) -diverging = concave; refract away from imaginary focal (negative) pt in front of lens (increase r of curvature?) -real images formed on opposite side of lens from object; same side as human -shorter focal length refracts light with larger angles; greater power; P=1/f; f in meters, P in diopeter -P pos for converging; neg for diverging -for lenses side by side; P = P1 + P2

hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)

-form placenta -maintains corpus luteum -confirms presence of embryo

lipid bilayer

-formed by hydrophobic forces -interactions stabilized by VDW forces between tails -double bonds increase membrane fluidity (less VDW) -shorter length increases fluidity -cholesterol= optimum

mouth function in digestive system

-fragmentation by mastication (chewing) -lubrication by saliva with amylase (hydrolyzes starch) and lipase (fat digestion) -smallest fragment = disaccharide; only get monosaccharides at intestine -NO PROTEIN DIGESTION -lysozyme (in saliva) attacks bacterial cell walls (innate immunity)

Nephron

-functional unit of the kidney -produces urine to get rid of waste and excess water -initial filtration in the glomerulus occurs as blood pressure forces the fluid from the glomerulus into the lumen of Bowman's capsule; passive flow due to pressure difference -functions = filtration AND collection -between cortex and medulla

social facts

-functionalism -elements that serve a function: laws, rituals, morals, etc.; cultural rules that govern social life

gene duplication

-genes with high sequence similarity are evolutionarily related -overtime, gene duplications may undergo mutations -the mutated genes can carry out distinct roles at different times in organism's life -difference from alternative splicing= isoforms come from SAME gene this is mutating one gene to form DIFFERENT genes

appetite

-ghrelin stimulates -peptide YY reduces -leptin suppresses

carbohydrates

-glucose is a 6 carbon aldose -1->4 link = C1 of one and C4 of the other involved in bond; one anomeric carbon involved (C1 [carbonyl carbon] in aldoses and C2 in ketoses); if both anomeric are in bond it is nonreducing; if one is still available it has a hemiacetal end and is reducing -naturally occurring are D -simplest is glyceraldehyde; specify carbs built from this as L or D (look at bottom chiral carbon) -burning- oxidize to co2 -beta linkage = mammals cannot digest; long/straight/fibrous -alpha anomer = axial -D sugars are R and L are S at C5

ATP yield from cellular respiration

-glycolysis: 2 net ATP; 2 NADH (3 ATP euks 5 ATP proks) -PDC: 2 NADH (5 ATP) -Kreb: 6 NADH (15 ATP); 2 FADH2 (3 ATP); 2 GTP (2 ATP) -Total: 30 ATP euk; 32 ATP prok

basal ganglia

-gray matter (nuclei) -deep in hemisphere -voluntary motor control/procedural learning and habits -inhibitory : prevent excess movement; cerebrum excites

watson crick base pair H donor ranking

-guanine: 2 donors, 1 acceptor -cytosine: 1 donor, 2 acceptors -A/T/U: 1 donor, 1 acceptor

hair follicle receptor

-hair gets deflected with a perturbation (touch, etc.) -Na leaks into follicle and runs along length of nerve in follicle; generates AP -light touch on hairy skin -reticular dermis -fast adapting bc collagen can plug opening (need constantly changing stimuli)

oogenesis

-happens before baby is born oogonia -> meiosis I -> stop in prophase I as primary oocytes -peak at 7 million mid gestation; 2 million at birth; 400,000 at puberty; 400 ovulated; remaining degenerate -hormones stimulate completion of meiotic division -> large secondary haploid oocyte and small polar body -there will only be two meiotic divisions if fertilization occurs; nuclei will then not fuse until mature to ootid and then ovum; fusion = 2n diploid zygote formed -polar body is a daughter cell; uneven division between the two daughter cells because it is much smaller than the egg

6 universal emotions

-happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, surprise -Darwin, biological basis of emotion

heat capacity vs. specific heat

-heat capacity denoted by big C; has units of J/degree C; for a particular object , e.g. a quantity of water, different for different quantities; we know the mass -specific heat capacity denoted by little c; units of J/g degree C; for ANY amount of some substance (specific) -example: Al has a c of 0.891, but a 210 g block of Al has a C of 210 x 0.891 = 187.11 J/ degree C (grams cancel) -q= mc dT OR q=C dT -add up all the Qs and set to zero to find unknown final T -heat of fusion/vap Q=mL (L=latent heat)

Heterolytic vs homolytic cleavage

-homo = each atom gets one electron from the bond and are radicals (HF - > H• •F) -hetero (also known as dissociation)= one atom gets both the electrons from the bond, forms ions (HF -> H+ F-) -bond dissociation energy is just for homo

humanistic

-humans are inherently good, have free will, actualizing tendency (drive to maintain or enhance self) -Rogers -self actualization -self concept = conscious subjective perceptions of self -incongruance = contradict self concepts; gap between you and ideal self -psychopathology.= caused by discrepancy between introjected values of caregivers and own personal values; child needs unconditional positive regard -focuses on STRENGTHS AND SKILLS

steroid hormones

-hydrophobic -synthesized in SER -diffuse into blood as soon as synthesized -cannot dissolve in plasma -exert effects slowly -persist for days to weeks

hormones/ phases of menstrual cycle

-hypothalamus regulates hormone release from anterior pituitary (FSH and LH) -follicular phase -> luteal surge (estrogen surge)-> luteal phase -> increase in progestrone -FSH does not surge because of inhibin

monosynaptic reflex arc

-if there is a single synapse b/w sensory neuron receiving stimulus and motor neuron responding to it -ex: knee jerk reflex: when patellar tendon is stretched w/ reflex hammer, info travels up the sensory neuron to the spinal cord where it interfaces w/ the motor neuron that contracts the quadriceps muscles includes only 2 neurons and one synapse

genome

-in eukaryotes, linear DNA molecule= chromosome -23 human chromosomes, 2 copies in diploid -matrix= DNA attached at specific sites

pressure in the kindey

-increase hydrostatic pressure of renal artery promotes glomerular retention and *increases* urine output -osmotic pressure of the filtrate draws fluid back into nephron and *increases* urine output -hydrostatic pressure of bowman's capsule pushes fluid into glomerular capillaries and *decreases* output -osmotic pressure of peritubular capillaries draws fluid into bloodstream and *decreases* output

formal charge

-indicates the best structure for sharing valence electrons -FC = V-N - B/2 where V = valence, N = nonbonding, B = bonding -can put a negative FC on more electronegative atoms if you can't get to zero

redox titration

-indicator changes color at a specific oxidation state (want pH to correspond to equivalence point (straight part of curve) -half eq point =Q=1 -E = E° because ln Q = ln (1) = 0 (ox = reduc)

depressants

-inhibit REM -alcohol, barbituates, opiates; mimic pain reliever (endorphins) -slows down neural activity -stimualtes GABA (primary inhibitory neurotransmitter) and dopamines -depresses sympathetic NS

michaelis-menton experimental conditions

-initial velocity measured at steady state -soln pH CONSTANT -conc. of enzyme lower than substrate -reaction should not reach eq bc kinetic data will all look the same regardless of substrate conc

broadbent filter model

-input from environment enters sensory buffer, keeps brain from being overloaded, some gets through, rest decays from buffer -attended message -> sensory store (register) -> selective filter -> higher processing (assigns meaning) -> working memory -unattended message -> sensory store -> selective filter the end -problems with theory: cocktail party effect- some unattended info can get through, usually info of personal importance; suggests unattended info is dampened instead of filtered out/ selective priming (hear your own name)

inserted dielectric

-insert and disconnect from battery after being charged: charge trapped in plates, cannot change -C increases by k; Q stays same; V decreases; E decreases by k; PE decreases by k -if stays connected to battery when insert: C increases by k; Q increases by k; V stays same (bc battery likes to maintain charge); E same

dielectric

-insulating material put between parallel plate capacitors -always increases capacitance (more effective) -Cwith =kCwithout; where k = dielectric constant C=ke0A/d -k for vacuum = 1 (air); never less than 1 -increases C by decreasing voltage

inter vs intragenerational mobility

-inter = change in social class relative to parents/ previous generation -intra = social movement throughout own life span

London dispersion forces

-intermolecular attractions resulting from the constant motion of electrons and the creation of instantaneous dipoles (instantaneous dipole in nonpolar induces dipole in neighboring nonpolar) -strength increases as number of electrons increases -branching in hydrocarbons inhibits by decreasing surface area for interaction, causes decrease in MP, BP, and viscosity and increase in VP -strength increases as size of atoms increases

smooth muscle

-involuntary -ANS innervation -uses 4 step contractile cycle stimulated by increased calcium -narrow and short -no t-tubules because cells are so small it is not necessary -1 nucleus, gap junction connection -functional syncytium - no sarcomere, actin and myosin dispersed in cytoplasm -no troponin tropomyosin complex; contraction regulated by calmodulin and myosin light chain kinase -relies on extracellular Ca, poorly developed SR -AP determined by slow channels -sustained contraction in uterus, vascular have AP like cardiac with less of a sharp spike -fluctuating resting potential called slow waves coordinate APs -amp of slow wave increased by ACh and decreased by norepi

constant _ processes

-isobaric- constant P -isochoric- constant V (no dV = no work) -isothermal- constant T -adiabatic- all energy transferred as work, not heat; Q=0; dE=-W

symbolic interactionism

-micro -an individual's overall impression of society is the build up of everyday interactions -focuses on communication and exchange of information through language and symbols- subjective meanings -meaning is the central aspect of behavior -Goffman: dramatagurical approach

Ka and acids

-larger Ka = stronger acid; strong acids = electron poor -Ka > 1 for HI, HBr, HCl, HClO4, H2SO4, HNO3 - high negative charge means acid will dissociate less -conjugate base of a strong acid has no basic properties (weak base) in water because rxn must run to completion; acidity increases with increasing stability of conjugate base, and more electronegative are more stable (why HBr is a strong acid) -conjugate base of a weak acid is a strong base -weaker acid = reverse favored = conjugate base is stronger -most organic acids are weak -increasing stability increases acidity of conjugate acid

cascade in eyes

-light -> ganglion -> bipolar -> photoreceptor -pigment protein opsin bound to cis retinal-> keeps Na+ channel open and remains depolarized -opsin absorbs light, changes tertiary structure, change to all trans retinal, close Na+ channel, hyperpolarize -in dark, photoreceptors release glutamate to on-center bipolar cells to inhibit firing -absorbs light, release less glutamate or stop altogether so bipolar can fire -off center is opposite

convex mirror

-light parallel to axis reflects away from imaginary focal point behind mirror -can only make virtual images

concave mirror

-light parallel to central axis reflected thru focal point -can make real and virtual images -move object closer to mirror, image gets smaller until it becomes same size as object when it is touching the mirror

major storage sites of glycogen

-liver (cytoplasm of hepatocytes): maintains blood glucose levels; 100g -muscles (cytoplasm): energy source for exercise; 400g

excision repair

-locates and repairs incorrect sequence by removing a segment of the DNA and then adding the correct nucleotides -several nucleotides are replaced

small intestine

-long = large surface area -internal surface = brush border -villi absorb monosaccharides and amino acids -contains lymphatic vessels called lacteals that absorbs fat -duodenum, jejunum, ileum -blood from here goes to liver for nutrient distribution and removal of toxins

charles cooley

-looking glass self; sense of self develops from our understanding of how others view us

oxidation states and carbon

-lowest oxidation state of carbon is CH4 -can't oxidize a tertiary alcohol because there is no alpha hydrogen to leave -primary alcohol oxidizes to aldehyde and then to carboxylic acid; use PCC to stop oxidation at aldehyde (milder oxidizing agent); Jones reagent will get you to carboxylic acid -both Jones and PCC will oxidize secondary alcohol to a ketone

functionalism

-macro -society is an organism with different organs for distinct purposes; what do the structures do to contribute to society at large? -emphasizes harmony of parts -Durkheim -primitive societies held together by similarities, but in modern societies people take on different roles leading to a dynamic structure where we must rely on others -social facts/ social dysfunction/ manifest and latent functions

deutsch and deutsch's late selection theory

-made in response to broadbent -move selective filter to after the perceptual prcoesses -do register and assign everything meaning, but filter decides what to pass to conscious awareness -not super efficient :(

ultrasonic waves (ultrasound)

-mechanical waves; propagate above human auditory spectrum; do not diffract thru body -shock wave ultrasound absorption causes high amplitude vibration that destroys tissues; shock wave frequency approaches resonance frequency of structure -doppler is for dynamic structure characterization

respiratory control center

-medulla -chemoreceptors monitor pCO2 and pH of cerebrospinal fluid -mechanoreceptors = pressure = pollen/ cigarette smoke/ stretch -hypothalamus sends info affecting how we breath during emotion like anxiety and fear -voluntary control info comes from cerebrum -controls 4 groups of muscles: C3,4,5 (diaphragm)/ T1-11 (intercostal muscles)/ T6-L1 (abdominal muscles)/ C1-C3 (neck accessory muscles)

uterine cycle

-menstrual phase: triggered by corpus luteum degradation (decreased estrogen and progesterone) -proliferative phase: new endometrium forms -secretory phase: wait for egg

complex ion

-metallic ion surrounded by 2,4, or 6 ligands (lewis bases) -complexed metal ions have different solubilities than naked metal ions

protecting groups for alcohols

-methylates (CH3SO3-) -tosylates (CH3C6H4SO3-) (mesylates and tosylates are also excellent leaving groups) -in place of OH, won't be as reactive -add by nucleophilic addition

conflict theory

-micro -Marx: society is a competition for limited resources -Gumplowitz: society is shaped by war and conquest; certain groups dominate over others -Weber: factors moderate reactions to inequalities; there can be more than 1 source of conflict

flow cytometry

-microbial suspension forced through small orifice with a laser light beam -movement of microbe through orifice impacts electric current that flows through orifice -instances of disruption of current are counted -specific antibodies can be used to determine size and internal complexity

DNA

-missing 2'OH (makes more stable than RNA) -high salt concentrations increases stability of double strands because positive species interact with negative phosphates and prevent repulsion

purpose of motility in digestive system

-mixes food and moves it down gut -ordered wave of peristalsis prevents backward movement

glycogenolysis in muscle

-more regulators than liver; Ca2+ and AMP activates phosphorylase (lets know muscles are working and need more fuel) -glucose-6-phosphate goes to glycolysis -lacks glucose-6-phosphatase, makes glu-6-phos unable to leave muscle cell

neutral theory of molecular evolution

-most genetic mutations are neutral and do not affect fitness of an organism -neutral mutations randomly fixed or lost bc genetic drift at constant rate -molecular clock theory: species that diverged more recently from a common ancestor are more genetically similar bc accumulated less mutations; first species to diverge from ancestor are LESS genetically similar

phi phenomenon

-motion picture effect -optical illusion; series of still photographs in rapid succession appear to be moving -not related to depth perception

RNA translocation

-movement of new mRNA transcripts to particular locations within the cell prior to their translation -mRNA will not be translated until they are localized properly within the cell

debranching enzyme

-moves 3 residues of branch to free end of another branch -hydrolyzes 1-6 bond to release free glucose

skeletal muscle

-need bones to move body -multinucleate (individual cell fusion) -stimulated by somatic motor neurons -striated (actin and myosin) -ALL ca comes from sarcoplasmic reticulum -depends on just voltage gated Na

kreb's cycle

-needs oxygen -net 2 ATP, 2 NADH -occurs in cytoplasm of mitochondria -happens twice per glucose molecule -preparation step: pyruvate-> acetyl coa via pyruvate oxidase; gives off co2; NAD+ reduced to NADH -acetyl coa+ oxaloacetic acid -> citric acid -> oxaloacetate -increased NADH/ NAD+ decreases flow thru cycle -no hormonal control; always "turned on"; regulated by allosteric regulation only- adjusts to energy needs of cell but never turns off/ Ca2+ allosterically activates bc it says muscles are contracting and need more energy -isocitrate and malate are the only intermediates with chiral centers

anion

-negative ion -does not react with water if conjugate base of strong acid and stronger base than water if conjugate of a weak acid

pentose phosphate pathway overview

-no ATP consumed or produced -products: ribose-5-phosphate (non-oxidative phase) and NADPH (oxidative phase- G6P dehydrogenase and 6 Phosphogluconalactonase catalyzes production) -shunt: glucose removed from glycolysis to generate the products and then the glycolytic intermediates are shunted back in -NADPH role is to donate electrons, important in anabolic reactions, reducing power!, maintains antioxidant stores; no NADPH, no fatty acid synthesis

gamma decay

-no change in atomic mass or number

nucleolus

-no membrane separation from nucleus -ribosome factory -site of transcription by RNA Pol I -partial assembly of ribosomes, inactive until reach cytoplasm

mass defect

-nuclear binding energy -mass of individual nucleons - mass of actual nucleus = positive number

gene dose

-number of copies of a gene -increase expression by increasing copy number of genes by amplification

Doppler effect

-observed change in frequency of a wave when source or observer is moving -frequency shift Δf depends inversely on the speed of the wave in the medium in which it propagates; if velocity is smaller then change in frequency and wavelength is bigger -smaller detected wavelength of light = blue shift = source is approaching detector; for EM waves always treat detector as at rest because speed of light is always percieved as c -detector moves (stationary source) - relative speed of sound changes and wavelength does not change -source moves = waves become distorted- bunch up on one side and spread out on other; speed stays the same -fD = fS v+/- vD/ v-/+ vS top sign is toward -only has an effect if there is RELATIVE motion

Joule-Heating LAw

-power dissipated by resistor = I^2 x R -power dissipated by R = power supplied by battery -2 batteries: lower V can absorb some power from higher; P=IV -P=I(IR) = IV

Wolffian ducts

-precursor to male internal genetalia

osmotic pressure

-pressure to stop osmosis; pi= MiRT -osmosis = solvent (not solute) diffuses, happens when solute can't move -example: less solutes in blood, plasma pressure decreases and causes fluid build up in body tissues

