AA Psyc Hist The Cast

Karen Horney

A German psychoanalyst who practiced in the United States during her later career. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views. This was particularly true of her theories of sexuality and of the instinct orientation of psychoanalysis. She is credited with founding feminist psychology in response to Freud's theory of penis envy. She disagreed with Freud about inherent differences in the psychology of men and women, and she traced such differences to society and culture rather than biology.Struggled with many of Freud's ideas as a feminist and was the first to propose the use of self help books as to be an analyst you must have been analyzed yourself so the idea of a self help book was troubling for the discipline.

Carl Jung

A protege who broke with Freud, a physician working with psychotics who read freud's books and they talked for 13 hours straight the first time they met. Then in 1912 he criticized Freud's emphasis on sex and within a year they were no longer talking. Jung went into a three year depression and from it he developed his own personality theory. Jung's work is deep and spiritual. Some of his ideas are similar to Freud but he focuses on other life forces as well. Life forces - libido + philiosophical needs and spiritual needs. Unconscious - personal unconscious - experiences from own past - collective unconscious - the cumulative experiences of humans through our evolutionary past. - white as more positive than black the ideas of monsters and pain and fear Jung would say they are part of the collective unconscious Archetypes - inherited predisposition that come from our collective unconscious examples - persona , anima and animus shadow a predisposition to evil. Self - attempt to synthesize all components of our personality the unity of the person. The goal of life is to discover and synthesize all aspects of our personality into harmony that is self actualization Legacy - introversion and extroversion which was taken on by personality researchers. Self -actualization comes from him. As he got older his writing became more spiritual less scientific so less Psychological Jung accompanied Freud to America and the Clark conference of 1909, where he lectured on his word association procedure. In 1911, Freud arranged to have Jung named the first president of the newly formed International Psychoanalytic Society, in part because Freud believed that naming Jung, who was neither Viennese nor Jewish, would make the association appear to be more international and broad-based than it really was. Meanwhile, Freud began thinking of Jung in father-son terms, even writing to him as his "successor and crown prince" (quoted in McGuire, 1974, p. 218). But trouble was brewing and, by 1913, Jung went the way of Adler, expelled from the inner circle. Like Adler, Jung questioned Freud's emphasis on sex, and he also had some ideas of his own. Over the rest of his career, Jung developed what came to be called analytical psychology, to be distinguished from Freud's psychoanalysis. He went beyond Freud in some ways. For example, to the concept of a "personal" unconscious, similar to Freud's use of the term, Jung added the concept of the collective unconscious, said to include the collective experiences of our ancestors. He believed that the common themes found in mythology reflected a shared human legacy. Jung also contributed to personality theory with his distinction between what he saw as two major personality types: introverts and extroverts.

Albert Bandura

Albert Bandura is an influential social cognitive psychologist who is perhaps best-known for his social learning theory, the concept of self-efficacy and his famous Bobo doll experiments. He is a Professor Emeritus at Stanford University and is widely regarded as one of the greatest living psychologists. One 2002 survey ranked him as the fourth most influential psychologist of the twentieth century, behind only B.F. Skinner, Sigmund Freud, and Jean Piaget. He was also ranked as the most cited living psychologist. His most famous experiment was the 1961 Bobo doll study. In the experiment, he made a film in which an adult model was shown beating up a Bobo doll and shouting aggressive words. The film was then shown to a group of children. Afterward, the children were allowed to play in a room that held a Bobo doll. Those who had seen the film with the violent model were more likely to beat the doll, imitating the actions and words of the adult in the film clip.

Konrad Lorenz

Konrad Lorenz Best known for the imprinting of baby chicks Lorenz and Tinbergen were interned during the war. They shared the Nobel prize in 1973 for biology for their work on instinctive animal behavior with von Frisch.