Lymphatic system

-one way flow (lymphatic capillaries -> lymph vessels (valves) -> ducts (smooth muscle) -acts as suction pump to retrieve water, proteins, and WBCs from tissues -collects fluid that gets squeezed out of capillaries and brings it back in to the blood stream (RBCs and big protiens too big to get squeezed out so solute concentration, so osmosis happens and also pressure drops toward veins but more goes out than comes back in so need lymph vessels) -not a closed loop, just jump content back into circulation -lymph reenters circulation at venous end bc lower pressure; has valves in vessels to prevent fluid from going back; smooth muscle to squeeze vessels and get fluid flowing; skeletal muscle movement indirectly causes vessel to squeeze -porous walls for fluid to come in, but further into the vessels pressure rises and it cannot leave -infections are localized (not in blood); occurs in tissues; lymphatic system picks up bacteria and sweeps it over to nearest lymph node where B and T cells can kill them -nodes interspersed between vessels and filters fluid going back to circulatory system -transport lipids (chylomicrons) into blood (lacteals in small intestines) also proteins and wastes (don't come from blood and want them there but can't put them there directly so have to do it thru lymphatic system)

ion channels

-only for facilitated diffusion, NOT active carriers -bond substance-> conformation change -> substance can move into cell -anti= carries two in opposite direction; sym= carries two in same; uni= carry one

nucleus

-only in eukaryotic cells -2 membranes -replication, transcription, splicing

imprinting

-only one allele is expressed -dynamic process; can change between generations

rate law

-only reactions in rate determining step is involved in expression -if conc. doubles and rate doubles, rxn rate is proportional to conc. so order = 1 -if conc. doubles and rate increases by 4, rate is proportional to conc^2 and order = 2 -if there is no change in rate upon changing concentration, order = 0 -f=c^x; f= factor of rate increase, c= factor of concentration increase, x= order

pipes

-open end corresponds to antinode (pressure node- max displacement) -closed end= node or antinode; node = pressure antinode -pressure varies most where there is no motion -motion varies most at areas of constant pressure -open pipe = open on both ends; distance between nodes = whole number of half wavelengths -closed pipe = open on one end; distance between node and antinode = odd number of quarter wavelengths; lambda n= 4L/n; fn= nv/4L; n=odd

membrane dynamics

-outer leaflet flips to inside (flippase- catalyzed, uses ATP) -floppase uses ATP to bring inner leaflet phosphate to outer leaflet -scramblase does not need ATP but is catalyzed; brings an inner to the outer AND an outer to the inner -flip flop is slow and does not want to happen on own -lateral movement in fast and happens uncatalyzed

delocalized pi system

-p orbitals are aligned; can draw resonance structures -neg charge next to conjugated system is more stable because it can delocalize; makes conjugate acid more acidic -localized = highly reactive = basic

tasks of the respiratory system

-pH regulation (convert CO2 to carbonic acid via anhydrase; exhale; decrease carbonic acid in blood; pH increases) -thermoregulation (breath= evaporative water loss -> heat loss) -disease protection (mucociliary escalator and alveolar macrophages protect against inhaled particles [lungs are a moist surface= good for pathogens])

delta fibers

-pain and temp -AB = little resistance, increased conductance (myelin), big diameter, fast signal, initial sensation -Ad = smaller diameter and less myelin, little slower, pain sensation after stimulus -C = small diameter, no myelin, slow, lingering pain

capacitor

-pair of conductors that can hold charge (equal and opposite); net charge = 0 -to charge- current rises quickly then dies out as plate collects charge -positive plate has higher potential than negative -charge stops flowing when difference between plates matches V of battery bc circuit has 2 opposing V sources at this point -Q=CV, C is a proportionality constant so changing Q and V does not change it, it just tells us how they are related ; unit = F -discharge-I and Q drain rapidly, then level out -for capacitor to be useful, plates CANNOT touch (causes rapid discharge)

sick role

-parsons functionalist concept describing the social rights and obligations of a sick person -illness is a deviance to society, so you need to fulfill obligations of a sick person for others not to blame you

prefrontal cortex

-part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language -executive function -prefrontal lobe is associated with short term memory

stomach function

-partial digestion -regulated release of food to intestine -destroy microorganisms -pH = 2 -secrete parietal cells -acid catalyzed hydrolysis of proteins -convert pepsionogen to pepsin -constant churning of food

elaboration likelihood model

-people are influenced by either content or superficial (central or periphery route) -go through central route usually only if interested in topic and not distracted -source characteristics: characteristics of the person who delivers a persuasive message, such as attractiveness, credibility, and certainty

social cognitive perspective

-personality formed by interaction among behavior, cognition, environmental factors -patterns of behavior learned through conditioning/ observation (Bobo doll- bandura)

behaviorist

-personality results from learned behaviors -skinner, bandura -deterministic = begin as blank slate, then reinforcement/ punishment completely determine behavior and personality

Schacter-Singer

-physiological response comes before identifying the reason for the response event -my pounding heart signifies fear because I have appraised the situation as dangerous -stimulus -> body arousal -> interpretation -> subjective experience

nucleophilic addition

-pi bond broken; 2 sigma formed -can convert ketones and aldehydes into other functional groups-organometallic reagents commonly used on carbonyl carbon (Grignard or lithium reagents)

joint

-point where one bone meets another -immovable joint (synarthroses) = fused bones -slightly movable = amphiarthroses; support -very movable = diarthroses; elbow, hip

liver

-produces bile -chemically modifies waste -deals with hydrophobic or large waste products that can't be filtered by kidney -synthesize urea and release into blood, excreted in urine -produce plasma proteins -releases free glucose into blood -detox -ketogenesis

Ketogenesis overview

-produces ketone bodies (used as energy source, important in fasting and used in brain if can't get glucose- used only by the heart and brain) -occurs in *liver hepatocytes* -requires high levels of acetyl-coa, a product of b-ox ketones can cross blood-brain barrier -can happen when glucose present but cannot enter cell -converted back to acetyl co a when reach target and can enter krebs cycle -irreversible process

integral membrane proteins

-protein embedded in the lipid bilayer of a cell.; typicallly cell surface receptors (receptors do not form covalent bonds with ligands because they need to be able to dissociate easily), channels, or pumps. -use signal sequences as transmembrane domains so they are not removed in processing

SDS gel electrophoresis

-proteins are separated based on their molecular weight -SDS disrupts covalent bonds; denatured -homodimers have one band -heteromultimers form two distinct bands

protecting groups

-provide steric hinderance to prevent nucleophilic attacks -stable to oxidation and reduction conditions

genital phase

-puberty and beyond -as long as nothing happened in a previous stage you are mentally healthy at this stage

diaphragm

-purely skeletal muscle; Ach is only neurotransmitter -innervated by phrenic nerve; originates in cerebral cortex (voluntary) and brainstem (involuntary)

How does oxaloacetate leave the mitochondria?

-pyruvate translocated into mitochondria by MPC (pyruvate carboxylase requires ATP to function) -oxaloacetate synthesized and reduces into malate by malate dehydrogenase because there is more NADP in the mitochondria than NAD+ -malate leaves via malata-aspartate shuttle; outside mitochondria NAD+ is more prevalent so malate is oxidized to oxaloacetate

ion product

-reaction quotient for solubility reaction -Qsp -same form as Ksp but not at eq -Qsp < Ksp -> more salt can be dissolved (more reactants than products) -if reverse reaction is favored, a precipitate will form (Qsp > Ksp) -soln is saturated at eq -Ksp for substance A_aB_b = [A]^a[B]^b

social constructionism

-reality is not inherent; actively shape reality through interactions -construct: everyone agrees to treat something a certain way regardless of inherent value -socialization: evolution of constructs (e.g. marriage) -more of a macro perspective the symbolic interactionism

rational choice/ exchange theory

-reason for all choices is to provide greatest reward at lowest cost

self vs non self immunity

-receptor (created at random) reacts to a normal molecule in your body -proteins in your body are kept in bone marrow; if B cell binds to something in bone marrow, it will be and will not be released into body to wreak havoc -identical process for T cells but happens in thymus -sometimes a bad B cell escapes and finds protein and presents on MHC II; need T cell that can recognize same piece before it will be activated (secondary method of defense) -if bacteria gets in bone marrow; already have some B cells in lymph nodes, just can't make more of those cells

LiAlH4

-reduces carboxylic acids, aldehydes, and esters to primary alcohols and ketones to secondary alcohols (reacts with a carbonyl) -more reactive than NaBH4, not as electronegative so more willing to transfer hydride, NaBH4 not strong enough to reduce esters *reducing agent*

semi-discontinuous

-refers to how DNA must use okazaki fragments to synthesize lagging strand (later joined by ligase) -bottom strand is 5' to 3' so DNA Pol III must work in opposite direction than top strand (lagging strand) -moves opposite of replication fork -need to keep adding new RNA primers

neutralization

-regardless of strength they always go to equilibrium; all have same energy release upon neutralization -acid + base -> salt + water -resulting pH only 7 if strong -salt = cation-anion

liver functions

-regulation of blood glucose via glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis -storage of glycogen, minerals (iron), and vitamins -synthesis of macromolecules such as plasma proteins (albumin and clotting factors), fats, ketone bodies, cholesterol -production and secretion of bile -breakdown/ detox of drugs and metabolic waste products

branching enzyme

-removes 6-8 molecules from end of chain and attach to another chain via 1-6 linkage -speeds up access to glucose (multiple glucoses can be removed at once)

RAAS

-renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system -*triggers*: low BP; neighboring sympathetic nerves; macula densa cells (in distal tubule- sense sodium- if not a lot of salt = know that BP low; release prostaglandins) -*liver cells* make angiotensinogen; renin chops of a hunk and it becomes angiotensin I; endothelial cells convert it to angiotensin II, super active hormone, goes to 4 places -*4 affected cell types* = smooth muscle cells (contract, increase resistance); kidney cells hold on to more water (more volume); pituitary gland (triggers ADH); adrenal gland (secretes aldosterone)

nucleophilic substitution

-replace leaving group in an electrophilic substrate with a nucleophile -break bonds by heterolytic cleavage, leaving group takes both electrons -one sigma bond broken, one formed with nucleophile -no net change in sigma or pi bonds

cori cycle

-replenish glycogen stores that were broken down during exercise -lactic acid transported to the liver where ATP metabolizes it back to glucose -glucose transported to the muscle and stored as glycogen

hydrogen bonding

-requires H bond donor AND acceptor -donor = a molecule with a hydrogen bonded to a highly electronegative atom such as oxygen or nitrogen -acceptor: an electronegative atom (such as O or N) with an available lone pair of electrons -the strongest form of a dipole-dipole bond

DNA replication

-requires RNA primer to begin -DNA pol III sees primer and begins synthesis in 5' to 3' direction (template strand runs 3' to 5') -driving force for replication and transcription is hydrolysis of pyrophosphate from each nucleotide added to the chain

resistors

-resistivity increases with temp -in series = current goes through both; R= R1 + R2; always larger than largest in combo; current stays the same and voltage may vary -parallel= goes through one or the other; 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2; for only two in parallel R= R1R2/R1+R2; always smaller than smallest in combo; voltage stays the same and current may vary

Pacinian corpuscles

-respond to deep pressure and vibration (touch) -fast adapting -lamellar corpuscle (layers like an onion); rings will spin, Na can open, fire AP -ex. poke - in subcutaneous tissue

Ruffini endings/ corpuscle

-respond to stretch (fire to constant pressure) -slow adapting -has collagen, collagen shifts when stretched and Na can leak in and generate AP -reticular dermis (has the most collagen)

nonassociative learning

-responding after repeated exposure to a single stimulus, or event -habituation (tune out stimulation) -sensitization (increase responsiveness to increase in stimulation)

retroaldol

-reverse of aldol -aldol or dehydration product heated and treated with base, carbon carbon bond breaks -yields either two ketones, two aldehydes, or one of each (starting materials)

inversions

-reverse the direction of parts of chromosomes -breakage and rearrangement

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

-rough: ribosomes bound, 1 membrane, protein synthesis -smooth: 1 membrane, enzymes for steroid hormone synthesis and toxin degradation -RER synthesized secretory proteins; also folded here -disulfide bonds form in ER

Confromational Isomers

-same formula and connectivity -differ in rotation around sigma bond (exact same molecule) -staggered; eclipsed (electron repulsion) -anti staggered = most stable, largest groups 180 apart -gauche staggered = big dogs 60 apart, favored IF big dogs are not too large and can form H bonds (exception to anti rule)/ no torsional strain but there is some steric hinderance -syn eclipsed = most crowded and unfavorable, big dogs right apart from each other

parietal cells

-secrete HCl -destroys microorganisms -histamine binds to stimulate acid release

gastrin

-secreted by G cells -stimulate acid and pepsinogen secretion -stimulates motility -gastrin secretion itself stimulated by food and PNS

Epinephrine

-secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. -Also known as adrenaline. -hormone, but acts like neurotransmitter because it is rapid and short lived

chiasma

-site of crossing over (genetic recombination) -swap material downward of that point -recombinants = chromosome with new pattern of alleles (neither parent has that) -to recombine = to get separated ; closer together less likely to be separated

language

-skinner (behaviorist/ learning): learn language through operant conditioning and language imitation & practice -chomsky (nativist) innate and biologically predetermined, acquisition occurs during critical period -interactionist: biological AND social

NREM 3

-sleep stage that lasts about 30 minutes and your brain emits large, slow delta waves, and you are hard to awaken. -deepest level of sleep -regular breathing and heart rate and slow brain waves -growth hormone secreted -night terrors; sleepwalking

Type I muscle

-slow twitch -red because high myoglobin and capillary networks -sustained movement (marathons)

Fick's law of diffusion

-smaller MW molecules faster diffusion rate -more molecules = more diffusion -less thick/ less space to travel = more diffusion -bigger surface area (same thickness) = more diffusion maximize amount of particles moving over time V=(p1-p2) x A x D/T = rate of particles moving D = diffusion constant ; T = thickness

George Herbert Mead

-social behaviorism/ symbolic interactionism -mind and self emerge through communicating with others -I and the me; me is the social self (how you believe generalized other sees you) and I is the reaction (think I = individual; it is the self as the subject) -Preperatory, play, and game stage

how sound is sensed

-sound wave vibrates the ear drum -ossicles vibrate and amplify the sound -oval window vibrates -pressure waves in peri and endolymph (fluids in cochlea) -basilar membrane vibrates -hair cells drag across tectorial membrane -ion channels open -nerve impulse sent and sound is sensed the shorter run down vibrate air, vibrate bone, vibrate liquid, sense sound

compact and spongey bone

-spongey always surrounded by compact -marrow is in pores of spongey bone

dH rxn

-standard (dH prod + dH prod...) - (dH react + dH react) -sum(bond dissociation energy of bonds broken)- sum(BDE bonds formed); if negative, stronger bonds being formed than being broken and the reaction is exothermic

Le chatliers principle

-states that a system at equilibrium (only closed systems in eq) will oppose any change in the equilibrium conditions -proceed to decrease stress on system; if add reactants, proceeds forward to get rid of reactants and make more products (shifts right) -if volume decreases, pressure increases, and rxn favors side with less moles -increase in temperature causes shift to side that conserves more heat (endothermic); T decreases favors exothermic rxn (shift right); this only applies if rxn is already at eq -adding a catalyst has no effect; increases forward and reverse equally (kinetics do not effect thermodynamics) -adding a strong acid to a soln of weak acid will increase protons in soln and decrease the amount of ionization of the weak acid

ion exchange chromatography

-stationary phase is made of either negatively or positively charged beads (attract & bind compounds that have opposite charge) -salt is added to elute proteins stuck to column -for proteins; pH<PI = positively charged -cation exchange = beads are neg and cations will bind

cardiac muscle

-striated -involuntary -ANS innervation -troponin tropomyosin -one nucleus, intercalated disks (gap junctions propogate AP and connect cells) -acts like functional syncytium but is not -some ca comes from extracellular environment -contraction does not depend on motor neuron stimulation -depends on voltage gates Ca (slow) and Na (fast) -AP plateau increases duration of contraction for better blood ejection and longer refractory period to prevent summation/ tetanus (MUST relax)

constitutional isomers

-structural -same formula, atoms connected differently

osteon

-structural unit of compact bone -central canal contains blood, lymph, nerves -lamellae- concentric disks around canal -canaliculi- channels that branch from canal into lacunae, each has osteocytes (mature bone cells) -perforating canals: channels run perp to central canal and connects osteons

strong electrolytes

-substances that completely dissociate into ions when they dissolve in water -includes ALL ionic compounds, this is not dependent on solubility

SN2

-substrates= alkyl halides (alkanes with halogen) -one step; attack from the back and leaving group leaves -complete inversion (through pentavalent transition state) of chiral configuration -rate = k[nuc][elec] -less bulky react faster -no protic solvents (H2O, OH), use aprotic bc protic solvates the nuc and hinders backside attack (no H bonding solvents) -reactivity CH3 > primary > 2 > 3 (steric hinderance) -no carbocations; concerted mechanism -*better leaving group = bigger halogen*

bone function

-support body -framework for movement -protect vital organs -store Ca -synthesis of blood cells in bone marrow (hematopoesis) -bones are connective tissue

trait theory

-surface trait is evident from behavior; e.g. talkative -source trait is underlying personality, more abstract, not binary; e.g. introversion/extroversion; spectrum range -five factor model - OCEAN- predictive of behavior, stable across lifespan

Merkel cells

-sustained light touch -slow adapting -specialized keratinocyte (epi); contain vesicles with neuropeptides; force causes vesicle to open up and land on receptor to open ion channels and AP -stratum basale (epidermis)/ papillary dermis

male resolution

-sympathetic -caused by constriction of erectile arteries -2 or 3 minutes

male orgasm

-sympathetic nervous system -emission: propulsion of sperm and semen to urethra by smooth muscle -ejaculation: propel out of urethra by rhythmic contractions; reflex reaction caused by presence of semen in urethra (s for shoot) -emission and ejaculation = orgasm

gluconeogenesis overview

-synthesis of glucose from non carbohydrate precursors -maintains blood glucose levels during fasting and starvation; stimulated by glucagon and other fasting hormones (NOT insulin) -primarily in liver, sometimes in kidney (during liver failure or prolonged fasting); fatty acid oxidation provides energy for this process -acetyl-coA cannot take part in this pathway (free fatty acids cannot be converted to glucose but glycerol backbone of triglyceride can) -requires 4 ATP, 2 GTP, 2 NADPH -pathway is made favorable by coupling reactions to hydrolysis of ATP and GTP -starting materials = lactate, oxaloacetate, a-ketoglutarate (Kreb intermediates), pyruvate, amino acid carbon skeletons, glycerol

peptide hormones

-synthesized in RER -stored in vesicles -hydrophilic -cannot cross membranes, need second messenger (signal amplification)

Gabriel (Malonic-Ester) Synthesis

-synthesizes amino acids -uses potassium phthalimide and diethyl bromomalonate followed by an alkyl halide as starting materials; planar; no chiral centers; yields racemic mixture of products -SN2; phtad is nucleophile that attacks alkyl halide -second SN2 rxn: a-carbon protonated with base and attacks alkyl halide (adds side chain) -decarboxylate with acid and heat; loss of CO2

redox tables

-tables give reduction values only -dG° = -nFE° where F= faraday, n = mol, and E° = voltage -if voltage positive, reduction is spontaneous (because dG is negative) -if voltage is negative, then oxidation is spontaneous, better at losing electrons -more negative reduction potential = weaker oxidizing agent (because it itself will want to be oxidized); better reducing agent -potential of half reaction is not affected by stoich -Nernst = Q is ratio of oxidized to non ox

glycogen phosphorylase

-targets free end of glycogen -releases glucose-1-phosphate -stops within 4 residues of branch point because of steric hinderance -insulin inhibits (wants to lower glucose levels) -inhibited by ATP, glucose-6-phos, anf glucose in liver (products- show that we do not need more glucose)

iron law of oligarchy

-tendency of organizations to become increasingly dominated by small groups of people -as organizational structure becomes more complex, less able to adapt

hormones in male reproductive system

-testosterone stimulates division -LH stimulates secretion of testosterone -FSH stimulates sustenacular cells -inhibin inhibits FSH

electron affinity

-the energy change that occurs when an electron is acquired by a neutral atom -negative if energy is released when it is added -positive = noble gasses; unstable anions -more electronegative - more stable as an anion; increases from left to right except for noble gasses (very positive)

bond dissociation energy

-the energy required to break the bond between two covalently bonded atoms -hydrogen forms short, strong bonds

bond order

-the number of shared electron pairs (bonds) between two atoms; increase BO, decrease length, increase strength

percent composition

-the percent by mass of each element in a compound -e.g. C2H2N ; %C = 2*12/40 = 60% -to empirical formula : 70% Fe and 30% O ; pretend contains 100g -> 70g Fe, 30g O; mole fraction 70g x 1mol/55.8g = 5/4 O = 15/8 find ratio -> 5/4 / 15/8 = 2/3 = Fe2O3

functional fixedness

-the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving -fixations result from mental set (fixate on solutions that worked in the past

NREM 1

-the transition into sleep, marked by slowed breathing and irregular brain waves; hypnagogic sensations/hallucinations, and myclonic jerks may occur -theta waves -fleeting thoughts

volume flow rate

-the volume of a fluid flowing through a cross section per unit time -Volume flow rate is the product of blood speed and artery cross-sectional area -area of a circle is pi x r^2

Canon-Bard Theory

-theory of emotion that asserts that the physiological and cognitive aspects of emotion occur simultaneously and collectively lead to the behavioral reaction -my heart is pounding and the stimulus makes me afraid -stimulus -> body response and subjective experience

Thermodynamic vs kinetic product

-thermo = DB with more carbon substituents; reversible; more stable (bc more substituted) - kinetic = less substituted; faster rxn; less stable; irreversible rxn

inclusive fitness

-total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to increase the production of their offspring. -improve genetic success through altruism

absolute (hydrostatic) pressure

-total pressure that is exerted on an object that is submerged in a fluid P = P0 + ρgz P0: incident or ambient pressure (pressure at the surface) z: depth of the object g: acceleration due to gravity if computing a change in pressure at different heights, z= change in height

reaction coordinate diagram

-transition states are local max -dG is difference between free energy of reactant and product -energy of activation is difference between transition state and reactant -intermediate = local min - increase concentration or temperature increases rate -catalyst speeds up rate determining step by lowering Ea (cannot determine the direction; sometimes will work in the reverse)

pruning

-unused connections in the brain atrophy and die. -networks reinforced by learning and behavior -born with most neurons but no networks

NMR spectrum interpretation

-upfield = to the right/ lower numbers/ more shielded (more electrons around nucleus, so applied magnetic field is felt less) -downfield= opposite -# sets of pekas is # chemically equivalent sets of protons -hybridization= more s-orb character has lower electron density, so it is desheilded; opposite for more p -n+1 rule : adjacent to a carbon with n hydrogens, will have n+1 peaks

collisions

-use conservation of p; pf=pi; m1v1 + m2v2 = m1'v1' + m2'v2' -elastic: KE tot is conserved -inelastic: KE tot NOT conserved; in both cases p is always conserved -perfectly inelastic: objects stick together; final= 1 object with mass m1+m2 and one velocity

virus stuff

-use more than 1 reading frame so genes may overlap =if A:T is not 1:1, DNA is single stranded -3' end has P-O bond

electrolytic cell

-uses external voltage source (battery) to create an electron current and force nonspontaneous reaction -neg V = nonspont -anode is positive, cathode is negative because moving in non favorable direction (flow of electrons is ALWAYS anode to cathode) -recharge by reversing electron flow with an applied voltage

mismatch repair

-uses specific enzymes to remove and replace incorrectly paired nucleotides. only works for DNA; NOT RNA -one nucleotide is replaced

affinity chromatography

-uses specific interactions to slow down select molecules -can make use of receptor-ligand, enzyme-substrate, and antigen-antibody interactions -can purify nucleic acids from biochemical mixtures -His tags commonly used to bind ions like Nickel

ketones and aldehydes

-very electrophilic (polarized) -readily reduced -similar boiling points (dipole dipole interactions) -aldehydes more reactive than ketones bc ketones have two bulky R groups that don't want to get closer together when nucleophile attacks -can make more reactive by making the carbon a better electrophile (bond to electron withdrawing groups so it becomes partially positive)

inbreeding depression

-when individuals with similar genotypes - typically relatives - breed with each other and produce offspring that have an impaired ability to survive and reproduce -decreases heterozygoticity and reduced fitness -outbreeding = mate with nonrelatives

autoionization of water

-when pure water reacts with itself to for hydronium and hydroxide ions (bronstead-lowry reaction) -Kw= x^2 = [H3O+][OH-] = 10e-14 at 25 C ; increases as temperature increases - in 1 L only 10e-7 mols of water in ionic form out of 55.5 moles -Ka x Kb = [H3o+][OH-] = Kw

interphase

-where most of the cell cycle is spent -centrosome replicates G1= growth S= synthesis (duplicate DNA) G2= growth, continued after interphase is a short M phase (mitosis) -G0 phase for nerve and muscle cells because they do not copy themselves

personal identity vs. social identity

-your sense of yourself as a unique individual/ sense of attributes; e.g. smart or funny vs -social definitions; e.g. race, gender, occupation

units of k for different rate orders

0th- M/s; mol/L x s 1st - 1/s 2nd - L/(mol x s); 1/M x s

pressure units

1 atm= 101 kPa= 101000 Pa= 760 mm Hg= 760 torr

cm^3 to m^3/ cm^2 to m^2

1 m^3 per 10^6 cm^3 1cm^2 = .0001 m^2 (1m^2= 10^4 cm^2)

rules of waves

1- speed of wave determined by type of wave and medium, not by f 2- when wave passes into new medium, speed changes, but frequency does NOT; rate in = rate out; lambda is proportional to speed amplitude does not depend on f, lambda, or v; only energy

anal phase

1-3 years potty training

blood flow through heart

1-Superior & Inferior Vena Cava, 2-Rt Atrium, 3-Tricuspid Valve, 4- Rt Ventricle, 5-Pulmonary Valve, 6-Pulmonary Artery, 7- Lungs-pick up oxygen, 8-Pulmonary Veins, 9- Lt Atrium, 10- Mitral Valve (Bicuspid), 11-Lt Ventricle, 12- Aortic Valve, 13-Aorta, 14- Body higher pressure in ventricles than atria blood pushed from apex (bottom) of ventricle to base (top) where valves and arteries are

gluconeogenesis steps

1. *Pyruvate decarboxylase*: pyruvate -> oxaloacetate 2. *PEP carboxykinase*: -> PEP 3. enolase: -> 2-phosphoglycerate 4. phosphoglycerate isomerase: -> 3-phosphoglycerate 5. phosphoglycerate kinase: -> 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate 6. glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase: -> glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate 7. fructose bisphosphate aldolase: -> fructose-1,6-bisphosphate 8. *fructose-6-phosphatase*: -> fructose-6-phosphate 9. phosphoglucose isomerase: -> glucose-6-phosphate 10. *glucose-6-phosphatase*: -> glucose

ketogenesis steps

1. Acetyl CoA + Acetyl CoA 2. Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase: acetoacetyl coa add acetyl coa 3. HMG-CoA synthase (rate limiting): HMG-CoA 4. HMG Lyase: Acetoacetate (ketone body), spontaneous degredation to acetone 5. B-hydroxybutarate dehydrogenase: B-hydroxybutarate

citric acid cycle steps

1. Acetyl-CoA bonds with Oxaloacetate (CoA comes off Acetyl-CoA). This forms Citrate. 2. Citrate atoms are rearranged to form Isocitrate. 3. Isocitrate is oxidized to alpha ketoglutarate (decarboxylated). 4. NAD+ -> NADH 5. Alpha ketoglutarate oxidized and bonds with CoA to form Succinyl-CoA (decarboxylated). 6. NAD+ -> NADH 7. Succinyl-CoA oxidized to form Succinate (CoA comes off via succinyl coa syntheatse, also gives off GTP). 8. ATP is formed. 9. Succinate Oxidized to Fumarate. 10. FAD -> FADH2 11. Fumarate hydrated to form Malate. 12. NAD+ -> NADH 13. Malate oxidized to form Oxaloacetate.

viral replication steps

1. Adsorption/attachment 2. Penetration/ viral entry 2.5 host genome degradation 3. Synthesis/ replication 4. Maturation/ assembly 5. Release

glycolysis steps

1. Hexokinase: glucose -> glucose-6-phosphate (irreversible) 2. phosphoglucose isomerase: glucose-6-phosphate -> fructose-6-phosphate 3. PFK: fructose-6-phosphate -> fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (irreversible) 4. fructose bisphosphate aldolase: fructose-1,6-bisphosphate -> dihydroxyacetone phosphate 5. triose phosphate isomerase: -> glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate 6. glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase: -> 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate 7. phophoglycerate kinase: -> 3-phosphoglycerate 8. phosphoglycerate mutase: -> 2 phosphoglycerate 9. enolase: -> PEP 10- pyruvate kinase: -> pyruvate (irreversible)

Transtheoretical Model of Change

1. Precontemplation (unaware behavior is problematic) 2. Contemplation (aware problematic but not ready to change) 3. Preparation (striving to form a plan) 4. Action 5. Maintenance

ELISA steps

1. The sample is added to a plastic well, where the proteins are bound to the cell wall. A detergent washes away unbound proteins while preventing more proteins from binding to the cell wall. 2. The Primary Antibody binds to a specific antigen in the cell. Excess is washed away. 3. The Secondary Antibody, which is bound to the enzyme, is added. Excess is washed away. 4. The enzyme substrate is added, causing the liquid to turn blue (oxidation) (if suspected analyte is present) screens for viral infections

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

1. Trust vs. Mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 3. Initiative vs. Guilt 4. Industry vs. Inferiority 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

fatty acid synthesis

1. acetyl coa converted into citrate and leaves mitochondria via citrate shuttle 2. ATP citrate lyase: citrate in cytoplasm-> acetyl CoA 3. acetyl coa carboxylase: malonyl coa (commitment step) 4. fatty acid synthase: palmitate

alpha sub of carbox acids

1. carbox acid 2. add Br or Cl; gets put on alpha carbon 3. ammonia (NH3) acts as nucloephile in SN2 and displaced Br makes a racemic mixture *HVZ reaction*

embryogenesis

1. cleavage: zygote splits without growing 2. morulation: compaction; outside cells=trophoblasts; inside cells= embryoblasts 3. blastulation: embryoblasts cluster to one side (inner cell mass) and form blastocoel; ZP disintegrates; amniotic cavity develops within inner cell mass inner cell mass becomes hypo and epi blasts - bilaminar disk; primitive streak trilaminar disk gives rise to germ layers 4. neurulation: form notochord, thickens neural plate; form neural tube; neural crest cells break off (PNS)

CO2 transport

1. convert carbonic acid to bicarbonate, v water soluble catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase; proton binds hemoglobin 2. stick to hemoglobin (not at the O2 binding sites), important in Bohr effect 3. dissolve in blood and carry to lungs

carnitine transport

1. fatty acyl coa synthetase- fatty acid -> fatty acyl coa 2. diffuse into membrane 3. CAT 1- fatty acyl carnitine 4. diffuse into mitochondria 5. CAT2 - fatty acyl coa + carnitine

pentose phosphate pathway steps

1. glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase: glucose-6-phosphate -> 6-phosphogluconalactone 2. gluctonalactonase: 6-phosphogluconate 3. 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase: ribulose-5-phosphate 4. epimerase to xyulose-5-phosphate or isomerase to ribose-5-phosphate 5. transketolase: glyceraldehyde-3-phos + sedoheptulase-7-phos 6. transaldolase: fructose-6-phos (back to glycolysis) + erythrose-3-phosphate 7. transketolase: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate + fructose-6-phosphate

glycogenesis steps

1. hexokinase: glucose -> glucose-6-phosphate (reverse via glucose-6-phosphatase) 2. phosphoglucomutase: -> glucose-1-phosphate 3. UDP glucose-pyrophosphorylase: -> UDP-glucose 4. glycogen synthase: -> glucose polymer

Strecker amino acid synthesis

1. imine formation by aldehyde and ammonium 2. protonate by HCN 3. acid catalyzed hydrolysis of alpha-amino nitrile to alpha AA -ammonium and cyanide salts turn aldehydes into AAs -produces racemic mix

phototransduction cascade

1. light turns cis retinal in rhodopsin to all trans (conopsin/photopsin for cones) 2. rhodopsin changes shape 3. transducin pulls away and alpha subunit binds to cGMP photodiesterase (PDE) 4. cGMP conc goes down as it turns it into GMP 5. with no cGMP to bind to sodium channels, channels close and Na cannot come in 6. cell hyperpolarizes and turns off 7. on center gets turned on with light, off center turned off with light 8. activates retinal ganglion cell; sends axon to optic nerve and then to brain

contractile cycle/ sliding filament theory

1. myosin head binds actin (cross link formation) 2. power stroke 3. bind ATP to release myosin head 4. ATP hydrolyzes to cock myosin head and repeat cycle (AAMC does not think need ATP hydrolysis for this step tho bc they are dumb- just think need energy to break bonds not make them?)

demographic transition model

1. preindustrial, birth and death rates are high and population growth is slow 2. begin to industrialize, death rate drops as food and medicine become more available and sanitation increases, population rate is rapid 3. urbanize, population still grows but birth rate declines bc contraception 4. developed society, birth and death rates are low and population growth is slow again 5. highly developed, population may decline

blotting

1. samples with protein of interest in gel electrophoresis 2. transfer to protein binding domain to become immobilized 3. block non specific antibody binding 4. incubate with antibodies that bind protein of interest 5. detect antibodies

fertilization

1. sperm binding: zona pellucida binds to outside of sperm 2. acrosome rxn: acrosome gets released and digests zona pellucida 3. cortical rxn: sperm binds to plasma membrane, cortical granule enzymes release and dissolve zona pellucida so more sperm cannot bind (block to polyspermy) 4. genetic transfer

potential energy of oscillatory motion

1/2kx^2

equipartition of energy for ideal gasses

1/2mv^2= 3/2kbT

Lineweaver-Burk

1/V=(Km/Vmax)(1/[S])+1/Vmax y intercept= 1/Vmax; x intercept= -1/Km; slope= Km/Vmax y axis= 1/V; x axis= 1/[S] Vmax = kcat [E]; y int proportional to 1/kcat activator decreases y intercept; inhibitor increases if enzyme conc. increases by 10, so will kcat

carboxylic acid NMR

10-12/13 ppm

standard conditions vs STP

100kPa (1atm) and 298K (25 C); 1 M vs 1 atm and 273 K

pico/ giga/ T

10^-12 10^9 10^12

sound level

10log (I/I0); I= intensity of sound; I0= 10^-12

Average molecular weight of an amino acid

110 daltons

C-O IR

1100-1300

C=C IR

1580-1610

C=O IR

1700-1750

perfectly destructive interference

180 degrees (half wave)

NADH

2 electron carrier; 2.5 ATP

bronchi

2 primary, one to each lung, branches into very small bronchioles (no cartilage, smooth muscle, but walls to thick for gas exchange), then respiratory bronchioles start resp. zone

standing wave

2 waves in same medium with same amplitude, one going forward and one reverse, looks like it is not moving; crests and troughs in fixed positions node = no displacement; antinode= max amplitude distance between nosed = lambda/2

benzene ring NMR (on methyl on ring)

2-2.5 ppm

OH NMR

2-5 ppm

phosphate pKa

2.16, 7.21, 12.32

prostaglandins

20 carbon fatty acid regulates smooth muscle contraction/ blood vessel diameter/ maintains gastric integrity 5 membered ring function depends on what receptor it binds in different tissues signal inflammation non hydrolyzable lipid

volume at STP

22.4 L Avogadro said number of particles in one mole for ANY gas is 6.02e23; equal volumes of different gasses at equal temp and pressure have same amount of particles present V1/V2 = n1/n2

Cyanide IR

2260-2200

C triple bond IR

2300-2100

standard reference electrode

2H+ + 2e- -> H2 0.00 Volts

number of genetically different gametes

2^n where n is number of haploid chromosomes

carbocation stability

3 > 2 > 1 > methyl carboanions are opoosite - a sp2 carbon with 3 trigonal planar attachments and a formal positive charge - pz orbital is empty

light bulbs as resistors

3 in parallel, if one burns out total current decreases because less bulbs need it now P=IV so P decreases and battery will last longer if in series, if one goes out they all go out

codon

3 nucleotides that make an amino acid degeneracy= more than one codon can make the same amino acid synonyms = codons that code for the same AA stop (amber)= UGA, UAA, UAG start= AUG (met)

prokaryotic translation- elongation

3 step cycle: tRNA enters A site, H bonds 2nd codon (hydrolyze GTP), form peptide bond N-> C, empty tRNA moves to E site and next tRNA enters A site

proofreading

3'-5' activity means that only errors at growing 3' end can be repaired

halogen NMR

3-4 ppm

N-H IR

3150-2500

OH IR

3200-3600

C-H IR

3300-2700

malate structure

4 carbons going across the chain: O-; =O, -OH, nothing on carbon 3; =O, O-

metaphase I

4 ways of organizing chromosomes, gives more variation 2^#pairs ways to independently arrange spindle attaches to centromere

alkene NMR

5-6 ppm

trp operon

5-enzyme synthesis pathway to make tryptophan -do not need the enzymes if trp is already present -trp-R codes repressor protein, binds trp, binds operator, turns off the 5 trp genes -no trp, repressor can't bind and the pathway continues

benzene ring NMR (proton on ring directly)

6.5-8.5 ppm

aldehyde NMR

9-10 ppm

full sleep cycle

90 minutes N1,2,3,REM

effective nuclear charge

= number of protons - number of nonvalence electrons

V_0

=Vmax[S]/(Km + [S]

large anions

=more negative so can delocalize and stabilize more increases in acidity moving down a group -also more electronegative = more acidic (accepts an electron) -ions are chemically distinct from their neutral counterparts, so they are different compounds

replication fork

A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where new strands are growing. grows away from the origin of replication

nomadism

A way of life, forced by a scarcity of resources, in which groups of people continually migrate to find pastures and water (resources); NOT migration

fat soluble vitamins

A (vision), D (regulates blood Ca2+) , E (antioxidant), K (activates clotting proteins) all have ring structures stored in adipose and liver

bottleneck effect

A change in allele frequency following a dramatic reduction in the size of a population occurs when the majority, but not all of the population is killed by an environmental stress

voltmeter

A device used to measure voltage, or electrical potential energy difference; in parallel, want resistance as high as possible so no current goes thru

binary fission

A form of asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms by which one cell divides into two cells of the same size do not require use of microtubules

sexual selection

A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates; chose mates through rituals and physical displays

proteasome

A giant protein complex that recognizes and destroys proteins tagged for elimination by the small protein ubiquitin.

calcitriol

A hormone produced from vitamin D that acts in essentially the same manner as parathyroid hormone. in kidney increases calcium in blood

cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills. posture/balance/tone -hand eye coordination -receives information from vestibular system

thecal cells

A layer of cells surroudning the granulosa cells of the follicles in an ovary. Thecal cells help produce the estrogen secreted from the follicle during the first phase of the ovarian cycle.

myelin

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next. insulates from outside environment made by schwann cells in PNS (cover 1 axon) and oligodendrocytes in CNS (cover multiple axons)

amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Epididymis

A long, coiled duct on the outside of the testis in which sperm mature.

chromatin remodeling

A mechanism for epigenetic gene regulation by the alteration of chromatin structure.

alloy

A mixture of two or more metals

motor unit

A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates

cytoskeleton

A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement -microtubules= thickest portion, hollow, alpha and beta tubulin, dynamic; originate from centrosome -microfilaments= thinnest, made of actin, dynamic, gross movements of entire cell -intermediate filaments= more permanent, help resist mechanical stress (strong structure)

substance P

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

criterion validity

A property exhibited by a test that accurately measures performance of the test taker against a specific learning goal. how closely do the results compare to a different test? is the study generalizable?

method of limits

A psychophysical method in which the particular dimension of a stimulus, or the difference between two stimuli, is varied incrementally until the participant responds differently.

non-equivalent control group design

A quasi-experimental design in which non-equivalent groups of participants participate in the different experimental groups, and there is no pretest.

temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language (auditory cortex) memory processing, emotional control

frontal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement contains motor cortex

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

between-subjects design

A research design in which different groups of participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions or to control conditions.

restriction site

A specific sequence on a DNA strand that is recognized as a cut by a restriction enzyme. usually palindromic sequences 4-6 base pairs long

starch

A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose. (plant equiv of glycogen)

bile

A substance produced by the liver that breaks up fat particles.

epimers

A subtype of diastereomers that differ in absolute configuration at exactly one chiral carbon (only one stereocenter is inverted)

naming explosion

A sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age.

fMRI

A technique for revealing blood flow (more ox blood for more active areas) and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

projective personality test

A test in which a person is shown an ambiguous stimulus and asked to describe it or tell a story about it accesses subconscious portion of person's psyche

psychoanalytic theory

A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior focuses on influence of parents in childs life

pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes. via invagination

Case-control study

A type of epidemiologic study where a group of individuals with the diseases, referred to as cases, are compared to individuals without the disease, referred to as controls e.g. ask people with and without cancer about their past coffee intake

inductive reasoning

A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations.

continuity

A1V1=A2V2 flow rate of fluid remains constant across cross sections

hypothalamus/ posterior pituitary hormones

ADH and oxytocin- DIRECT hormones made in hypothalamus but stored in post pituitary (axonal projection) released by depolarization of nerve terminals

ABC transporter

ATP-binding cassette transporter; uses ATP to actively transport antitumor drugs out of a cell

purines

Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) double ring structure guanine contains 2 h bond donor and 1 acceptor; a has 1 donor and and 1 acceptor N-H groups are C1 (big ring) and C9 (small ring)

generation vs stagnation

Age 40-65: The stage of Erikson's Psychosocial Development that leads to care as a virtue and unproductiveness as a doubt.; resolve differences between dreams and accomplishments

residual volume

Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation; likely de oxygenated

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)/ IRV

Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation IRV - forcefully inhaled after tidal inhalation

tidal volume

Amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs during a normal breath

reverse transcription PCR

Amplifies sequences corresponding to RNA. Reverse transcriptase is used to convert RNA into complementary DNA, which can then be amplified by the usual polymerase chain reaction

Pauli exclusion principle

An atomic orbital may describe at most two electrons, each with opposite spin direction

Ligase

An enzyme that forms chemical bonds synthetases

adaptive radiation

An evolutionary pattern in which many species evolve from a single ancestral species can occur when subgroups are separated or isolated in different environments

hemoglobin

An iron-containing protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen. has 4 subunits, each with heme molecule with iron at center low affinity for O2 in tissues, high in lungs low affinity= decrease pH, increase CO2, increase temp (Bohr effect)

inducible operon

An operon under positive control. It is usually "off" but can be turned "on". -catabolic enzymes, stimulated by abundance of a substrate -e.g. lac operon (lactose catabolism)

centromere

Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached *metacentric* centromere in middle *submetacentric* centromere slightly off center *acrocentric* Describes a chromosome whose centromere is placed very close to, but not at, one end. *telocentric* centromere at end

octahedral geometry

Assumption of six electron groups around a central atom.