Phineas Gage

While blasting rock in preparation for a new railway line near Cavendish, Vermont, in 1848, Gage survived an accident that seemed certain to be fatal. After pouring gunpowder and placing a fuse into a hole drilled in rock that was about to be blasted, Gage accidentally ignited the powder while using a "tamping iron" (a metal rod a little over three feet long, about an inch in diameter, flat at one end, and pointed at the other) to compress the powder. The explosion converted the tamping iron into a missile that flew into the air and landed 20 meters away. Unfortunately for Gage, his head was in the flight path. The pointed end of the missile entered just below his left eye and exited from the top left of his forehead, taking a healthy portion of his left frontal cortex with it (Figure 3.7). Miraculously, Gage only briefly lost consciousness and, once he arrived back in town, he was able to walk with assistance to a doctor's office for treatment. Within two months he was sufficiently recovered to live independently,7 but he had difficulty working productively again, and his personality apparently changed. One of Gage's doctors, John Harlow, was amenable to phrenology and thought the case supported the phrenologist's localization beliefs. Harlow kept notes on the case and published accounts of it in 1848 and 1868. He described this case of frontal lobe damage as one in which advice when it conflicts with his desires, at times pertinaciously obstinate, yet capricious and vacillating, devising many plans of future operation, which are no sooner arranged than they are abandoned . . . . In this regard his mind was radically changed, so decidedly that his friends and acquaintances said he was "no longer Gage." (Harlow, 1868, quoted in Macmillan, 1986, p. 85) Although no completely accurate description of his personality before or after the accident exists (Macmillan, 2000), Gage evidently changed from a dependable, conscientious, respected worker (he was foreman of the railroad crew) into someone who was "no longer Gage." Descriptions have varied over the years, but he seems to have become less dependable and more prone to emotional outbursts. Thus, although Gage survived the injury, he was altered by it—the brain damage resulted in changes to his personality and behavior. In terms of the localization issue, the Gage case seemed to indicate that the brain's frontal lobes served the function of rationality, helping to maintain control over the emotions. As for Gage, his whereabouts after his recovery have been a source of speculation and debate, but he died young (37), 12 years following the accident, after experiencing a number of increasingly severe convulsions. The tamping iron and Gage's skull can be seen today at Harvard's Warren Anatomical Medical Museum, and a Google search yields a photo of him after his recovery.

Donald Hebb

"Cells that fire together, wire together." Hebb didn't say this but his theory is the one being described. Canadian psychologist who was influential in the area of neuropsychology, where he sought to understand how the function of neurons contributed to psychological processes such as learning. He is best known for his theory of Hebbian learning, which he introduced in his classic 1949 work The Organization of Behavior.[3] He has been described as the father of neuropsychology and neural networks.[4] A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Hebb as the 19th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Many researchers agreed with Skinner's arguments that explana- tions of behavior could be achieved without reference to the nervous system. Interest in the brain and behavior was rekindled, however, by a Canadian student of Lashley's, Donald Hebb. Hebb is best known for his 1949 book, The Organization of Behavior, which revived interest among American psychologists in the relationship between brain and behavior (Glickman, 1996). From the title, it is clear that the book is more than just a description of nervous system functioning. Rather, Hebb was aiming at a theory that would fully integrate physiology and psychology, not simply reduce the psychological to the physiological. As he later wrote, in criticism of such reductionist thinking, it was "not possible to substitute neurophysiological conceptions for psychological ones, either now or in the future, but it is possible to maintain liaison (translatability of terms) between the two universes of discourse" (Hebb, 1960, p. 744). Hebb proposed that cortical organization occurs through the development of what he called "cell assemblies" and "phase sequences." A cell assembly is the basic unit, a set of neurons that become associated with each other because they have been activated together by repeated experiences. To account for the effects of experience and hence to provide a physiological account of learning, Hebb proposed that cell assemblies and phase sequences are formed because the repeated stimulation of adjacent cells produces structural changes at the synaptic level. Thus, according to Hebb (1949), "[w]hen an axon of cell A is near enough to excite cell B and repeatedly ... takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased" (p. 62). This idea has come to be called "Hebb's rule," and synapses that change as the result of experience are often called Hebb synapses.