BH3 vs NaBH4

BH3 selectively reduces carboxylic acids NaBH4 selectively reduces ketones

adenylyl cyclase

Converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to an extracellular signal. cAMP regulates effects of adrenaline

Ohm's Law

Current = Voltage/Resistance Voltage is *potential* voltage (voltage = electric potential = the difference in potential energy per unit charge between two locations in an electric field; work per charge; helps you find electric potential energy [separate concept]) resistivity is linearly proportional to temperature ohmic materials maintain constant resistance, so increasing voltage increases CURRENT

transposase

Cuts DNA backbone, leaving single-stranded "sticky ends" -cut and paste activity

Dissociative disorders

DID dissociative amnesia depersonalization/ derealization

prophase

DNA starts to condense, mitotic spindle forms if formation of mitotic spindle is disrupted, the proper segregation of chromosomes will be disrupted leading to unequal numbers being distributed to daughter cells

recombinant DNA

DNA that has been formed artificially by combining constituents from different organisms. use cDNA because no introns are present need artificial chromosomes (BAC, YAC) if large inserts required

geometric isomers

Diastereomers that differ in orientation of substituents around a ring or double bond cannot rotate freely because constrained by bonds cis = z (big dogs on zee same side) trans = e (opposite side) can be separated by GC bc different BPs

somatic NS

Division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles. (voluntary) -use Ach -somas in brainstem or ventral spinal cord -all sensory have dendrite to dorsal root ganglia (DRG) -1st synapse is to CNS (cord or higher)

prokarya

Domain of all anucleated organisms with cell walls, including archaea (extremophiles), bacteria, and blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) ribosomes are not membrane bound ARE present in bacteria

archaea

Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls that do not contain peptidoglycan have introns and similar mRNA sequences to eukaryotes produce via budding or fusion

Aufbau

Electrons enter orbitals of lowest energy first

metalloids

Elements that have properties of both metals and nonmetals.

1st law of thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed dE=heat into system- work done *by* system W>0 when work being done BY system; W<0 when done on system or Q+W if W is done *on* the system Won=-Wby -for isobaric process; dU=Q+PdV (for work done by system)

EPSP

Excitatory postsynaptic potential; a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential. *glutamate*

ternary complex

Enzyme simultaneously bound to two substrates.

integrity vs despair

Erikson's final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives; personal worth/ regrets

intamcy vs isolation

Erikson's sixth stage in which young adults form close relationships and gain intimate love, or they feel isolated.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's stage between 6 and 11 years, when the child learns to be productive; attain goals; gender role identification

identity vs. role confusion

Erikson's stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt; make mistakes and test limits

Initiative vs. Guilt

Erikson's third stage in which the child finds independence in planning, playing and other activities; learn how to make decisions

nondisjuction

Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate. usually lethal

cap-independent translation

Eukaryotic translation usually occurs at the 5' cap since it is monocistronic, BUT sometimes there is an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) where translation can start (in middle of chain) most code for apoptosis stress help- allows cells to make proteins under stress

lipemia

Excessive amount of fat in the blood; after eating a fatty meal; blood will have milky appearance

Lazarus theory

Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is labelled. We label the situation, which then leads to emotional and physiological response

scrotum

External sac that contains the testes (gonads) testes-> spermatogensis, secretion of androgens (male sex hormones) into bloodstream

Hooke's law and other spring stuff

F=-kx k increases for stiffer/ stronger spring ; unit = N/m a is not uniform bc force changes as spring moves elastic PE = 1/2kx^2 W by spring = -dPE; against spring = dPE amplitude= max displacement of block on spring from eq position x=0 max extension = +A, compression = -A KE and speed max at x=0; restoring force, acceleration, and PE max at +/- A 1/2kA^2 = 1/2mv^2

force of friction

F=uk Fn where Fn is normal force direction of frictional force is parallel to surface and in opposite direction of object with velocity relative to surface us>uk; Ffmax= usFn (only gives max possible static friction) if you do not overcome static friction, the frictional force will be equal in magnitude to the force you apply to the object (can't have MORE static friction than the force it feels) work done depends on distance, not displacement because it is a nonconservative force

newton's third law

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction F 1 on 2 = F 2 on 1 = action reaction pair equal strength force does not necessarily mean equal strength acceleration (if they have different masses)

pressure

Force per unit area.

secondary active transport

Form of active transport which does not use ATP as an energy source; rather, transport is coupled to ion diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport. (indirect)

cells that will not divide again will remain in what stage

G0 or G1

dNMP weight ranking

GMP > AMP > TMP > CMP

opioid receptors

GPCR 7 transmembrane receptors

imprinted genes

Genes whose expression is determined by the parent that contributed them; both genders can carry allele

nonpolar AAs

Glycine, Gly, G; hydrogen side chain; alpha helix breaker- flexible Alanine, Ala, A; CH3 Valine, Val, V; CH-(CH3)2 Leucine, Leu, L; CH2-CH(CH3)2 Methionine, Met, M: CH2CH2SCH3 Proline, Pro, P; alpha helix breaker; forms ring with backbone (secondary amine); in tight turns not helix because loses on H in backbone available for H bonding Isoleucine, Ile, I; CH3CHCH2CH3

hnRNA

Heterogeneous nuclear RNA; the primary transcript made in eukaryotes before splicing. processing -> mature mRNA only in euks

common fate (gestalt)

Humans tend to perceive elements moving in the same direction as being more related than elements that are stationary or that move in different directions. e.g. birds flying in a V shape is perceived as a unit

current

I=dq/dt direction that positive charge flows; flows positive to negative (even though electrons are moving and they go neg to pos)

Huckels rule

If a compound has planar, monocyclic rings with 4n+2 pi electrons (n being any integer, including 0), it is by definition an aromatic compound.

Trust vs. Mistrust

If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust

0th law of thermodynamics

If two systems are in thermodynamic equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

antibody types

IgD- activates B cells IgA- protects newborns (in breastmilk) IgG- ongoing response (can cross placenta) IgE- allergic reactions IgM- first produced

practice effects

Improvements in performance resulting from opportunities to perform a behavior repeatedly so that baseline measures can be obtained.

conjugation

In bacteria, the direct transfer of DNA between two cells that are temporarily joined. form bridge with pilus, send copied DNA to other cell fertility factor transferred from males to females (F+ to F-)

IPSP

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential; a slight hyperpolarization of the postysynaptic cell, moving the membrane potential of that cell further from threshold. *gaba glycine*

amnion

Innermost membranous sac surrounding the developing fetus; produces amniotic fluid

suicide inhibitor

Irreversible inhibitor that kills enzyme's activity when it acts on inhibitor. Flurouracil is example. once it binds it can't unbind; on there for good -irreversible inhibitors form covalent bonds; preincubation provides more time for this linkage and increases level of inhibition; preincubation does not effect reversible inhibitors

dual coding hypothesis

It's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone. more connections; method of loci (associate items on list with sequence of locations)

protist

Kingdom composed of eukaryotes that are not classified as plants, animals, or fungi only single celled eukaryotes

carrying capacity

Largest number of individuals of a population that an environment can support (for bacteria max population in stationary phase)

basement membrane

Layer between epithelium and underlying connective tissue

sphingolipids

Lipids with a sphingosine backbone instead of glycerol: ceramide, sphingomyelins (phosphatidyl choline head), glycosphingolipids, gangliosides sphingomyelin has a p and n in their head groups a lot

joint capsule receptors

Located in capsules that enclose joints Monitor pressure, tension, and movement

calcitonin

Lowers blood calcium levels (thyroid)

heart sounds

Lub-dub. 1st- a-v valves close (systole). 2nd- aortic and pulmonary valves close (diastole) diastole is longer

depressive disorders

MDD persistent DD (dysthmia) premenstrual dysphoric disorder

implicit memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously

translation- elongation

Met tRNA starts in P site (middle) , next codon will come into A site, A & P site codons bond and shift so Met is now in E site

seminiferous tubules

Narrow, coiled tubules that produce sperm in the testes. found in sustenacular cells (sertoli cells) to protect and nurture sperm

rolling resistance

NOT equal to kinetic friction; tires are NOT sliding; points are in STATIC contact with ground

vitamins

NOT substrates cofactors

cofactor/ coenzymes

Non-protein helpers that may be bound tightly to the enzyme active site permanently, or may bind loosely and reversibly along with the substrate/If the cofactor is an organic molecule; often bind to the substrate during the catalyzed rxn REQUIRED for protein function

protooncogenes

Normal cellular genes that regulate cell proliferation and differentiation that can become oncogenes. mutated via activating mutations in one or two alleles

succinate structure

O-C(=O)-C-C-C(=O)-O

palindromic sequence

Nucleic acid sequence: read the same 5'-3' as complementary 5'-3'

OCD disorders

OCD body dysmorphia hoarding

spreading activation

Occurs when one item brought into working memory triggers an activation of related memory

sarcoplasmic reticulum

Organelle of the muscle fiber that stores calcium. terminal cisterane store and release Ca

chorion

Outermost layer of the two membranes surrounding the embryo; it forms the fetal part of the placenta.

Bernoulli's equation

P1 +1/2 ρv_1^2+ρgh_1= P_2+1/2 ρv_2^2+ρgh_2 P : absolute pressure of the fluid v: linear speed h: height of the fluid ideal fluid: incompressible, negligable viscosity, flow is laminar (individual streamlines do not cross- opposite is turbulent flow), flow rate is steady, total mechanical energy is conserved if all conditions met

Gay-Lussac's Law

P1/T1=P2/T2 direct relationship

Boyle's law

P1V1=P2V2 inverse relationship

power at a constant speed

P=Fv where F= force and V=velocity

Electric/ regular power

P=IV; rate at which energy of charges dissipates vs w/t; the rate at which work is done energy = power x time power can also be KE/t bc W=KE

equipotentials

Positions within a field with zero potential difference between them assume potential decreases as move farther from charge dPE = qdPotential = qV always perp to field lines

single stranded binding proteins

Proteins that act as scaffolding, holding two DNA strands apart during replication protects strands from cleavage

astrocytes

Provide structural and metabolic support for neurons. maintain homeostasis of interstitial fluid in CNS

amount of positive charge in 1 mol of C atoms

Q = N x q = N x (6e) = 6.02e23 x 6(1.6e-19)

qPCR

Quantitative PCR detected in real time by dye fluorescence

acid anhydride

R-C(=O)-O-C(=O)-R

ester

R-C(=O)-O-R'

ketone

R-C(=O)-R

imine

R-N=CR2 *derived from primary amines (RNH2)*

ether

R-O-R

thiol

R-SH

enamine

R2-N -C(R1)=R2 forms in acid catalyzed reaction between secondary amine and ketone resonance with iminium form

which molecules will not be present in filtrate of nephron

RBC; large proteins too big and cannot get filtered

initiation of transcription

RNA pol binds at promoter region (TATA box in euks) does not need a primer template= antisense strand

translocations

Rearrangements of chromosomes due to the insertion of genetic material from one chromosome to another. -recombination of nonhomologous chromosomes -can cause gene fusion -balanced= no gene info is lost/ unbalanced= gene info is lost or gained

Rh factor

Refers to the presence or absence of the Rh antigen on red blood cells. unlike blood type, this is a typical first response to antigens (expose once before there is a response) hemolytic disease= occurs in the fetus if it is Rh+ while the mother is Rh-

DNA pol I

Removes RNA nucleotides of primer from 5' end and replaces them with DNA nucleotides

telomeres

Repeated DNA sequences at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. G rich prevents fusion

termination of transcription

Rho-dependent: Rh factor binds sequence and pulls RNA transcript and DNA strand apart Rho-independent: hits GC rich region, folds back in on self, form hairpin structure, polymerase stalls, hits U-A region and breaks off

Whorfian hypothesis/Linguistic relativity hypothesis

S-W The proposal that the language one speaks determines or heavily influences (but does not completely determine) the thoughts one can think or the saliency of different categories of thought. Linguistic- stronger version of ^^; language *controls* cognition

electrical current through heart

SA node -> (instantaneous) AV node -> (slow) bundle of His -> bundle branches -> Purkinje fibers

polar AAs

Serine, ser, s, polar; OH Threonine, thr, t; CH(CH2)OH Cysteine, cys, c; pka 8.33; CH2SH; cystine= oxidized (extracellular), form disulfide bridges Asparagine, asn, n; ch2c(o)nh2 Glutamine, gln, q; ch2ch2c(o)nh2

PCR primers

Short DNA fragments that prepare DNA for a Polymerase Chain Reaction GC rich; usually have GC near both the 5' and 3' ends

STR

Short Tandem Repeat, region of DNA that contains short segments consisting of three to seven repeating base pairs. unique to each person

simple vs facilitated diffusion

Simple = molecules move directly through the phospholipid bilayer (linear) Facilitated = molecules pass through transport proteins (large use carrier, charged use channel) (graph levels off)

origin of replication

Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins, consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides. where helicase begins to unwind DNA many in euks because so big

product inhibition

Situation in which the product of a reaction inhibits the activity of the enzyme that produces it

epitope

Small, accessible portion of an antigen that can be recognized. binds to antibody thru *noncovalent* interaction

alternative splicing

Splicing of exons in a pre-mRNA that occurs in different ways, leading to different mRNAs that code for different proteins or protein isoforms. Increases the diversity of *proteins*.

HPLC

Stationary phase - nonpolar Mobile phase - polar reverse phase more polar elute first

population genetics

Study of allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of evolutionary processes. unit of inheritence= allele difference between mendelian- examine over entire population, not just individuals

chromatin

Substance found in eukaryotic chromosomes that consists of DNA tightly coiled around histones *euchromatin* The less condensed form of eukaryotic chromatin that is available for transcription. acetylation neutralizes positive charge on lysine residues in histones, so DNA does not bind and wind as favorably *heterochromatin* Eukaryotic chromatin that remains highly compacted during interphase and is generally not transcribed; rich in repeats; at telomere and centromere

recall bias

Systematic error due to differences in accuracy or completeness of recall to memory of past events or experiences.

thymus

T cell maturation

Lymphocytes (WBC)

T cells and B cells B cell- mature into plasma cell and produce antibodies; can respond directly to antigen T cell- kill virus infected cell (immune response- reject tissue graft); respond to piece of antigen on MHC II migrate to lymph node to wait for bad guy -clonal selection: certain B and T cells recognize specific antigen because of unique receptors; clone these into an "army"; ignore the other cells with irrelevant receptors

tight junctions/ gap jnxs/ desmosomes

T- Membranes of neighboring epithelial cells pressed together preventing leakage of extracellular fluid by forming a tight seal G- cells connected by holes (funnels/ tunnels) for ion flow between them/ depolarization flows between these, e.g in heart D- Anchoring junctions that prevent cells from being pulled apart, no complete seal, e.g. skin

period and frequency relationship

T=1/f

magnetic field orbit period

T=2pir/v; r=mv/qB; T=2pim/rB cyclotron period does not depend on r or v; determined by mass and charge

period for harmonic motion

T=2pisqrt(m/k) frequency is opposite 1/2pisqrt(k/m)

operational span testing

Test general capacity of working memory tasks, asked to read and verify a simple math problem (is 4/2 -1 = 1?) then read a word after such as SNOW, after doing a series of problems and words they are asked to recall the word that followed each operation; Predicts verbal abilities and reading comprehension even though the subject is solving a math problem. Argues that it implies a general pool of resources that is used in every type of working memory situation

optimism bias

The belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us

template strand

The DNA strand that provides the template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an mRNA transcript. antisense

angle of reflection

The angle between the reflected ray and the normal refraction- angle transmitted ray and normal always = to angle of incidence

polycistronic

The coding pattern of prokaryotes, in which one mRNA may code for multiple proteins.

vagal tone

The constant inhibition provided to the heart by the vagus nerve (Ach); reduces the intrinsic firing rate of the SA node from 120 beats/minute to around 80 beats/minute; para (ANS) inhibits SA depol

urban blight

The degradation of the built and social environments of the city that often accompanies and accelerates migration to the suburbs

content validity

The degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it's supposed to cover.

photoelectric effect

The emission of electrons from a metal when light shines on the metal max wavelength of light to eject an electron = minimum frequency and minimum energy; Emin = 0 hfmin- work function; solve f and convert to wavelength

caspases

The enzyme which is responsible for disassembly of intracellular proteins during apoptosis. They have a cysteine in the active site which cleaves target proteins at aspartic acid sites.

ionization constant

The equilibrium constant for the ionization of a weak acid or weak base. -weaker acids or bases= small fraction ionizes to release protons; constant between 0 and 1 but closer to 0

syngamy

The fusion of two gametes in fertilization. sperm only provides genes form zygote

cytochrome p450

The general name for a large class of enzymes that play a significant role in drug metabolism and drug interactions; monooxygenases- insert oxygen atom into substrate of interest (oxidation of substrate)

corona radiata

The layer of granulosa cells taht surround an oocyte after is has been ovulated.

peritubular capillaries

The network of tiny blood vessels that surrounds the proximal and distal tubules in the kidney gets reabsorbed ions and water and stuff a way to get back into blood circulation leads to renal vein

isoelectric point (pI)

The pH at which an amino acid is predominantly in zwitterionic form- neutral charge pos charge= neg charge average of pka values on molecule (for amino acid, pka of side chain (if applicable), 2 for acid and 10 for amine

penetrance

The percentage of individuals with a particular genotype that actually displays the phenotype associated with the genotype.

oncotic pressure

The pressure of water to move, typically into the capillary, as the result of the presence of *plasma proteins*

physical attractiveness stereotype

The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: What is beautiful is good; type of halo effect

source monitoring

The process of making attributions about the origins of memories; forget or misremember info source

urban sprawl

The process of urban areas expanding outwards, usually in the form of suburbs, and developing over fertile agricultural land.