Alfred Adler

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was trained in ophthalmology and general medical practice at the Uni- versity of Vienna. He was attracted to Freud's ideas on reading The Interpretation of Dreams, and he became an enthusiastic charter member of the Wednesday evening group. Soon, however, he began to question Freud's obsession with sexual motivation. Instead, Adler drew on his own troubled childhood and proposed the inferiority complex as the basis for an alternative theory. All infants are inherently inferior in their abilities, he argued, and life could be viewed as an attempt to compensate for this inferi- ority. He also pointed out that as we grow, the social environment places obstacles in our paths that also create feelings of inferiority to be overcome. Adler's emphasis on the importance of social factors over biological ones, along with his writings on inferiority and his belief that behavior was determined as much by conscious planning for the future as by the repressed events of one's past, alienated him from Freud. The official break came in 1911, when he was tossed out of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, taking several followers with him. He went on to create a rival school of psychoanalysis that he called individual psychology. Adler and Freud never reconciled; indeed Gay (1988) described their subse- quent relationship as one of mutual hate, and when Adler died suddenly in 1937, Freud was evidently delighted to learn that he had outlived his rival. Alfred Adler - moved to the US to escape Nazis and proposed th enotion of inferiority complex

Alfred Binet

Alfred Binet (1857-1911) Began as a hypnotist and was involved in a scandal had to return to his home and got interested in studying kids development and this led to the study of intelligence and he is the father of French experimental psychology. Along with Simon he was asked to test French kids to see who would do well in school. He believed a number of things that disappeared from intelligence testing for some time. 1. Intelligence is multifaceted. 2. It is trainable, within broad limits it can be improved. 3. He believed his scale was only useful in identifying weak students and did not think it was the future basis for corporate hiring or grad school admissions. He came up with the idea of assigning age levels for intelligence. He thought of IQ as the ability to adapt judge and understand information. He thought about about making his tests understandable culturally transparent otherwise the test would be invalid. He did believe intelligence was inherited but thought that the inheritance was to place a ceiling beyond which you could not be trained. He talked about how teachers with negative expectations could influence a childs development because he/she has been labelled as less intelligent. Binet was aware of Galton's work and used some of Galton's sensory tests on his daughters. He was surprised to discover that there didn't seem to be much difference between his daughters' scores and the scores reported for adults.

Rollo May

American existential psychologist and author of the influential book Love and Will (1969). He is often associated with humanistic psychology, existentialist philosophy and, alongside Viktor Frankl, was a major proponent of existential psychotherapy. The philosopher and theologian Paul Tillich was a close friend who had a significant influence on his work. May helped to introduce existential psychology in 1958, when he collaborated with Ernest Angel and Henri Ellenberger to edit the book Existence. May was heavily influenced by other philosophical theories, such as humanism. His primary aim was to understand the underlying mechanisms and reality behind human suffering and crises; he did this by combining elements of humanism with existentialism in his approach to therapy. Like other psychologists of his time, May argued that development proceeded through specific stages during which a person must deal with a specific crisis or challenge. These include: Innocence: an infant has few drives other than the will to live. Rebellion: a developing child seeks freedom but cannot properly care for herself. Decision: a transitional stage during which a teenager or young adult makes decisions about his or her life, while seeking further independence from her parents. Ordinary: the stage of adulthood. Overwhelmed by its demands, young adults tend to seek protection in conformity and tradition. Creative: this marks a point of productive, creative self-actualization during which a person moves past egotism and self-involvement. Although the stages are related to stages of child and adult development, any person at any age can enter these stages. Some people skip stages or repeatedly return to a particular stage. May also placed a strong emphasis on anxiety, arguing that anxiety is actually a major catalyst in human life enabling people to make courageous decisions. Anxiety can also help people avoid danger while empowering them to find ways to remain safe.

Leta Hollingworth

American psychologist who conducted pioneering work in the early 20th century. It is generally agreed upon that Hollingworth made significant contributions in three areas: psychology of women; clinical psychology; and educational psychology. She is best known for her work with exceptional children. Did the first longitudinal study of kids with IQs higher than 180 and taught the first courses on gifted children. Her husband completed her study. She did her dissertation under Thorndike on functional periodicity the idea that women's mental capacities declined when they were menstruating. She also challenged the notion of variability that men had higher SDs in intelligence and so would dominate the extremes of the spectrum.

Anna Freud

Anna Freud - did a lot of work on child development. Freud's daughter.

Edward C Tolman

Became convinced after reading Watson that you could do purely experimental work. But he thought Watson was too reductionistic. He felt you needed to talk anout the purpose of behavior molar behavior vs molecular behavior. Interven ng variables (cognitive events) - motivation - tied to observable behavior oerpationally defined So we have an experiment with rats where there is a sudden increase in behavior when reinforcement is added because there has been latent learning going on and it has never manifested because there was no reason to manifest it. He was fired for - probably - being pacifist and moved to Berkeley where he was affected by the Mccarthy trials. He fought against th eloyalty oath wa slater recognized for his political stand Tolman's writings illustrate the complex interplay between empirical research and theorizing in the tradition of logical positivism. A theory makes testable predictions that lead to research, the outcome of which supports or reshapes the theory, which leads to more research, and so on. Because such theories evolve as a consequence of research outcomes, Tolman's theory of learning changed with time, but there are some constant themes in Tolman's writings. Molar versus Molecular Behavior Taking cues from his gestalt friends, Tolman argued that the unit of study had to be larger than the "molecular" muscle movements or glandular responses empha- sized by Watson (and Guthrie). One of Tolman's students, for example, showed that rats taught to swim through a maze were later able to run through it accurately (Macfarlane, 1930). Hence, what was learned could not be simply a series of individual muscle responses to specific stimuli. Rather, the animal must come to some general understanding of the pattern of the maze. As a gestaltist would say, the whole behavior is more than the sum of its stimulus-response units. Molar behavior, then, referred to broad patterns of behavior directed at some goal. Tolman provided several examples: A rat running a maze; a cat getting out of a puzzle box; a man driving home to dinner; a child hiding from a stranger; a woman doing her washing ... ; a psychologist reciting a list of nonsense syllables; my friend and I telling one another our thoughts and feelings—these are behaviors (qua molar). And it must be noted that in mentioning no one of them have we referred to, or, we blush to confess it, for the most part have known, what were the exact muscles and glands, sensory nerves, and motor nerves involved. (Tolman, 1932, p. 8, italics in the original) Archives of the History of American Psychology, The Center for the History of Psychology -The University of Akron 312 CHAPTER 11 THE EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM Tolman called his theory a field theory to distinguish it from the more molecular stimulus- response approach, which he likened to a telephone switchboard. Learning did not involve the mere strengthening and weakening of connections between incoming calls (stimulus information) and out- going ones (motor responses), he argued. Instead, he proposed that the brain is more like a "map control room than it is like an old-fashioned telephone exchange" and that during learning, the animal develops a "field map of the environment" (Tolman, 1948, p. 192). Goal-Directedness The preceding examples of molar behavior all have another feature: They are directed toward some goal. Influenced by Holt, Tolman argued that goal-directedness or purposiveness was a universal feature of the behavior we learn. Although the term purpose might seem like a return to a subjective, even introspective, psychology, Tolman merely meant that behavior "always seems to have the character of getting-to or getting-from a specific goal-object . . . . Thus, for example, the rat's behavior of 'running the maze' has as its first and perhaps most important identifying feature the fact that it is getting to food" (1932, p. 10). Tolman was obviously influenced by evolutionary thinking here; goal-directed behavior is adaptive and therefore has survival value. As a term, Tolman used purposiveness as descriptive, not causal. That is, it is merely a label for that which can be inferred from observing behavior, as when a hungry rat consistently worked its way through a maze until finding food. The causes of such behavior are to be found elsewhere, in the animal's specific learning history and its instinctive behaviors. (Goodwin 311-312) Goodwin, C. J. A History of Modern Psychology, 5th Edition. Wiley, 01/2015. VitalBook file. The citation provided is a guideline. Please check each citation for accuracy before use.

Carl Rogers

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist who agreed with the main assumptions of Abraham Maslow, but added that for a person to "grow", they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood). Without these, relationships and healthy personalities will not develop as they should, much like a tree will not grow without sunlight and water. Rogers believed that every person can achieve their goals, wishes and desires in life. When, or rather if they did so, self actualization took place. This was one of Carl Rogers most important contributions to psychology and for a person to reach their potential a number of factors must be satisfied. He said - the curious paradox is that when i accept myself just as I am then I can change. He came from a close religious family and stared in agriculture and planned t be a farmer and he was selected to go on an exchange to China in 1922 and we switched to History then to theology and the psychology. He switched the emphasis from telling people what theior problem was to giving them the power to describe it which meant you had to listen to them. So Rogers comes up withe first manual of psycho therapy Empathic understaning sharing the understanding of the clients message to validate the clients commuication. He was the first to talk about measuring the effectiveness of treatment. He became involved in international peace programs In contrast with analytic approaches, it was easier to grasp conceptually, and it actually seemed to help people. It was also based on a more optimistic assessment of human potential for change, reflect- ing Rogers's own ability to take control of his life and a general midwestern faith that things can be improved if one works hard enough. Also, Rogers was able demonstrate the therapy's effectiveness. Perhaps stemming from his earlier experiences with scientific agriculture, Rogers took great pleasure in completing empirical research on therapy outcomes, complete with comparisons between those in treatment and those in waiting list control groups. He was able to show that his approach brought about measurable positive changes in people's lives