Bohr effect

The tendency of certain factors to stablize the hemoglobin in the tense conformation, thus reducing its affinity for oxygen and enhancing the release of oxygen to the tissues. The factors include increased PCO2, increase temperature, increased bisphosphoglycerate (BPG), and decreased pH. Note that the Bohr effect shifts the oxy-hemolobin saturation curve to the right.

wobble

The third nucleotide of a codon that often plays no role in specifying an amino acid; an evolutionary development designed to protect against mutations wobble hypothesis = first two codons follow base pairing rules but the third is more flexible so more than one codon can pair to a single anticodon; why there are not 61 tRNAs; G and U can wobble pair; A, U, or C can wobble pair to inosine (I; derived from A)

vital capacity

The total volume of air that can be exhaled after maximal inhalation (deep breath)

work energy theorem

The total work done on an object equals the change in kinetic energy of the object; negative work decreases speed work for UCM = 0 (because force perp to velocity AND speed is constant so CHANGE in KE = 0)

Kinase

Transfers phosphate group to a molecule from ATP phosphorylase does the same thing but with free floating Pi

Aromatic AAs

Tryptophan, trp, w; nonpolar; r group- 5 member ring with NH, 6 member ring, conjugated *aromatic side chaines = stacking interactions stabilize secondary structure interaction* Phenylalanine, Phe, F; nonpolar; benzene Tyrosine, tyr, y; pka 10; ph-OH

electric potential

V (volt)=kQ/r; Q=source charge electric potential exists even if there is no test charge present; electric potential energy comes into play when you do introduce that test charge (multiply its charge by the voltage) voltage is the change in electric potential between two points, not the potential itself

charle's law

V1/T1=V2/T2 direct relationship

internal resistance of batteries, r

V=emf - Ir terminal voltage is less than emf unless told otherwise assume ideal and don't have to use this

reciprocal control

When same molecule regulates 2 enzymes in opposite ways (e.g. in gluconeogenesis/glycolysis, citrate and ATP both inhibit PFK and stimulate fru-1,6-biphosphatase)

projection bias

When we assume others share the same beliefs we do

Chargaff's Rule

[A]=[T] and [G]=[C], they pair up across from one another forming two strands also called base pairing.

theta waves

brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep

self serving bias

attribute success to internal factors and failure to external factors (for ourselves)

specific rotation

a = observed rotation / concentration * length

double stranded break

a DNA break cleaving the sugar-phosphate backbones of both strands of the DNA double helix repair with homologous recombination (make joint molecule out of sister chromatids) or nonhomologous end joining (no specificity; just want to heal the break. badly repaired is better than having a break- can result in lost BPs and abnormal connections)

false consensus

a belief that others share the same opinion about something, when actually most don't

squalene

a cholesterol precursor found in whale liver and plants a terpene close the ring to make cholesterol cholesterol adds rigidity to membrane; can also add some fluidity at low temperatures and acts as a buffer

solenoid

a coil of wire with an electric current in it B inside is parallel to central axis so if v parallel to B; Fb= 0 proportional to IN/L where N= number of turns stronger when super tight

diathesis-stress model

a diagnostic model that proposes that a disorder may develop when an underlying vulnerability is coupled with a precipitating event

torque

a force that causes rotation t=rFsin theta= mgL sin theta NOT force; it is a property of force; unit = Nm CCW= positive rotation lever arm= shortest point from fulcrum to line of action; equal to rsintheta rotational eq= torque = 0 work if force is through pivot point torque = 0

ethnographic research

a form of observational research that involves sending trained observers to watch and interact with consumers in their "natural environments" consumers could include groups of people like physicians

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

a major neuroendocrine pathway relevant to the stress response involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the adrenal cortex direct connection between nervous and endocrine system

functional syncytium

a mass of merging cells that act as a unit

index of refraction

a measure of the amount a ray of light bends when it passes from one medium to another n=c/v tells us how much slower light travels thru medium than empty space; vacuum n=1 increase n, slower light travel

resistivity

a measure of the resisting power of a specified material to the flow of an electric current. *intrinsic property and does not change for a material* R=resistivity x length of conductor/cross sectional area =1/conductivity, sigma (inversely proportional)

allantois

a membrane sac that stores wastes and is the site for gas exchange

CAT scan

a method of creating static images of the brain through computerized axial tomography

partial report technique

a method of testing memory in which only some of the total information presented is to be recalled. For example, if several rows of letters are shown to the participant, a cue given afterward may prompt recall of only one particular row.

oxidative decarboxylation

a molecule is oxidized to release CO2 and produce NADH happens in kreb preparation step and in kreb cycle

insertion/deletion mutation

a mutation in which one or more nucleotides are added or removed from a gene

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage learning/stress and anxiety regulation

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion homeostatic control; modulates endocrine system

nucleon

a proton or neutron

Gestalt Psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

postsynaptic receptors

a receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter what controls the effect on post synaptic neurons, not the neurotransmitter itself

within-subjects design

a research design that uses each participant as his or her own control; for example, the behavior of an experimental participant before receiving treatment might be compared to his or her behavior after receiving treatment all participants exposed to every treatment condition

participant observation

a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities

Hydropathy Index

a scale that expresses the relative hydrophobic and hydrophilic tendencies of a chemical group positive index= amino acids are hydrophobic

amplification mutation

a segment of the chromosome is duplicated

reference group

a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions

microfilaments

actin dynamic, change based on the needs of the cell

local autoregulation

ability of tissues to regulate own blood flow in absence of neural stimulation; generally accomplished via metabolic wastes (such as CO2) that act as vasodilators. if underperfused, waste will build up, vasodilation will happen automatically and override nervous input

theory of mind

ability to reason about what other people know or believe; ability to understand the perspective of others

parasomnia

abnormal behaviors during sleep including somnambulism and night terrors; usually occur during stage 3 or slow wave sleep

centripetal acceleration

acceleration toward the center of a curved or circular path a=v^2/r

important molecules

acetate: AcO- ; CH3CO2- nitrate: NO3- perchlorate: ClO4-

ketones

acetoacetate; acetone; b-hydroxybutarate

inspiration vs expiration

active vs passive (elastic recoil) can have forced expiration, forces more air out, active

elongation- transcription

addition of nucleotides, walks template strand in 3' to 5' direction (new strand synth 5' to 3')

3 main components of attitudes

affect (emotions) behavioral tendencies cognition (thoughts) more likely to act in accordance of attitude is given time to prepare to do so

tropic hormones

hormones that stimulate other glands to release their hormones

peptide bond

aka amide bond formed with loss of a water molecule between alpha amino and carboxyl groups N-C-C-N-C-C pattern of backbone written N to C because amino terminus is made first planar and rigid bc resonance delocalization gives double bond character condensation releases water

functional group priority

aldehyde > ketone > alcohol > amine base of name is highest priority (e.g. hexanal over hexanone)

alipathic

alkyl (hydrocarbon derived from alkane); open chains NOT rings

DNA electrophoresis

all have same charge, so fragments are separated by size (smaller travels further toward the positive charge at the end)

mendel's law of independent assortment

alleles of different genes sort independenetly from one another as long as they are unlinked genes

ionizability (van't hoff)

how many ions of unit will be produced i=1 for biomolecules eg NaCl -> Na + Cl; i=2

electric charge

always conserved, but CAN be created or destroyed

henry's law

amount of gas that will dissolve in liquid depends on partial pressure of gas above liquid and solubility of gas in the liquid; gasses less soluble as temperature increases solubility= partial pressure x henry's constant

conjugate base of weak polyprotic acid

amphoteric; can either donate or accept; each loss of a H weakens the acid

Monocyte (WBC)

an agranulocytic leukocyte that performs phagocytosis to fight infection phagosome = vesicle/bubble in cell containing the engulfed molecule engulfs old RBCs in spleen circulates in blood; when it settles down in tissue and stays put becomes macrophage or dendritic cell

dipole-dipole interaction

an attraction between regions of polar molecules that have partial charges of opposite sign nonpolar molecules cannot participate

electroplating

an electrolytic process in which a metal ion is reduced and a solid metal is deposited on a surface; plate thin layer of metal on top of another material e.g. fork cathode w Ag+ yields a silver plate fork

disproportionation reaction

an element in one oxidation state is simultaneously oxidized and reduced

hormone sensitive lipase

an enzyme inside adipose cells that responds to the body's need for fuel by hydrolyzing triglycerides so that their parts (glycerol and fatty acids) escape into the general circulation and thus become available to other cells for fuel. The signals to which this enzyme responds include epinephrine and glucagon, which oppose insulin.

ping pong mechanism

an enzyme mechanism where a substrate binds to the enzyme and releases a product before the second substrate binds to the enzyme; aka double displacement

angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)

an enzyme that converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II always available and unrelated to presence of renin

ceiling effects

an experimental design problem in which independent variable groups score almost the same on a dependent variable, such that all scores fall at the high end of their possible distribution

an increase in systemic blood pressure causes

an increase in glomerular capillary blood pressure and glomerular filtration rate

subjective norms

an individual's perceptions about whether significant others think he or she should (or should not) perform the behavior in question; determined by perceived social pressures; predictor of behavior

token economy

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

ADH

antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin); released by posterior pituitary dictates how porous tube in *collecting duct* is very porous= more water leaves and filtrate becomes more concentrated released when dehydrated and volume of fluid in blood is low/ when BP drops controlled by angiotensin II water retention in extracellular fluid

heteroatom

any atom other than carbon or hydrogen in an organic molecule heterocycle = cyclic compound with a heteroatom

phosphatides

any of a class of compounds that are fatty acid esters of glycerol phosphate with a nitrogen base linked to the phosphate group.

social dysfunction

any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society; produces undesirable consequences and reduces stability of society

urinary system path

aorta -> renal artery -> purified blood returns to circulation by renal vein -> inferior vena cava OR aorta -> renal artery -> urine leaves kidney via ureter -> urinary bladder -> internal sphincter (smooth) -> external sphincter (skeletal)

amino acids and light absorption

aromatic side chains absorb in the near UV region (250-290) all chiral amino acids contribute to far UV region (190-250)

3 stages of male sexual act

arousal, orgasm, resolution integrating center in spinal cord

denisty and temp

as temp decreases, density increases

acidic AAS

aspartic acid asp, d, acidic, pka 3.86; ch2coo- glutamic acid, glu, e, pka 4.25; ch2ch2coo-

GPCR

associated with regulatory complexes called G proteins because they bind to GTP and GDP -transmit signal via secondary messenger cAMP -Gs= stimulate cAMP -Gi= inhibits cAMP -7 transmembrane receptors (7 alpha helices) -three subunits- alpha, beta, gamma -ligand binds, conformational change, substitute GDP for GTP in alpha, alpha dissociates and regulates target proteins, beta gamma dimer can also regulate proteins, target protein relates signal, GTP hydrolyzed to GDP and ligand leaves -only in euks -cAMP involved in fight or flight (increase HR, dilate vessels, glycogen -> glucose) -*ATP to cAMP*

absolute threshold/ weber's law

at- minimum stimulus intensity to activate receptor 50% of the time; varies with age and species wl- two stimulants must differ in constant proportion for a different to be appreciable ; 2% for weight, 8% for light, 0.3% for tones

fimbrae

attachment structures on the surface of some prokaryotes

phenomenoligcal studies

attempt to understand own perception and understandings rather than make a comparison between variables and draw a causal conclusion

resonance hybrid

average of the resonance forms shown by the individual Lewis structures best resonance structure= octet rule satisfied, minimize separation of charge, negative charge on more electronegative groups

beta waves

awake and alert

chair flip

axial becomes equatorial want big dogs equatorial so do not have 1,3 diaxial interactions dashes become down; nothing to do with axial/ equitorial

face validity

how suitable content of test seems on the surface (is it a good representation of what you want to test)

organ of corti

basilar membrane, hair cells, and tectorial membrane (tm located above the basilar membrane; serves as a shelf against which the cilia of the auditory hair cells move)

Weber

beaurocracy is necessary for modern society; rationalization

sizes of bioparticles

bacteria and euk cells well above 200 nm because they can be seen by light microscopes bacteriophages are smaller than bacteria because they have to fit inside them!

bolus

ball of moving chewed food

social (observational) learning

bandura ; modeling: observe others performing behavior and imitate

saponification

base promoted ester hydrolysis of fats (triglycerides) hydrolyzable fats = glycerides, sphingolipids, waxes, phospholipids (functions = structure and energy storage)

identification

behavior motivated by a desire to be like someone else

molecular geometries

bent- 2 bonded, 1 lone pair (120 degrees) trigonal planar- 3 bonded, 1 lone pair (109.5) sp2 bent- 2 bonded, 2 lone pair (109.5) linear- 2 bonded, 3 lone pair (180) (sp) square pyramidal- 5 bonded, 1 lone pair (90) square planar- 4 bonded, 2 lone pair (90) octahedral- 6 bonds all with 90 degree angle tetrahedral- 4 bonds (109) sp3

Hydroquinone structure

benzene with para OHs (directly across from each other) benzoquinone is ring with 2 DBS and 2 para =Os

thrombin/ thrombus

bin- enzyme that converts fibrinogen to fibrin during coagulation bus- stationary blood clot

Kd

binding affinity if a drug has a lower Kd, it is more efficient at inhibiting interactions because it binds more

annealing

binding of complementary sides (hybridization)

stabilizing selection

both extremes selected against; drives population toward average

IV injections

bypasses liver oral/ rectal gets broken down in liver before going out to circulation

cytosine, uracil, and thymine structures

c- on the ring = NH2, N, =O, NH ; c5 position is next to NH2; has two H bond acceptors t- CH3, =O, NH, =O, NH (methyl tagged U) u- =O, NH, =O, NH

artificial selection

humans intervene to achieve desired traits thru controlled mating

carboxylic acid synthesis

can be prepared from any derivative by heating in acidic aqueous solns

achiral

can be superimposed on its mirror image; has plane of symmetry

totipotent stem cell

can become any cell in any body system (embryonic)

pluripotent stem cells

can differentiate into any germ layer inner cell mass cells pluripotent hematopoetic stem cell gives rise to myeloid (RBCs/ megakaryocytes-> platelets/ monocytes (circulating)-> macrophages (settled in tissues)/ granulocytes/ mast cells (allergic rxns, release histamine)) and lymphoid lineages (lymphocytes/ natural killer cells) dendritic cells come from both lineages

neutral conductor

can have electrical attraction with source charge because of separation of charges- induces polarization in neutral insulator; d+ vs d- not as dramatic as effect with conductor

potential energy

can only be defined for conservative forces like gravity (mgh); why friction does NOT have a potential energy without conservative forces- KEi + PEi + W by F= KEf + PEf gravity is conservative so work done by any path to get an object to the same height is the same; depends only on initial and final heights

multipotent stem cells

can produce many different tissue specific cell types adult stem cells

glycocalyx

capsule, allows to stick to smooth surfaces (like respiratory tract) makes it difficult for immune system to eradicate

esterification

carboxylic acid reacts with OH and form an ester (R-C(=O)-OR) esters named with -ate ending name = R' group + carboxylic acid name - ic acid + ate e.g. methyl benzoate; methyl = R group and acid = benzoic acid

arteries

carry blood away from the heart have higher pressure than veins elastic, exert pressure during diastole, provide continued driving force for blood

larynx

cartilage/ keeps airway open/epiglottis (in pharynx) seals trachea when swallowing/ contains vocal cords

enzyme linked receptors

catalytic receptor ligand binding domain outside cell, enzyme domain inside cell e.g. RTKs- always occur in pairs- act together and form cross linked dimer

3 stressors

catastrophes, significant life changes, daily hassles

Islets of Langerhans

cell clusters in the pancreas that form the endocrine part of that organ

telophase

cell elongation cleavage furrow daughter nuclei form; nuclear envelope reforms around each sister chromatid then back to interphase

phagoytosis

cell engulfs large particles or whole cells; defense mechanism or a means to obtain food -no invagination -nonspecific -receptor mediated= specific -this function relies on microtubules to change the shape of the cell (disassemble and reorganize)

senescent state

cells alive but do not divide or undergo apoptosis

glial cell

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons includes astrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells (CS fluid)

archentum

central cavity in gastrula; lined by endoderm (GI tract)

telencephalon

cerebral hemispheres left is dominant for most people right- visual spatial/ music

founder effect

change in allele frequencies as a result of the migration of a small subgroup of a population

random drift

change in gene frequencies in small populations due purely to chance happens when populations are small and there is not as much variety in alleles

population lag effect

changes in total fertility are not reflected in birth rate for several generations

duodenal hormones

cholecystokinin (CCK) [fats], secretin [increase pH if a lot of acid], enterogastrone [decreases stomach emptying] -not absorbed in duodenum, absorbed in jejunum and ileum

anaphase

chromatids separate, equal amounts on both side microtubules function in chromosomal movements in cell division.

metaphase

chromosomes line up in middle at metaphase plate

Plaques in cell culture

clear area where there has been cell death

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

thermodynamic systems

closed- environment can contribute energy, but not matter isolated- enviro contributes neither energy nor matter open- enviro can contribute both energy and matter

ganglia

clusters of cell bodies in the PNS

opsonization

coating antigen with antibody enhances phagocytosis

lipoic acid

cofactor for several mitochondrial enzymes needed for oxidative phosphorylation especially pyruvate dehydrogenase (pyruvate to acetyl coa) where a deficiency here would result in lactic acidosis. Lipoic acid is also a cofactor in alpha ketoglutarate DH and branch chain keto-acid DH where a deficiency would would result in maple syrup urine disease.

Beck's Cognitive Therapy

cognitive technique; designed to identify and change inappropriate negative and self-critical patterns of thought; primarily used to treat depression and anxiety; therapy is not as challenging and confrontational as REBT; aims to lead person to more realistic and flexible ways of thinking

conduction/ convection/ radiation

cond- The direct transfer of heat from one substance to another substance that it is touching. conv- The transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid (gas or liquid) rad- Energy that is radiated or transmitted in the form of rays or waves or particles.