Carl Rogers

Carl Rogers and Client-Centered Therapy Humanistic psychology's other main character was Carl Rogers (1902-1987), the creator of client-centered therapy, an approach that appealed to a large number of clinicians in the 1960s and 1970s. Rogers (Figure 13.6) was the fourth of six children, raised in a Chicago suburb in an extremely conservative Protestant family that valued hard work and considered all pleasures sinful. As Rogers (1961a) later recalled: "[E]ven carbonated beverages had a faintly sinful aroma, and I remember my slight feeling of wickedness when I had my first bottle of 'pop'" (p. 5). When Rogers was 12, his father moved the family to a Wisconsin farm, in part to remove his children from the evils of suburbia. He was determined to run the farm according to the principles of "scientific agriculture," and Carl developed a keen appreciation for science from the experience. He said - the curious paradox is that when i accept myself just as I am then I can change. He came from a close religious family and stared in agriculture and planned t be a farmer and he was selected to go on an exchange to China in 1922 and we switched to History then to theology and the psychology. He switched the emphasis from telling people what theior problem was to giving them the power to describe it which meant you had to listen to them. So Rogers comes up withe first manual of psycho therapy Empathic understaning sharing the understanding of the clients message to validate the clients commuication. He was the first to talk about measuring the effectiveness of treatment. He became involved in international peace programs

Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882) After several false starts, Charles Darwin found a vocation in science while a student at Cambridge. He initially thought of himself as a geologist, but he was also greatly interested in zoology. During a 5-year voyage aboard the Beagle, Darwin collected evidence that made contributions to both geology and zoology. He made discoveries that supported Charles Lyell's uniformitarian model of geological change (the earth changes gradually according to known principles, rather than as a result of periodic geological catastrophes), and he collected data that would eventually provide evidence for his theory of evolution. Evidence from the Galapagos Islands (finches) was especially important. • Darwin created the essence of his theory in the early 1840s, but did not publish for nearly 20 years. He was slowed by poor health, a concern over how his theory would be received by the scientific community, and a scientific cautiousness that led him to accumulate as much evidence as possible to support his theory. He was motivated to publish in 1859 by the appearance of a similar theory by Alfred Russel Wallace. Darwin's theory proposed that individual members of every species vary from each other; that some variations are more favorable in the struggle for existence than others, enabling the organism to adapt to the environment; and that nature "selects" (natural selection) those with the most favor- able variations for survival. He didn't see 1. social factors - he didn't see there were cultural social factors partly because he was part of that society. This si sometimes called Darwin's missed opportunity. How could he see beyond other people in one area yet not in another area and in particular gender.

Dorothea Dix

Dorothea Dix (1802-1887). Dix (Figure 12.4) was a New England educator whose general concern for the less fortunate led her to examine the conditions for treating those housed in public institutions. In Massachusetts in 1841, she began an 18-month tour of the state's jails, hospitals, and almshouses, and any other location that might house the mentally ill poor. What she encountered was an alarming level of abuse and neglect—instances where the mentally ill were chained to the walls of unheated closet-sized rooms, poorly fed and clothed, sometimes beaten into submission, and generally aban- doned. On her return home, she wrote a scathing indictment of the system. Her case was presented to the Massachusetts legislature and led to a series of reforms, including an increase of funds to improve the state's public asylum in Worcester.4 This success prompted her to repeat her modus operandi in other states—a thorough tour of institutions followed by a detailed exposé. By 1848, the Dix crusade had logged some 60,000 miles of travel, observing in the process "more than nine thousand idiots, epileptics, and insane ... destitute of appropriate care and protection" (quoted in Viney, 1996, p. 22). Her efforts played a role in the creation of 47 mental hospitals (many using the Kirkbride design) and schools for the feebleminded (Viney & Zorich, 1982). Although many of these institutions over the years grew to sizes that prevented effective care and led in the 20th century to a renewal of problems with overcrowding and abuse, her efforts on behalf of the mentally ill dramatically improved the living conditions of those powerless to help themselves. That she was able to accomplish what she did in the face of her own poor health (probably tuberculosis), difficult traveling conditions, and the generally accepted belief that women were not worth listening to, is nothing less than extraordinary.