Broca's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Broca's area-directs the muscle movements involved in speech-, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly

Wernicke's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language

pascal's law

confined fluid transmits externally applied pressure change to ALL parts of fluid and walls of container w/o magnitude change (stuff deep in container feels same pressure as stuff closer to outside of container- constant all the way through) F1/A1= F2/A2 and A1d1=A2d2 so F1d1=F2d2 (Fd= work)

role conflict vs strain

conflict among the roles connected to two or more statuses vs tension among the roles connected to a single status

auditory tube

connects middle ear to pharynx, equalizes pressure (causes ear popping)

15 ev photon collides with 13.6 ev H to release electron- what is KE of ejected electron

conservation 15-13.6 = 1.4

adrenergic tone

constant input to the arteries that keeps them somewhat constricted to maintain a basal level of blood pressure.

constitutive activity

continuous, unregulated receptor activity in the absence of ligand (regulatory subunit)

gene expression

controlled by transcription (number of proteins affected by number of mRNA) and epigenetics (heritable, not in DNA)

counterbalancing

controls for potential effects that the order of intervention administration may have on results e.g. separate into groups who receive A then B and B then A

spinal cord

controls simple reflexes; primitive processes; data relay to brain

path of light through eye

cornea, aqueous humor, pupil, lens, vitreous humor, retina

open chain with -CO2H and -OH groups in equilibrium with

corresponding cyclic ester (lactone) intramolecular fischer esterfication!!

adrenal glands

cortex- outside, corticosteroids (cortisol and aldosterone) (mesoderm) medulla- inside, cathecholamines, epi (adrenaline) and norepi (fight or flight) (ectoderm)

trig

cos increases as angle decreases sin decreases as angle decreases

infrared radiation

covalent bonds vibrate at distinct energy levels wavenumber= 1/lambda bond absorbs= frequency not recorded

purpose of parallel plate capacitors

create uniform electric field and store electrical potential energy V=Ed

source charge

creates an electric (vector) field; convention = positive takes two charges to create a force but one to create a field

ATP during muscle contraction regenerated by

creatine phosphate hydrolysis

peptidoglycan cell wall

cross linked chains of AA and sugar (D-alanine) target of anitbiotics lysozyme destroys, then becomes protoplast

2 strand double crossover

crossing over happens twice, might get original chromosomes -3 strand involves three chromatids -can cross over with sister chromatid -sex chromosomes do crossover ONLY in the psuedoautosomal regions bc from gender specific regions may get genes for male sex organs and characteristics in females and vice versa or be missing important genes for male or female development

demand characteristics

cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected

pyrimidines

cytosine, thymine, uracil one 6 membered ring start numbering at N-H

diastole vs systole

d- Relaxation of the heart; blood flow from atria to ventricles; ventricles relaxed, atria contract to propel blood to ventricle s- Contraction of the heart; initiated by ventricle contraction, AV valves shut, semilunar valves open because of the pressure increase and close when the pressure decreases again

cultural diffusion vs transmission

d- transfer element of culture from one social group to another (within or between societies) t- info is spread across generations, mechanism of learning

schizophrenia and related disorders

delusional disorder brief psychotic disorder schizophreniform schizoaffective schizophrenia disorganized speech is a positive symptom

gauge pressure

density * g * z; where z= depth

lac operon I gene

distant, codes lac repressor protein for when there is not enough lactose for this pathway to be on

path difference

d2-d1 if difference = n lambda (integer numbers); waves in phase if =(n+1/2) lambda (half integer); completely (180° or pi radians) out of phase

relationship between distance, acceleration, and time

d=1/2a*t^2

Conservation of Mechanical Energy

dE= dU + dK = 0 for conservative forces (independent of path)

dG

dG = dG° + RT ln Q dG spontaneous in direction of reaction dG° = relative proportion of product and reactant at eq; very specific conditions ; if < 0, Keq > 1 and products favored ; this is the value on the reaction coordinate diagram G is zero when rxn is in eq; dG°= -RTlnKeq

renal regulation of blood pressure

decrease BP, secrete renin, catalyze angiotensin to angiotensin I to angiotensin II (via ACE), causes vasoconstriction, BP increases

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

ethnicity vs race

defined by culture vs. classifies by physical characteristics

efficiency

degree to which factors reduce actual work output of a machine w out/energy in

connective tissue

derived from fibroblast -adipocytes (fat) -chondrocytes (cartilage) -osteocytes (bone) -blood (no fibers) -loose= packing tissue (areolar, fat[fat = no fibers) -dense = contains a lot of fibers -matrix = collagen, elastin, ground substance (viscous)

southern blotting

detect specific sequences of DNA probe= SS nucleic acid, complementary and radiolabeled for a Southern blot to be useful, the mutation should either create or eliminate a restriction site, most of which are palindromes and 4 to 6 base pairs long.

stem cells

determination precedes differentiation; preprogrammed or induced by embryo

what happens to zygotes with Y chromosome

develop male external and mullerian inhibiting factor MIF (produced in testes), can then secrete testosterone

enantiomers

differ in orientation around chiral carbon only (stereogenic carbon atom) opposite config at ALL chiral carbons

primary spermatocytes

diploid, undergo meiosis I to from haploid secondary spermatocytes

longitudinal wave

direction of particle oscillation is parallel to direction of wave e.g. sound (compression) waves; humans percieve 20hz-20khz high pressure areas = compression; low = rarefactions sound travel depends on resistance to compression and density; v=sqrt(bulk modulus/density) travel slowest through gas and fastest through solids

psychophysical discrimination testing

directly assess our perception of stimuli in relation to their true physical properties

second law of thermodynamics

disorder increases in spontaneous processes processes run in direction of max disorder entropy = randomness, disorder

lac operon crp gene

distant, codes catabolite activator protein (CAP), couples operon to glucose levels (this and I gene have own promoters, products control A, Z, and Y genes

psych disorder criteria

distress- is it causing the individual a significant amount of distress maladaptiveness- does the behavior negatively impact the person's life or pose a threat to others stat deviance- how rare is behavior

circulatory system

distributes nutrients, transports oxygen, transports metabolic waste, transports hormones, maintains homeostasis of body temperature, hemostasis (blood clotting)

correct myopia (near sight) with

diverging lens spreads out the light before it reaches the lens of the eye which will cause light to focus on a point closer to the retina diverging (concave) lens forms a virtual (always upright) and *reduced* image

intermediates

do not pile up behind rate limiting step; shuttle back and forth between reactants and products until ready to go through rate limiting step has more energy than either reactants or products (high energy intermediate = highly reactive, makes it difficult to isolate)

kin selection

does not act on individuals; sacrifice self for sake of shared alleles

inert gas

does not change pressure or concentration of reaction container so there will be no change in eq

signal sequence domain

domains required for proteins that are directed toward secretory pathways

racialization (ethnisization)

dominant group labels other groups that do not otherwise relate to labels (social control)

UV chromophore

double/ triple bonds carbonyls conjugated systems can be visualized with UV light

ejaculatory duct

duct formed by the union of the vas deferens with the duct of the seminal vesicle; its fluid is carried into the urethra; on both sides of the body

uncertainty relation

dxdp≥h/2π p= momentum

limiting reagent

e..g 2 Al + 6 HCl -> 2 AlCl3 + 3H2 if start with 4 mols Al and 18 mols HCl, you can make 18/6= 3 ; 3*2 = 6 mols AlCl3 and 3*3= 9 moles of H2 with HCl and 4/2 = 2; 2*2 = 4 mols AlCl3 and 2*3 = 6 mols H2 with Al Al runs out first so it is limiting

object moving with nature

e.g. gravity; potential energy will decrease as it drops (moves with nature) so Wby g = -PE

EEG

electrodes measure voltage fluctuation, brain waves, only measure at cortex, poor signal to noise ratio MEG- map brain activity with magnetic field (SQUIDS)

emf

electromotive force voltage source that creates current (not actually a force); voltage sources maintain potential difference between terminals

social cognitive theory

emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development. use cognitive processes in relation to understanding the social world used to be called social learning; suggests that behaviors are learned through observing others and modeling their actions.

social model of disease

emphasizes the effect one's social class, employment status, neighborhood, exposure to environmental toxins, diet, and many other factors can have on a person's health/ this is the ultimate cause of disease

sigma bond

end to end overlap of orbitals; 2 electrons localized can have free rotation around sigma bonds length approx sum of atomic radii

germ layers

endoderm = inner germ layer gi tract, lungs (pulmonary system), liver, pancreas, esophagus, intenstines, stomach, bladder mesoderm = muscles, bones, inner layers of skin, heart, kidneys, ovaries, testes ectoderm = outer layer of skin, sweat glands, hair, nervous system; mouth is an invagination of the ectoderm

intensity

energy per second per unit area -> power/unit area for point source A=4πr^2 threshold of hearing = 10^-12 w/m^2 = I naught intensity level = log I/I0; unit = bel decibel, ß= 10 log I/I0 multiply I by 10, add 10 to ß; divide I by 10, subtract 10 from ß

myosin

enzyme that uses ATP to create movement

cells and helpful structures of respiratory tract

epithelial cells line entire tract columnar cells = secrete goblet cells (mucus), cilia sweep mucus to pharynx so pathogens can be swallowed or coughed out (mucociliary escalator) simple squamous = in gas exchange structures, no mucus because alveolar macrophages protect

Moderating variables

factors that affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables change the strength and direction

mediating variables

factors that are positioned between the independent and dependent variables but do not affect the relationship between them can explain the relationship (intervening variables)

pendulum

eq point = theta = 0 restoring force = gravity mgsintheta not simple harmonic motion bc restoring force is not proportional to displacement 180 ° = pi radians if theta small mgsintheta = mg theta in radians which is SHM f=1/2pi sqrt(g/l); T=1/f; mass does not effect mgh = 1/2mvmax^2; vmax = sqrt(2gh) pass through eq point to get max speed

partial pressure of individual gasses in a mixture

equal to mole fraction times total pressure of mixture ptot = sum of partial pressures

titrations with polyprotic acids

equivalence point pH =/= pka, but rather the average of the two close pkas eq point 1 = pka1 + pka2/ 2

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

amu, grams, and moles

ex. (NH4)2CO3 has a molecular weight of 96 amu, so 1 mole has 96g. If 1 mol = 96 g, then 96 g has 6.02e^23 molecules. If there are 96 AMU, then there is NOT 1 mol, there is a single MOLECULE and does not have the same mass as 1 mole

free expansion

expansion against zero pressure; instantaneous; no time for heat transfer (abiabatic) membrane rupture= nothing to push against so no work is done; dE=Q-W = 0-0 = 0

Robbers Cave Experiment

experiment which showed that even arbitrary group distinctions (camp teams) can cause a bitter rivalry and discrimination, thus demonstrating in-group/out-group biases

epistasis

expression for one gene is dependent on another gene (e.g. can't have curly hair if you are bald)

renal calyx

extension of the pelvis, form cup-shaped areas that enclose the tips of pyramids; touches medulla urine collects here before flowing to urinary bladder

perineum

external region between the anus and scrotum in the male

incentive theory

external stimuli drive behavior includes community values and other aspects of culture

newton's second law

f=ma; fnet = f1 + f2 direction of a = direction of fnet; does not necessarily mean object moves in direction of fnet F=kg n/s^2 = N

initiator tRNA

fMet-tRNAf only inserts methionine into middle of peptide (has additional aldehyde functional group) fMet = formylmethionine fMet = sure sign that bacteria are translating (immune system sniffs this out) no tRNA for stop codon, last tRNA is for upstream codon from stop

duodenum

first part of the small intestine -pancreatic duct empties exocrine secretions into duodenum -common bile duct delivers bile -ducts enter from sphincter of Oddi -pH must be neutral -some epithelium in duodenum secrete enzymes- brush border enzymes hydrolyze carbs and proteins to monosaccharides and amino acids

mores

fixed customs or manners; moral attitude -norms that are important for the benefit of society, strictly enforced

emotional arousal and memory

focuses attention of central aspect of event

similar amino acid sequences

fold similarly

law of mass action

for elementary rxn; rate of rxn is prop to molar amount of each reactant raised to stoich coefficient

Erythropoietin

hormone produced and released by the kidney; stimulates production of RBCs by bone marrow stimulated by low oxygen thrombopoeitin controls production of platelets

UV-Vis spectroscopy

for transition metals (close d-orbs= easy promotion of electrons) for conjugated organic systems maximum absorption proportional to the extent of conjugation (more conjugation= longer wavelength)

work

force x distance Fd cos theta speed has no effect on work if lifting, regardless of path it will still be force time mg

translation- initiation

form initial complex of ribosome, mRNA, and tRNA

a-keto aa derivatives

formed thru transamination- transfer NH3 to another molecule to free up backbone to ultimately create ketones a-keto acid is an amino acid with no amino group transam = required for protein breakdown; increases glutamate in liver

DCC

forms amide from carboxylic acid and amine

Hardy-weinberg principle

frequency of alleles in a gene pool do not change over time as long as there is no mutation, no migration, no natural selection, no random drift (not a small population), and there is random mating

resistance in heart

friction opposing blood flow dP= Q*R where Q= blood flow (cardiac output- heart rate times stroke volume) similar to Ohm's law resistance prop to 1/r^4 resistance increases as pressure decreases; increase HR decreases resistance

non hydrolyzable fats

function- saignalling- inflammation, lower BP, etc. steroids (eicosanoids), prostaglandins, fat soluble vitamins (cofactor function)

transitional epithelium

function: stretches readily and permits distension of urinary organ by contained urine Location: lines the ureters, urinary bladder, and part of the urethra

harmonics

fundamental (1st) = L=1/2 lambda ; lambda 1 =2L/1 l2 = 2L/2 3rd = 2L/3 n =2L/n lambda n = lambda 1/n frequency = nv/2L; fn=n f1

energy spectrum

gamma > x rays > UV > visible light > IR > radio waves> microwaves from increasing to decreasing frequency

connection between cardiac muscle cells

gap junctions in intercalated discs electrical synapse (no chemical synapse) slow Ca channels open for longer than fast Na channels so membrane depolarization lasts longer (plateau phase) extracellular Ca stimulates contraction and affects the strength of contraction

respiratory membrane

gas in air - > alveolar epithelium -> interstitial fluid -> capillary endothelium 3 barriers lipid bilayer is not a barrier to diffusion

amino acid electrophoresis

gel held at constant pH; exposed to electric field; when PI is different then pH each amino acid will have overall charge and move according to side chain charge pH> PI = negative charge pH< PI = positive charge pH = PI = no movement no charge

point mutation

gene mutation in which a single base pair in DNA has been changed -transitions (pyridine to pyridine or purine to purine) -trasnversions (pyridine to purine)

copy number variations

genes with various repeats or deletions of base pairs; structural variations

transfection

genetic engineering, or transformation, of mammalian cell lines

parallel processing

get holistic image by integrating separate elements takes 30% of cortex to process visual information

3 hormones that increase blood sugar

glucagon, epinephrine, cortisol -low blood sugar is FATAL

glycogenolysis in liver

glucose-1-phosphate -> glucose-6-phosphate -> glucose

long term potentiation

gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation

speed of sound

greatest in a solid because of strong intermolecular bonds and close proximity of the molecules travels faster when air is hotter within still air, the speed of sound remains constant can NOT travel in a vacuum

Lac operon

group of genes involved in lactose metabolism -off if glucose is present because do not need to break down lactose/ off if cAMP low -low glucose-> high cAMP, binds CAP, which binds operon -no lactose present- I gene codes repressor that binds operon to prevent transcription (allosteric)

Haworth projection

groups on left in fisher are above ring; R groups below B= OH up; a= OH down

nodes

half wavelength has a node at each end, so each node is lambda/2 apart

dissociation in water

happens to a lesser extent if there is a high negative charge on the molecule

hydrolyzable lipids

have an ester bond includes phospholipids, triglycerides, waxes prostaglandins are NOT HYDROLYZABLE micelles increase surface area

isoelectronic

having the same number of electrons same electron configuration d -> (n-1)d; f -> (n-2)f

kinetic energy of a photoelectron

hf - work function

renal regulation of pH

high plasma pH -> excrete bicarbonate (HCO3-) in urine low plasma pH -> protons excreted generally protons excreted and bicarbonate is absorbed slow, takes days

life course approach

holistic, multidisciplinary understanding of how psych, bio, and sociocultural factors across a lifetime have a cumulative effect on health outcomes

glucocorticoid

hormone from the adrenal cortex that raises blood sugar and reduces inflammation; increases with stress

cartilage

hyaline- reduces friction between bony surfaces to facilitate joint movement; allows linear bone growth in childhood (endochondrial ossification); reinforces resp. passageways; supports external nose; most common type elastic- flexible; withstands distortion without damage and reverts to og shape (nose) fibrous- limits movement; resists compression forces/ stretch; prevents direct contact between bones (spine) all avascular

protease

hydrolyzes peptide bonds trypsin, chymotrypsin, pepsin

respiratory alkalosis vs alkalosis

hyperventilation; pH increases vs A drop in blood pH due to hypoventilation (too little breathing) and a resulting accumulation of Co2.

sex steroid production

hypothalamus and anterior pituitary LH = interstitia*l* produce testosterone/ form corpus *l*uteum (secrete progesterone) FSH = stimulate sustenacular/ granulosa secrete estrogens

Peyer's patches

large collections of lymphoid tissue found in the submucosa of the small intestine -monitor GI contents -immunity to gut pathogens

lipid raft

in a membrane, a group of lipids and proteins that float together as a unit in a larger sea of lipids; indicated by cholesterol rich regions

loss of heterozygoticity

in diploid cell, one allele lost, locus becomes hemizygous (only have one member of a chromosome pair)

monocistronic

in eukaryotes, each mRNA molecule translates into only one protein product one gene -> one protein

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated low frequency (long wavelength) sensed at apex of cochlea (farthest from oval window) high frequency (short wavelength) sensed at base, closest to oval window

where is linguistic information processed

in left hemisphere for most people

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses leads to high response rate with no predictable pauses e.g. reward given after AVERAGE of correct responses

where are antibodies translated

in ribosomes attached to RER

juxtaglomerular apparatus

in the nephron, the complex of cells from the distal tubule and the afferent arteriole which helps regulate blood pressure by *secreting renin* in response to blood pressure changes in the kidney; located near the glomerulus

erectile tissue

in two compartments of corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum compartment

incomplete dominance vs codominance

in- one allele is not completely dominant over another allele; blended mix of both alleles shown in phenotype co- neither of two alleles of a gene is dominant or recessive, both expressed but not blended (blood types)

Agraphia/ Anomia

inability to write/ inability to name objects

factors of socioeconomic status

income, wealth, occupation, education, and place of residence social capital is not included

parathyroid hormone

increases blood calcium levels by stimulating the bones to release calcium

ionic bond strength

increases for increasing difference in electronegativity electroneg increases left to right and down to up

why would light slow down

index of refraction of new material is greater than that of the old material (e.g. air to glass- air has lower than glass)

normative beliefs

individuals' beliefs about the extent to which other people who are important to them think they should or should not perform particular behaviors normative influence = change behaviors to be accepted by a group

ETC

inhibition of complexes i and II affect complex III, which affects complex IV

uncompetitive inhibition

inhibitor binds only to enzyme-substrate complex locks substrate in enzyme preventing its release (increasing affinity b/w enzyme and substrate so it lowers Km) Lower Km (increases apparent affinity) and vmax same slope

PCR

initialization- heat to 95 C to melt H bonds annealing- cool to 55 C, primers base pair with template elongation- heat to 77 C, grows exponentially reagents: source DNA template; primer pairs, GC rich; DNA pol, thermo stable; buffer soln with + ions; dNTPs

endothelial cells

inner lining of all blood vessels/ capillary walls vasodilation/constriction, inflammation, thrombosis (clotting), angiogenesis (form new blood vessels)

Grignard

insert an Mg into some shit; e.g. C-C-Br to C-C-MgBr -aprotic solvent to avoid protonation of reagent -adds a sigma bond to a compound (nucleophilic addition)

fructose 2,6 bisphosphate

insulin stimulates its formation (blood glucose levels high) stimulates PFK; inhibits fructose 1,6 bisphosphatase makes sure opposing pathways do not occur at the same time glucagon triggers its breakdown to inhibit glycolysis and stimulate gluconeogenesis

anterior pituitary

interacts with hypothalamus through portal system (paracrine) Hypo: GnRH -> pit: LH, FSH corticotropin releasing hormone -> ACTH TRH -> TSH growth hormone relesing hormone -> growth hormone prolactin inhibitory factor; constantly released, when stop releasing pit releases prolactin FLAT PEG FLAT = tropic hormones; PEG= direct hormones (e= endorphins)

boiling chips

introduces small air bubbles into the system that break the surface temperature of the liquid being heated and prevent superheating and bumping

faraday

is equal to one mole of electric charge

how many d isomers of a sugar?

isomers = 2^n where n = chiral carbons (3 for a hexose, etc.) D accounts for half of these

anomers

isomers that differ at a new asymmetric carbon atom formed on ring closure alpha vs beta differ at C1

Why does visible light travel more slowly through an optically dense medium than through a vacuum?