Jean Piaget

During the period when behaviorism dominated American psychology (the 1930s and 1940s), some American researchers (e.g., Stroop) still investigated cognitive topics, and European psychologists, who never became as enamored of behaviorism as the Americans did, made important contributions to the understanding of mental processes. One of the Europeans was Jean Piaget, whose genetic epistemology (i.e., an interest in understanding the growth and development of knowledge within an individual) and stage theory of cognitive development eventually became influential in America, after American psychologists turned from behavior to an interest in cognitive processes. Piaget and his wife also had three children during this time, daughters in 1925 and 1927, and a son in 1931 For instance, he inferred that infants were learning about cause and effect by observing their tendency to repeat their actions ("circular reactions"), and he developed his concept of "object perma- nence" by noting whether or not infants would search for objects that were out of sight. Piaget's focus was on determining precisely how knowledge, as represented by hypothetical mental structures that he called schemata (plural of "schema"), developed within the individual. You can think of a schema as similar to a "concept." Piaget believed that children were active formulators of their knowledge rather than passive recipients of their experiences, and he believed that knowledge structures formed "wholes" that could not be reduced to their elements. This latter point connects with gestalt psychology.

Erik Ericson

Erik Ericson - worked at a school where Freud was connected and got into psychoanalysis but never got a bachelor's degree. When Erikson was twenty-five, his friend Peter Blos invited him to Vienna to tutor art at the small Burlingham-Rosenfeld School for children whose affluent parents were undergoing psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna Freud. Anna noticed Erikson's sensitivity to children at the school and encouraged him to study psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute, where prominent analysts August Aichhorn, Heinz Hartmann and Paul Federn were among those who supervised his theoretical studies. He specialized in child analysis and underwent a training analysis with Anna Freud. Erikson's (1959) theory of psychosocial development has eight distinct stages, taking in five stages up to the age of 18 years and three further stages beyond, well into adulthood. Erikson suggests that there is still plenty of room for continued growth and development throughout one's life. Erikson puts a great deal of emphasis on the adolescent period, feeling it was a crucial stage for developing a person's identity. Erikson eventually moved to the US where developed his theory of developmental crises and also wrote biographies of Luther and Ghandi the latter won the Pulitzer Prize.

Francis Galton

Francis Galton (1822-1911) A half cousin of Darwin and very wealthy and influential. He was a bright and curious guy free to spend all his time on research. He did research in math anthropology climate studies statistics and biology and psychology. He published over 300 papers and books. He was caught by the idea of individual differences , the idea that every member of a species varies from each other. He tried to measure things that had not been measured before. One of which was to find the city with the most beautiful women and he sent researchers to evaluate women in London and other cities. Use public locations fairs museums to collect data from thousands of individuals. He got people to pay him to measure their differences and he managed to get lots of data. He invented weather maps, finger prints, invented the Galton Whistle which we know as the dog whistle so he found tat different species can hear different ranges. He was the first to discover that we lose high frequencies as we age. He did lot with perception and was the first to measure autobiographical memory. First to use cue words and pair associations. He found that regardless of the age of testing the majority of memories come from adolescence and early adult hood. He was the first to look at correlations. One of his big questions was whether talent is inherited. He made up a list of 300 eminent men and when he made up the list he concluded that eminent men are likely to be related to other eminent men. He concluded that 300 families in England produced the bulk of eminent men. Of course he didn't take into account the value of social factors he didn't prove what he had thought it had however we do know that intelligence is partially inherited so he was partly right but missed a big part of the story. Another question was nature vs nurture - he was the first person to label it that way. He did a study of well known scientists and he asked them when they became interested in their field and most said from early childhood and so he credited nature with giving them their vocation. His methodology is flawed He also looked at twins raised apart and twins raised together and conclude that inheritance was more important than the environment. He is getting high correlations but he is only measuring rankings and not the actual values of IQ. He said by selecting men and women of rare and similar talent and mating them generation after generation an extraordinary gifted line of people might be developed. He coined the phrase eugenics and he influenced eugenicists in California. Galton was right on a lot of stuff twin studies fingerprints weather maps correlations