it is absorbed and re-emitted by the atomic structure of the optically dense medium

what happens to acetyl coa in anaerobic conditions

it is not produced in a significant amount because pyruvate is converted to lactic acid instead of being transported into the mitochondria

how does the immune system avoid attacking the body

it suppresses cells specific to the body's own antigens

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

kinesin and dyenin

k- moves intracellular cargo along microtubules in anterograde axonal transport (away from nucleus) d-retrograde transport

reproductive isolation

keeps species separate 1. prezygotic- prevents zygote from forming 2. postzygotic- prevents development, survival, and reproduction or hybrid individuals and prevents gene flow

excratory system

kidney, liver, large intestine, skin

anhedonia

lack of pleasure or interest in life activities

nerve

large bundle of axons from many neurons

Net Charge of a Peptide

look for ionizable groups, compare pka to pH ph<pka, protonated; pka<ph, deprotonated eg H2N-Tyr-Ala-Arg-Gly-COOH; ph=5 NH2; ph5<10; protonated; pos charge Tyr: 5<10; protonated; neutral charge arg: 5<12; protonated; pos charge COOH; 5>2, deprotonated: neg charge net = + + -; +1

counter current multiplication

loop of henle counter current = limbs go in opposite directions multiplication = active transport of ions out of ascending loop causes osmotic gradient that passively draws water out of descending (secondary active transport); we can multiply the amount of water absorbed through this active transport

attenuate

lose intensity can happen thru one medium or when passing between media

haldane effect

low level of oxyhemoglobin enables the blood to transport more CO2 no cooperativity in CO2 binding hemoglobin makes the slope for CO2 delivery line less steep

synovial fluid

lubricates movable joints; kept in synovial capsule

greater vestibular glands

lubrication in females, resolution can take 20-30 mins

tonsils/appendix

lymph masses gather and remove pathogens in food and air (tonsils)

basic AAs

lysine, lys, k, basic, pka=10.79; ch2ch2ch2ch2nh3+ arginine, arg, r; pka= 12; ch2ch2ch2nhc(nh2+)nh2 histidine, his, h; pka = 6; 5 member ring with nh and nh+ (imidazole); his goes both ways- can act as acid or base; why it is present at many enzyme active sites

macula/ fovea

m- center of retina f- the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster; visual acuity

medulla/ pons

m- the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing; connects to spinal cord p- points between brainstem and cerebellum; balance and antigravity posture

retrovirus

mRNA transcribed from retroviral DNA is either used to synthesize viral proteins, or used as the RNA genome for progeny viruses. Thus, the sequence of the nucleotide in the original viral genome will be the same as that of the transcribed mRNA

magnetic field

made from moving electric charges whereas electric field is also from stationary electric charges exerts no force on charge at rest Fb = q(vxB) cross product = |q|vBsintheta theta = angle between v and B, no force is parallel to field lines; Fb always perp to both v and B unit = T (teslas) magnetic forces do no work bc perp to V and KE constant; all it can do is make charge change direction (UCM) Fb= mv^2/r=qvB

amalgamation

majority and minority groups combine to form a new group

meiosis

make 4 genetically different cells designed to be gametes (sperm and egg) make 4 haploid cells from 1 diploid (zygote) note- homologous pairs of chromosomes still contain sister chromatids; separate sister chromatids = separate alleles

acid catalyzed reaction

makes bad leaving groups better; gets rid of negative charge that a strong base has to neutralize, making it more stable is solution

abiotic synthesis

making compounds using non-living molecules; precursor to life

urethra

males: internal sphincter -> prostatic urethra -> external sphincter (membranous) -> spongey (in da penis) -> out to external world females: internal sphincter -> external -> out (shorter urethra, more chance for bacteria to climb up and give UTI)

momentum

mass x velocity; unit= kg m/s Energy = momentum^2/2m impulse = change in momentum= m x dv

pituitary

master gland take stimulation from hypothalamus and affects other endocrine organs regulates thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands, gonads,

inspiratory capacity

maximum volume inhaled after resting expiration

ammeter

measures current in a particular point in series with resistor of interest, want internal resistance to be very small so all the current goes through it

theta replication

mechanism for replication in prokaryotes because of their circular DNA only one origin of replication

waves

medium is not transported; energy is mechanical waves cannot exist without a medium (not in vacuum) transverse= wave travels perp to direction medium in vibrating (rope = wave horizontal but rope vertical) f= pulses that pass a point in a given time T= time between pulses v=f x lambda ; lambda = v x T changing lambda changes f, not v

retrograde memory

memory for events that occurred before brain damage

schema

mental blueprint; fill in the blanks when constructing memories

tocopherol

methylated phenols (Vit. E encompasses a group of these compounds)

gas chromotography

mobile gas phase; stationary liquid phase more volatile (lower BP)compounds elute first, less volatile stay dissolved in stationary liquid *lower molecular weight* = weaker intermolecular forces = more volatile = elute first heated column used

TLC

mobile nonpolar liquid phase ascends plate polar stationary phase more polar components travel slowly because interact with stationary phase more less polar components travel quickly and elute closer to top Rf- distance component/ distance solvent

golgi apparatus

modifies proteins made in RER, especially oligosaccharide chains -sort and send proteins to correct destination -synthesize macromolecules like polysaccharides to be secreted -unidirectional vesicle traffic (mostly) -nearest RER = cis stack, farthest = trans stack; middle= medial -proteins leave at trans stack (ER-> medial -> trans - >secrete)

cognitive dissonance

more likely to change attitudes to align with their behaviors than change behaviors to align with attitudes when there is an incongruence

amino acid fisher projections

most oxidized carbon at top amine group on left for L AAs (corresponds to S config; drawn with H behind plane of backbone (dashed lines)) all naturally occurring AAs in animals are L all naturally occurring carbs are D all molecules built up from (-)glyceraldehye are L; does not tell you how rotates light cysteine is R but still L AA (only excpetion to L=S for AA)

ventilation vs respiration

movement of air in and out of the lungs vs exchange of gases (lungs and blood/ blood and tissues)

capillary exchange

movement of substances between blood and interstitial fluid; there are gaps in endothelial cells where water tends to flow out

tissues directly exposed to the environment have

mucosal membranes e.g. lining of reproductive, respiratory, and GI tract

pluralism

multiculturalism; each culture maintains its practices

sarcolemma

muscle cell membrane, contains channels

graphs of proportion

must go through the origin total pressure is NOT proportional to depth (but gauge pressure is)

direct reversal

mutated base is still recognizable and can be repaired without referring to other strand

number of possible peptides that contain one each of n amino acids

n! e.g. n= 3 3*2*1 = 6 ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA, if can be present more than once, number of AAs used^length of chain

exponential decay

n=n₀e^(-kt), k is decay constant N= N0(1/2)^(T/t*1/2)

corpus leteum

name given to a follicle after ovulation because of its yellow color produces progesterone to prepare uterus for pregnancy

is the interior of the cell more negative or positive?

negative

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

impulse traffic

nerve stimulation; increase traffic, increase rate

conductors

net charge is on surface because electrons repel; no electrostatic field inside

types of solids

network- a solid in which all of the atoms are covalently bonded to each other metallic- have freely roaming valence electrons molecular- particles at lattice points are molecules held together by intermolecular interactions; lower melting and boiling points than other solids and are generally liquid at room temperature -almost all ionic compounds are solid at room temp; all metals except mercury are solids at room temp

granulocytes (WBC)

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils neutrophil- phagocytose, die, results in pus, are NOT antigen presenting eosinophil- destroys parasites/ active in allergic rxns basophil- store and release histamine/ allergic rxns

platelets

no nuclei; limited life span fragments of megakaryocytes (bone marrow cells) prevent bleeding fibrin forms mesh to hold platelet plug together -> dies and forms scab collagen interacts with platelets and causes it to stick together and form a plug (collagen is found outside of blood vessels, so platelets don't clump randomly inside vessel- same deal for why fibrinogen turns into fibrin to forms mesh; tissue factor activates fibrin -> coagulation cascade)

red blood cells

no nucleus or organelles; lose DNA during maturation need ATP from glycolysis increased surface area for gas exchange blood type= unusual response to antigen before exposure A and B are glycolipids, not proteins bind oxygen because it is too hydrophobic to dissolve in plasma

what is the percent of polypeptides that are 500 residues long that do not contain errors; error rate 1/1000

non error rate = 999/1000 0.999^500= 0.606 rate = 60%

intergenic regions

noncoding DNA (tandem repeats/ transposons)

taboo

norm is so strong that violation is considered forbidden

folkways

norms that are not strictly enforced but still shape everyday behavior; e.g. waving as a greeting

path of air

nose (warms/humidifies/ filters air) -> nasal cavity -> pharynx -> larynx -> trachea -> bronchi -> terminal bronchioles -> respiratory bronchioles -> alveolar ducts -> alveoli

analogous structures

not due to common ancestor; same function with different structures

racemic mixtures

not optically active/ 50-50 light going either way

bypass reactions

not reversible reactions so need a different enzyme to catalyze the reverse pathway (bypass irreversible steps)

conscious effort is needed to prcoess

novel information

prometaphase

nuclear envelope fragments, microtubules attach to kinetochore of chromosomes

acyl substitution

nucleophilic sub to carbox acid derivatives (holgen, acid anhydride, ester, amide) followed by elimination aka addition-elimination rxn 1. nuc attacks carbonyl carbon, DB on oxygen jumps up and gives negative charge 2. tetrahedral intermediate; oxygen doesn't want charge, jumps back down and electronegative group of derivative jumps off 3. new acid derivative :)

phosphodiester bond

nucleotides are linked to one another by phosphodiester bonds between the sugar base of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of the adjacent nucleotide in a way that the 5' end bears a phosphate, and the 3' end a hydroxyl group.

percent saturation

number O2 bound / binding sites *100 curves to the left when high affinity

Hayflick limit

number of times a human cell is capable of dividing into two new cells until telomere length becomes too short. The limit for most human cells is approximately 50 divisions, an indication that the life span is limited by our genetic program.

outer/ inner/ middle ear

o- auricle (pinna) and external auditory canal m- separated from outer ear by tympanic membrane (eardrum); ossicles= malleus, incus, stapes; oval window divides middle ear from inner i- cochlea, semicircular canals, uttricle, saccule, round window (releases pressure)

cross-sectional study

observational study that analyzes data from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time

scapegoat

one who bears the blame for others; displaced aggression is directed toward them

mRNA

only coding RNA type 5' region (initiation), coding region (stop to start codons), 3' end (post-trans expression, not coded) constantly produced and degraded

recency effect

only happens if recalling immediately after presentation if recall much later, there can be no effect because nothing was presented recently

conduction vs respiratory zone

only ventilation vs participates in gas exchange; respiratory bronchioles to alveoli

orange/ blue wavelengths

orange 600-650 nm blue 430-490 complements :)

effectors

organs, glands, or muscles that act on stimulus

boiling

overcome noncovalent interactions (h bonds, london dispersion, etc.)

cooperative processes (sigmoidal)

oxygen binding hemoglobin protein denaturation

pi bonds

p orbitals similar size if from same period (row) so they can overlap better

plasma vs formed elements

p- Liquid part of blood; 55% of the volume contains electrolytes, buffers, sugars, blood proteins, lipoproteins, waste products, CO2, O2; serum = plasma without clotting factors fe- cellular components of blood (from bone marrow stem cells); red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets

perfusion/ ischemia

p- flow of blood through a tissue arteries->arterioles-> capillaries -> venules -> veins i- an inadequate blood supply to an organ or part of the body, especially the heart muscles

pulmonary vs systemic circulatory system

p- from heart to lungs s- heart to body and back/ pass through 1 set of capillaries (exception= portal systems- hepatic (intestine to liver), hypothalamic-hypophyseal (hypothalamus to pituitary)

ideal buffer

pH = pKa weak acid or weak base (for base modify H-H eqn for pOH instead of pH) buffering capability +/- 1 pH

Hendersson Hasselbach

pH = pKa + log([A-]/[HA]) (base over weak acid)

Hardy Weinberg equation

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 p= dominant; q= recessive p+q= 1 percent of pop who are heterozygous = 2pq NOT pq/2!!!!!!!!!!!!

SA node and phases

pacemaker of the heart, unstable resting potential phase 4= self depolarization phase 0= depolarization phase 3= repolarization reaches threshold before the other regions so it sets the pace- others have phases 0-4 0- depol, 1- initial repol, 2- plateau, 3- repol, 4- resting potential

morphogen

paracrine signaling molecule that alters cell differentiation in a concentration-dependent manner / component cells have receptors for morphogens

attrition

participants dropping out of the study before it is completed

similar structure

penis - clitoris granulosa - sustenacular cells

aggregate

people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity

terror management

people's self-protective emotional and cognitive responses when confronted with reminders of their mortality

hematocrit

percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells; lower in females WBCs and platelets= 1% polycythemia = most of volume of blood is taken up by RBCs

law of pragnanz

perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible

microglia

phagocytic cells that ingest and break down waste products and pathogens in the CNS present antigens to immune cells

why is water weird

phase diagram looks different because denser in liquid than in solid so s-l line has a negative slope increasing pressure at same temp can go s to l because of hydrogen bonds

homologous structures

physical features shared because of a common ancestor

mechanical stimuli in lungs

physical stretching of lungs/ irritant receptors trigger cough and constriction

James-Lange Theory

physiological arousal precedes identification of emotion i am afraid because my heart is pounding stimulus -> body response -> subjective experience

biomedical approach

physiological states results in psychological symptoms and need medical intervention as treatment

polarization

plane- direction restricted; components vibrate in single plane filter- perp waves are absorbed and do not pass through circularly- *90° phase difference*, crest interferes with "0"

analogous structure to mitochondria in prokaryotes

plasma membrane- oxidative phosphorylation happens in inner membrane of mitochondria; if mitochondria were it's own bacteria that would be the plasma membrane (endosymbiotic theory)

symmetric polar bonds

polarity cancels and it is nonpolar

endocytosis

process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane macrophages

Benedict's test for reducing sugars

positive if hemiacetal is present (reducing sugar) aldehyde - (Cu2+)-> Cu2O is red pink precipitate (positive) -aldehyde, ketones, and hemiacetals give positive results; acetals give negaive -all monosaccharides are reducing -can be reduced by Ag+

stereotype boost/ lift

positive stereotypes cause improved performance

grounded

potential is zero can take or deposit as many charges as you want from the ground and it won't care (car, actual ground, pipe in the ground, etc.)

pleural space and pressure

potential space between parietal and visceral pleura "potential" because under normal conditions,space does not exist. visceral lines lungs, parietal lines chest cavity negative pressure = membranes drawn together, keeps lungs drawn against chest wall (otherwise will collapse) fluid in pleural space holds them together with surface tension because of negative pressure puncture chest wall= lungs will expand because air will be sucked in pressure in intrapleural space decreases as inhale and chest expands

Mullerian ducts

precursors to female internal structures does this by default if no Y chromosome male and female internal genetalia are analogous structures because they arise from different precursors external= homologous, common precursor

horizontal fluid flow

pressure + KE density of fluid is constant if velocity decreases, KED falls, and pressure increases fluid velocity lowest at max diameter, so pressure is greatest here

ohm's law for flow

pressure drop across a pipe or vessel is directly proportional to its resistance

vapor pressure

pressure exerted by gas phase of liquid that evaporated from exposed surface; higher VP= more volatile (evaporates more readily)

driver of net diffusion of O2 into blood

pressure gradient between alveoli and blood

venturi effect

pressure of ideal fluid flow decreases as fluid velocity increases

prevalence vs. incidence

prevalence = percent of people affected in a population; incidence = new incidents in a given time period/total population at risk

digestive system functions

primary function- digestion and absorption of food secondary- protection from disease

immune system responses

primary- takes a week for B cells to proliferate, too slow to prevent symptoms secondary- exposed to same antigen again, no symptoms develop, fast and strong, can last for years initial response mounted by innate immune cells like microglia- adaptive require activation by innate

X chromosome inactivation

process that occurs in female mammals; one of X chromosomes (arbitrary) randomly turned off in each cell; happens in everyone -Xa= active; Xi= silenced (condensed, packaged, methylated)

plane mirror

produces an image behind the mirror at distance equal to object distance in front of plane

red vs yellow marrow

produces blood cells vs stores fat; inactive

pancreas

produces digestive enzymes (proteolytic) released into small intestine -endocrine - islets = alpha cells secrete glucagon (increase blood sugar; stimulates fatty acid oxidation also) and beta cells secrete insulin (decrease blood sugar/ makes you feel full after eating) delta cells secrete somatostatin (inhibits digestive processes) -insulin can stimulate fatty acid synthesis

t-tubule

projection of the sarcolemma into the interior of the cell, cell super thick and needs AP to go all the way through

ribosome subunits

prok- small 30S large 50S; holo 70s euk- 40S and 60S -> 80S

lac operon p region

promoter region on DNA, where RNA binds to transcribe Y,Z, and A genes

colligative properties

properties that depend on the concentration of solute particles but not on their identity vapor pressure, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, osmotic pressure weak intermolecular forces increase vapor P (easily evaporates- volatile), adding solvent increases

resistance in a tube

proportional to 1/r^4 smaller radius = way way bigger resistance arteries less resistance than arterioles and capillaries; vasodilated less resistance than vasoconstricted

E coli membranes contatin

protein 75% and phospholipid 25%

bindin

protein on the sperm's surface that attaches to receptors on the zona pellucida surrounding the ovum

amino acid catabolism

protein-> individual AA (protease) AA-> protein synthesis AA-> amine + carbon skeleton amine-> N compounds, urea c skeleton -> acetyl coa (from ketogenic AA), glucose (from glucogenic AA)

peripheral membrane proteins

proteins associated with but not embedded within the plasma membrane; cell signaling

reaction formation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

beats

pulsating (wobbling) resultant waves frequency at which beat heard = |f1-f2|

Na/K ATPase

pumps three sodium ions out of the cell for every two potassium ions pumped in against gradient -*creates resting membrane potential* -maintains osmotic balance -drives secondary transport; itself is active transporter

lactic acid fermentation

pyruvic acid reduced to lactic acid via lactic acid dehydrogenase ethanol/lactate build up can be poisonous at high concentrations

heat of phase change/ transformation

q= nΔH phase change can be n or mass--> just needs to correspond to H value NO TEMP change during phase change (Ex: temperature of cup of melting ice is 0 °C)

force on a charged particle

qE F=kqQ/r^2 E=kQ/r^2

rods/ cones

r- night vision/ sensitive to dim light and motion; peripheral vision c- concentrated near the center of the retina and function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations; RGB, each type makes different pigment protein for different conformational change when light is absorbed; less abundant than rods, fast recovery time

forming ions

radius decreases as electrons are removed, drawing the leftover electrons in more closely and making it harder to remove them cation radius < neutral atom radius < anion radius

thyroid

raps around trachea regulates metabolism through T3 and T4 (thyroxine)

optics distance vs height

ratio of object to image distance equals ratio of object to image height

Isomerase

rearranges a bond to form an isomer mutases

deductive reasoning

reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.)

red/ green wavelength

red 650- 800 (longest in vis) green 490-560

diffraction

redistribution of wave intensity after obstruction -diffraction grate = numerous slits with near zero width similar to wavelength of incident light

Generational Status

refers to whether you were born in the country where they reside e.g. parents from mexico but you were born in us = first generational status

endomembrane system

regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell secreted proteins such as insulin are cleaved into mature form within endomembrane system

homotropic regulator

regulator is the same molecule as the substrate

operant conditioning

reinforcement: positive adds DESIRABLE stimulus, negative takes away UNDESIRABLE punishment: positive adds UNDESIRABLE and negative takes away DESIRABLE motivational state typically operationalized by depriving subject of desirable stimulus for some amount of time discriminating stimuli- signal availability of reinforcement or punishment

monocular depth cues

relative size, interposition, relative clarity, texture, relative height, relative motion (motion parallax), linear perspective, relative brightness

forces on a ramp

remember sin= opposite angle; cos= adjacent Fn=mgcos Fgrav parallel to plane = mgsin if block does not slide, us>tan

divergent selection

remove members near average; splits population into 2; could lead to new species

Directional selection

remove traits at one extreme of bell curve so average moves in one direction over time

phosphatase

removes a phosphate group from a molecule

renal hilum

renal artery, vein, and ureter

nucleosome

repeating subunit of chromatin fibers, consisting of DNA coiled around histones (histones allow nucleosome to compact into 30 nm fibers) octamer histones are basic; have a lot of lys and arg so they can interact with acidic exterior of DNA

cross-sectional design

research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time

competitive inhibitors

resemble transition state overcome by increased [substrate] Vmax is not inhibited (same y intercept) but Km is increased graph is more linear than the M-M curve

polarity in neutral molecules

results from an uneven distribution of electron density, which can arise from separation of unlike charges (high dipole moment)

lungs

right has three lobes, left has 2 and cardiac notch breath in, diaphragm contracts and flattens (makes intrapleural pressure more negative bc as volume increases pressure decreases) elastin around alveoli so they can expand; recoil when exhale the second you stop contracting them excretes water (humidifies air)

ciliary body

ring of tissue behind the peripheral iris that is composed of ciliary muscle and ciliary processes changes size of lens

rms

root mean square Vrms = Vmax/sqrt(2) Irms= Imax/sqrt2 P=IrmsVrms= Irms^2R

oxidoreductase

runs redox reactions oxidases, reductases, dehydrogenases

max number of electrons in n =3

s,p, and d orbitals are present 1s, 3p, 5d -> 9 total 9*2 electrons = 18

chief cells

secrete pepsinogen catalyzes proteolysis

semen produced by

seminal vesicles (60%), prostate gland (35%), bulbourethral gland (5%) collectively called accessory glands

tonic receptors

sensory receptors that continue to fire APs through duration of a stimulus (slow adapting); found in PNS, *not* in the brain

resolution

separate racemic mixture through pure chiral probe (resolving agent); create diastereomeric complexes

extractions

separate substance from mixture by adding solvent in which it is highly soluble in separatory funnel get 2 phases for liq-liq extraction extract basic - treat with dilute acid to protonate basic functional group and form positively charged ion soluble in aq soln and removed from organic soln acid - treat with dilute base to turn into anionic salt; NaOH will extract phenols (NaHCO3 cannot)

open complex

separated DNA strands during replication

mass spectrometry

separates particles according to their mass bombard sample with high energy electrons to ionize, subject to magnetic field, and degree to which path changes is determined by mass y axis= abundance, x= mass/charge (if e= +/- 1, peaks= mass) brominated= 2 major peaks 2 amu apart chlorinated= 1 peak 2 amu above 1/3 peak increase in multiply charged particles increases signal intensity fr

distillation

separates the substances based on their boiling points *simple* large difference in BP *fractional* small difference in BP *vacuum* boiling points differing more than 150° C and may decompose when heated above this temp; vacuum decreases the pressure and lowers the boiling points of the mixture of components

anxiety disorders

separation anxiety phobias social anxiety panic disorder generalized anxiety

amino acid structure

sequence- peptide bonds; denaturation does not affect this second- alpha helix or beta sheet, stabilized by H bond tertiary- 3D folding, VDW, H bond, electrostatic, hydrophobic, *R group interaction* quaternary- subunit interaction, same forces as 3

phosphorylation of amino acids

serine, threonine, tyrosine (P replaces H in each)

enhancer sequence

sets of regulatory sequences that bind specific transcriptional proteins (activator or repressor proteins) that can elevate transcription of targeted eukaryotic genes

category

shares certain characteristics, but does not regularly interact and otherwise not tied together

inhibitory interneuron

short neuron which forms an inhibitory synapse with a motor neuron

viroid

short ssRNA that silences gene expressions -no capsids -binds RNA sequences so they cannot be translated -only human case is Hep D, mostly in plants

first and zero order reactions

simple biochem and enzymatic processes are zero or first order zero = rate not dependent on substrate conc. bc there is excess substrate and limited enzyme Km higher than [substrate] = first; substantially lower = zero

mono /amphi/peritrichous

single flagellum/ flagella at both poles of the cell/ flagella all over

Spearman's idea of general intelligence

single g factor responsible for intelligence that underlies performance on all cognitive tasks intelligence can be impaired by a disorder

SNP

single nucleotide polymorphism, single nucleotide differences between and among individuals in a population or species 1 every 1000 base pairs in humans, basically mutations

the thomas theorem

situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences

axial vs appendicular skeleton

skull, vertebral column, rib cage vs Bones of the limbs and limb girdles that are attached to the axial skeleton

prokaryotic translation- initiation

small 30s ribosomal subunit binds initiation factor proteins IF1 and 3, binds tRNA and TF2 joins, 50s subunit completes the complex 70 s

hapten

small molecule that has to bind to a larger molecule to form an antigen; cannot have antibodies to a hapten, only to the larger complex

myometrium

smooth muscle wall of uterus

anomie

society lacks cohesion and social order; state of normlessness; minimal moral guidances or ethics

bone marrow

soft tissue inside bone that synthesizes blood cells

detergents

solubilize oil while remaining high water soluble (stronger than soaps)

nuclei

soma bunched together in CNS

PNS divisions

somatic and autonomic

somatic disorders

somatic symptom disorder illness anxiety disorder conversion disorder factitious (and by proxy)

Half filled d orbital exception

some atoms achieve a lower energy state by having filled of half filled d subshells (10 or 5 electrons); accomplished by promoting an ns electron to the n-1 d subshell to get to 5 or 10 in the d -lose s electrons in ion before d electrons (s is valence, d is lower energy)

Peritoneal Cavity/Peritoneum

space between the parietal and visceral peritoneum abdominal cavity/ membrane that lines the abdominal cavity

dendritic cells

specialized white blood cells that patrol the body searching for antigens that produce infections

humoral immunity

specific immunity produced by B cells that produce antibodies that circulate in body fluids

maturation of sperm

spermatogonium -> 4 mitotic divisions -> primary spermatocytes -> first meiotic division -> secondary spermatocytes -> second meiotic division -> spermatids -> differentiation, lose most cytoplasm -> spermatozoa

fundamental resonant wavelength of an open pipe

standing wave develops at twice the length of the pipe independent of diameter of pipe

diastereomers

stereoisomers that are not mirror images no relationship between specific rotations because they have different chemical properties (unlike enantiomers) cannot make with only 1 chiral center opposite config at only some chirality centers

proximal stimulus

stimulus registered by sensory receptors

translation- termination

stop codon enters A site, release factors add a water to last AA and separates tRNA from chain

prokaryotic translation- termination

stop codon in A site, release factors enter instead of tRNA

acidity ranking

strong acids > sulfur acids > carboxylic acids > phenols > alcohols and water > aldehydes > ketones > sp C-H bonds > sp2 > sp3

nucleus accumbens

structure located in the brainstem and part of the dopaminergic reward pathway; releases dopamine in response to many drugs contributing to addictive behavior cognitive processing of motor function

etiology

study of the cause of disease

trabeculae/ spicules

supporting bundles of bony fibers in cancellous (spongy) bone; spikes

skin

sweat (water, ions, urea) -secondary role is excretory system because not controlled by amount needed gone but rather temperature and NS instead

principle quantum number

symbolized by n, indicates the main energy level occupied by the electron associated with with potential energy of electron, proportional to distance so it is also associated with radial size of electron cloud

isoforms

synthesized from the same gene through alternative splicing; sections of the full transcript (both introns and exons) are spliced. Different combinations of exons can produce different protein isoforms.

hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system

system that allows releasing hormones from hypothalamus to immediately reach anterior pituitary; blood from capillary bed in hypothalamus flows through a portal vein into the anterior pituitary where it goes into a second capillary network mini circulatory system; portal = 2 cap beds in sequence

blood pressure

systemic arteriole pressure-> force/unit area exerted by blood on artery walls ; normal = 120/80 120= systolic (as high as arterial will get, at ventricle contraction) 80= diastolic (as low as it will get, between heart beats) pressure in vena cava is always 0 systolic determined from first sound of blood flow once the pressure of the cuff is lower than that of the artery

The round-trip time t for a ball thrown vertically is given by

t = 2v/g

accessory organs of the digestive system

teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas; play role in digestion but are not part of the alimentary canal

T_m

temperature at which DNA solution is 50% denatured

belief bias

tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid; judge arguments on belief of conditions rather than logic

observer bias

tendency of observers to see what they expect to see researchers project expectations onto the research e.g. cherry picking data or influencing participants

diffusion of responsibility

tendency of people in groups to assume action will be taken by someone else

observer/ hawthorne effect

tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed

self-reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

vagus nerve

tenth cranial nerve that innervates digestive organs, heart ; decreases heart rate and increases GI activity (parasympathetic)

capacitance

the ability of a conductor to store energy in the form of electrically separated charges C=Q/V; Q=CV; C is just a proportionality constant and does not depend on Q and V C= e0 A/d; e0 =permativity of free space; A = area; d= diameter

neural plasticity

the ability of the brain to change in response to experience

work function

the amount of energy needed to dislodge an electron from the surface of a material

total fertility/ replacement rate

the average number of children that a woman bears in her lifetime/ the fertility rate required to sustain static population

self schemas

the beliefs and ideas people have about themselves

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

archimedes principle

the buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object F=density of liquid * volume submerged * gravity weight and buoyant force are proportional to g, so g is irrelevant to the volume submerged Vsub/Vobj = psub/pobj Wobj/Fbuoy= pobj/pfluid Wapp= W-Fbuoy -as long as totally submerged, depth will not effect buoy force

graffian follicle

the cavity in the mammalian ovary in which the egg ripens

inguinal canal

the channel through which the testis descends into the scrotum in the male tunnels toward hip bone and then enters pelvic cavity

declarative memory

the cognitive information retrieved from explicit memory; knowledge that can be declared explicit = semantic (facts) and episodic (autobiographical info of personal importance)

total internal reflection

the complete reflection that takes place within a substance when the angle of incidence of light striking the surface boundary is less than the critical angle light can be carried along a distance with minimal loss of amplitude no refracted ray sin theta critical = n1/n2 if angle = critical, beam skims boundary critical angle present only if n1>n2; light can not be reflected back into air if hitting surface of water

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

focal length

the distance from the center of a lens to the focal point f=-R/2 thin lens formula -> 1/f = 1/d0+ 1/di for diverging lens, f and i are negative for converging, everything is positive

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations fight or flight -preganglia= short, post= long innervation from spinal cord -CONSTRICT blood vessels -dilates pupils

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy rest and digest -preglangia = long, post= short

ethnogensis

the emergence of a new ethnic group (social)

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions midbrain, pons, medulla HR, BP, breathing

role exit

the process of disengagement from a role that is central to one's self-identity in order to establish a new role and identity; e.g. high school to college student

karyotyping

the process of sorting chromosomes into their matched pairs. An important technique for investigating chromosomal disorders uses giemsa staining

Grahm's Law of Effusion

the rates of effusion of gases at the same temperature and pressure are inversely proportional to the square roots of their molar masses Rate of effusion of A / B = √Mb / √Ma so gas A moves that square proportion faster than gas B more mass, move slower; lighter gas effuses faster -two molecules of a different gas at same temp have same KE, but they do not have the same speed

construct validity

the extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure evaluates whether measurement tool really represents thing we want to measure

neuroleptics

the first antipsychotic drug used to treat schizophrenia treat positive symptoms side effects= cognitive dulling (exacerbates negative symptoms); movement (tremors) atypical= second generation, better with the dulling

motor end plate

the flattened end of a motor neuron that transmits neural impulses to a muscle ACh at neuromuscular junction -the influx of Na+ across the motor end plate occurs when Na+ ion channels bind the ligand acetylcholine.

Fischer esterification

the formation of an ester from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in acidic conditions 1. protonate carbonyl oxygen 2. alcohol nucleophilically attacks carbonyl 3. lose H20; OH from the carboxylic acid and an H from the alcohol 4. name by alcohol and replace ic with ate e.g. methanol + hexanoic acid - >ethyl hexanoate

procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things; implicit

principle of aggregation

the idea that an attitude affects a person's aggregate or average behavior, but cannot necessarily predict each isolated act

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system; quickly decays

religiosity

the importance of religion in a person's life

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

granulosa cells

the majority of the cells surrouding an oocyte in a follicle. Granulosa cells secrete estrogen during the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle (before ovulation).

autonomic NS

the part of the PNS that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs, like the heart 2 divisions- sympathetic and parasympathetic -preganglia= cell body in brainstem or spinal cord, axon synapses to postganglia, which sends axon to an efferent (smooth muscle or gland)

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases (sweet spot)

enzymatic hydrolysis

the process in digestion that splits macromolecules from food by the enzymatic addition of water

overextension

the use of a given word in a broader context than is appropriate (butterfly = moth)

muscle contraction overview

thin filaments require ca to initiate contraction, but ca channels in t-tubules blocked 1. AP 2. Ach release 3. bind sarcolemma ion channels 4. Na causes AP 5. AP travels across sarcolemma to t tubule 6. ca channels open 7. ca travels to thin filaments; free Ca2+ in the cytosol binds to troponin, which pulls tropomyosin away from actin's myosin-binding site. This allows myosin to bind to actin -*myosin binds to actin during contraction and remains until ATP comes in*

why are there no receptors for steroid hormones

they can diffuse through the cell wall because they are hydrophobic (testosterone/ estradiol) can usually affect at the level of transcription and translation

MHC

this is a protein that helps display antigen to T cells or B cells, displays epitopes on cell surface monitor inside of cell, randomly show peptides on surface so T cell can monitor I = non professional; every nucleated cell has one; says KILL ME message goes to cytotoxic T cells II = professional (B cell, macrophage); says there is an *infiltrator* that we should get rid of; activates T cells

universalism

thought determines language completely

pharynx

throat; passageway for food to the esophagus (muscular) and air to the larynx (trachea = cartilage) upper and lower esophogeal sphincter regulate movement of food ; lower is sometimes called cardiac sphincter because near the heart - prevents reflux

right hand rule

thumb= direction of v; fingers = direction of B; perp to palm = Fb

synaptic knob

tiny enlargement at the end of an axon that secretes a neurotransmitter

testicular interstitium

tissue in between seminiferous tubules Leydig cells synthesize testosterone

kinematic equation: omitting acceleration

x=1/2(v0 + v)*T

repressible operon

transcription is usually on, but can be inhibited (repressed) when a specific small molecule binds allosterically to a regulatory protein (example tryptophan- trp operon) -anabolic enzymes transcription inhibited by excess product -operon genes not alternatively spliced

tRNA

transfer RNA; type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome have a lot of base modifications AA-tRNA_AA no tRNA for stop codon, last tRNA is for upstream codon from stop

genetic leakage

transfer of info between species- hybrid embryos

phosphorylase

transfers a phosphate group to a molecule from inorganic phosphate glycogen phosphorylase

chylomicrons

transport lipids absorbed from the intestine to adipose, cardiac, and skeletal muscle tissue, where their triglyceride components are hydrolyzed by the activity of the lipoprotein lipase, allowing the released free fatty acids to be absorbed by the tissues lipids converted into this coming out of the intestine; hold fats together; too big to diffuse into capillaries can diffuse into lymph vessels called lacteals in small intestines and eventually empty into blood

oxirane/ epoxide

triange thing with O on top and CR2 on bottom corners

storage form of fatty acid

triglyceride; 3 fatty acids esterified to glycerol catabolic fates- fatty acids enter b-oxidation; glycerol becomes an intermediate in glycolysis

kinematic equation: omitting velocity

x=v0t + 1/2at^2

anergic

unable to respond to antigens by producing antibodies; weak, lacking energy

primary vs secondary reinforcers

unconditioned; inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs vs conditioned; learned; develop reinforcing properties because of association with primary reinforcers (e.g. money -> buy food)

UCM

uniform circular motion; accel constant, speed constant (toward center), direction is NOT constant a=v^2/r; Fnet= mv^2/r falling toward center

protein unfolding

unimolecular reaction; rate of unfolding = M/s;

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members key word = BEHAVIOR -side effect (one institution affects the other) -past and present (negative attitude from the past comes forward) -difference between prejudice: prejudice is COGNITION and discrimination is acting on prejudice, a BEHAVIOR

reticular activating system

upper brain stem (midbrain); maintenance of consciousness, specifically one's level of arousal.

anaerobic respiration

use external electron acceptor other than oxygen (e.g. reduce SO4^2- to H2S)

fast twitch fibers

use lactic acid fermentation to provide energy for contractions that result from electrical stimulation

Sanger method of DNA sequencing

use radiolabeled primers without 3'-OH once binds, chain cannot continue creates fragments record from smallest fragment to largest to reveal sequence

hill coefficient

used in determining the degree of cooperativeness of the ligand binding to the enzyme or receptor n>1 positive cooperative binding (sigmoidal dependence on [substrate]) n<1 negative cooperative binding (hyperbolic dependence on [substrate]) n=1 noncooperative binding (also hyperbolic) n=0 is infinitely negative; all enzymes are greater than 0

radioimmunoassay (RIA)

uses radiolabeled antibodies to measure the concentration of a substance in blood 1. known amount labeled antigen incubated with known amount antibody 2. complexes isolated and radioactivity measured 3. unlabeled (cold) antigen added in increasing amounts to form a competition curve 4. repeat with patient serum and compare to curve

base rate fallacy

using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information; ignore prior probabilities (base rate) when eval frequency of events

phobic responses

usually acquired through classical conditioning

organizations

utilitarian- An organization where people are paid/rewarded for their efforts normative- an organization where membership is based on morally relevant goals coercive- members forced to join, e.g. prison

free fall projectile motion

v0x= v0costheta; v0y = v0sintheta once launched, no x acceleration; ax = 0 vx = constant x= v0x t ; y= v0yt + 1/2(-g)t^2 vy= v0y -gt ay= -g vy= 0 at top of parabola symmetry = time up equals time down range = total horizontal displacement

speed of a wave

v=fλ, where λ=wavelength

kinematic equation: omitting displacement

v=v0+at

kinematic equation: omitting time

v^2 = v0^2 + 2ax

newton's first law

velocity will not change without a net force acting on object no net force; no acceleration interia = resistance to change motion; increases with more mass

early atmosphere

very little free oxygen, lots of carbon dioxide, lots of water vapor; lots of electron donors; monomers could form spontaneously, reducing environment

violet/yellow wavelength

violet 400-430 nm (shortest) yellow 560-600

viscous force

viscosity x A x velocity / depth viscosity units = Pa x s

total lung capacity

vital capacity + residual volume

functional residual capacity

volume in lungs after tidal expiration

welfare vs state capitalism

w- most of economy is private (cap), but there is extensive welfare programs (socialism) s- private companies work with government

compressed gasses

warm when no heat is exchanged in process

bond angles

water 104.5 trigonal planar 120 tetrahedral 109.5

center of mass

xcm=sum(mx)/sum(m)

blebbing

when a cell detaches its cytoskeleton from the membrane, causing the membrane to swell into spherical bubbles, greatly distorting the shape of the cell.

mood dependent memory

when learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state

positive transfer

when old information facilitates the learning of new information

environmental injustice

when people in poorer communities are more likely to be subjected to negative environmental impacts to their health and well-being

what causes air to move into the lungs

when pressure inside lungs is less than atmospheric pressure (reduction of pressure in the pleural cavity)

capillaries

where all exchange of material between blood and tissues happens the high number of capillaries in the body means that the total cross-sectional area of these vessels is larger than any other vessel type in the circulatory system. This causes the velocity of the blood to decrease.

alveoli

where gas diffuse wall = 1 cell thick resp. bronchioles have some alveoli in their smooth muscle walls

lac operon O region

where lac repressor binds

ureter

where urine leaves kidneys

Golgi tendon organs

works with kinesthetic senses; specialized nerve endings attached to tendon (attaches muscles and bones) and sense movement/ tension in muscles

rule of multiplication/ addition

x- probability of two events happening= individual odds multiplied + : probability of either A or B happening = prob A + prob B - (prob A * Prob B)

kinematic equation: omitting initial velocity

x= vt-1/2 at^2