G Stanley Hall

G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924) Hall is best known for his efforts in professionalizing psychology. He founded the first psychology laboratory in America (at Johns Hopkins in 1883), America's first academic journal (the American Journal of Psychology in 1887), and psychology's first professional organization, the American Psychological Association (in 1892). Hall was interested in a wide range of topics, which fell under the broad heading of genetic psychology, the study of the origins and development of consciousness and behavior. The importance of evolution was a consistent theme in Hall's work. As a developmental psychologist, Hall pioneered the child study movement and is responsible for identifying adolescence as a distinct stage of development. He characterized adolescence as a time of "storm and stress." Later in life he wrote about the developmental changes associated with adulthood and aging. He used the theory of recapitulation (the development of the individual organism is a mirror of the evolution of the species) as an overarching framework for his work. Hall's interests in development, sexuality, and abnormality led him to invite Freud to America for Clark's 20th anniversary in 1909. It was Freud's only trip to America, and he believed that the invitation was the first sign that his ideas were developing an international reputation

George Kelly

George Kelly was perhaps the first cognitive theorist. His writings describe in detail his criticisms of the previously popular personality theories. He wrote that Freud's theory was not only unbelievable but went as far as to call it 'nonsense.' He referred to behavioral theory as a bunch of confusing arrows, R's and S's.11.1 In contrast to these theories, Kelly saw individual differences as a result of how we interpret and predict the events that affect us. He called these personal constructs, referring to our individual way of gathering information from the world and developing hypotheses based on these interpretations. Much like the scientist who develops hypotheses and then performs tests to determine the efficacy of the initial thought, so to do individuals develop ideas about relationships and test their ideas. Based on our results, right or not, we develop a way of interacting with the world. This way of interacting is our personality. Known for constructive alternativism what matters is being able to see your situation from a new perspective. fixed role therapy - client acts like a different kind of person with the clinician in a supporting role. The main idea behind Kelly's theory is called the Fundamental Postulate, which states that "a person's process are psychologically channelized [sic] by the ways in which he anticipates events" (Kelly, 1995, p.46). In other words, we act in a manner congruent with how we expect the world to be based on our interpretations of past events. If we see people as friendly and helpful we are much more likely to engage others and seek advice. If we see people as selfish and cruel, it would only be logical to avoid interpersonal relationships and rely solely on our own abilities. Underlying the Fundamental Postulate of Kelly's theory are eleven Corollaries which together explain how we interpret information, why we often see the world differently, and how we influence the perceptions of others. His theory, written in a very organized fashion almost resembling an outline or table of contents. This is even more in direct conflict with prolific writings of Freud and his followers and even the flow charts of Watson and Skinner. This is seen as both a benefit and a flaw, since this outline type theory is criticized as being confusing and overly simplistic.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) Famous for saying psyc has a long past and a short history. A philosopher familiar with the British empiricists-associationists and interested in how ideas are associated in the brain. He was inspired by a book of Fechner's about the measuring of sensory processes to think that mental processes could be too. This led him to his nonsense syllable research and his ideas of serial learning and his savings method of measurement.

Clark Hull

His approach was the pgysiological and he used mathematical formulas to represent learning SEr = D x sHr where sEr (reaction potentiak - the probalility taht a response will occur at a given tine D - drive sHr - habit strength in the 40-50s he was th eeading researcher in America but he died before finishing a trilogy where he planned to link his rat work with social behavior in humans. we no longer use his approach partly because it was too ambtious and partly because it was too complex and yet too narrow because it was in controlled rat environments and the formulas fall apart in real environements. The life and career of Clark Leonard Hull is a case study in how perseverance and hard work can overcome seemingly insurmountable odds. Born into poverty on a farm in New York, raised on a "good but unimproved" farm in Michigan, and educated in a one-room schoolhouse, Hull grew up under "pioneer conditions" (Hull, 1952b, p. 143). In addition to these trying circumstances, he almost died from typhoid fever just before starting college, and after his second year at Alma College in Michigan, he contracted polio, which left him partially paralyzed at age 24. At the time, he was aiming for a life as a mining engineer, but the polio made it impossible for him to meet the physical demands of that career. After spending a year at home, during which his health improved, he decided on a career in psy- chology. Why psychology? In his words, he was searching for a field related to philosophy that would involve theoretical work, and "one which was new enough to permit rapid growth so that a young man would not need to wait for his predecessors to die before his work could find recognition, and ... would provide an opportunity to design and work with automatic apparatus" (Hull, 1952b, p. 145). The quote reveals two of Hull's enduring features: his strong ambition and his talent with the design and construc- tion of experimental apparatus. The latter first manifested itself during the polio episode, when Hull designed his own leg brace. Hull finished college at the University of Michigan. His most memorable experience was a year- long course in experimental psychology, taught jointly by John Shepard, who had studied with Watson, and Walter Pillsbury, a student of Titchener's. After being rejected for graduate school at Cornell and Yale, Hull was accepted to the University of Wisconsin, where he earned a PhD under the tutelage of Joseph Jastrow, a former student of G. Stanley Hall. Doctoral dissertations often find their way into the far reaches of filing cabinets, but Hull's (1920) eventually became a well-known study of the processes involved in learning new concepts. For stimuli, Hull used Chinese characters, including those in Notice that the characters in each row have 2The study was initially ignored by other researchers, which discouraged Hull greatly. However, a brief description of it appeared in a popular general psychology text in the late 1920s, and due to the tendencies of textbook authors to borrow from each other, it became increasingly cited thereafter (Hilgard, 1987). Chinese characters used as stimulus materials in Hull's doctoral dissertation on concepts learning, from Hull (1920). a common feature, called a "radical." Hull's subjects had to learn to associate a nonsense sound with each radical (e.g., "oo" for the radical that looks like a large check mark). Over the course of several sets of stimuli, subjects learned to look at a character and give the correct nonsense sound; eventually they could identify stimuli they had not seen before. There were a number of findings in the study, but the one that impressed Hull the most was the shape of the learning curve—performance improved gradually but steadily. The idea of learning being the result of a gradual increase in "habit strength" eventually became a salient feature of Hull's learning theory. Hull completed the doctorate in 1918 and remained at Wisconsin for another decade. Early in his career, he was asked to teach a course in psychological testing. Although he knew little about the topic, the subject interested him, especially the correlational math involved in test validation. He immersed himself in the topic and within a few years produced an authoritative text called Aptitude Testing (Hull, 1928). Displaying mechanical aptitude again, he built a machine to automatically calculate correlations, saving himself the tedium of calculating by hand the numerous correlations needed to validate tests. The machine was delicate, however, a problem that prevented its widespread use.3 Shortly after Hull began teaching the testing course, he was asked to teach introductory psychol- ogy to premedical students. Because he believed that suggestion and physician authority influenced the outcome of many medical treatments, he decided to incorporate the topic into his lectures. This led him to hypnosis, and to the understatement that "the subject has largely tended to attract experimenters with a One of Hull's heroes was Sir Isaac Newton. He kept a copy of Newton's Principia Mathematica on his desk, and he urged graduate students to read it so they would understand that Hull's approach to research mirrored Newton's. Newton viewed the universe as a giant machine controlled by precise mathematical laws; Hull thought of humans in the same way. Indeed, he believed that an ultimate understanding of human behavior could only occur if a machine could be built that would be indis- tinguishable from a human. The attitude was undoubtedly influenced by Hull's own highly developed skill as a machine-builder. Newton also influenced Hull's beliefs about progress in science and the importance of theory. For Hull, science advanced by developing sophisticated theories, then testing them, modifying them, 322 CHAPTER 11 THE EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM testing the revisions, and so on. This system, also used by Tolman and consistent with the dictates of logical positivism, is called a hypothetico-deductive system. At the core of this type of theory of human behavior is a set of postulates, statements about behavior based on accumulated knowledge from research and logic. From these postulates specific hypotheses can be deduced, and these lead directly to experiments. The results of these experiments support or fail to support the postulates and, by extension, the theory. Over time, the theory evolves as a function of empirical support or nonsupport. In addition to emulating Newton, Hull was also motivated to develop his theory by what he saw as a relative absence of theory building among American psychologists, compared to the extensive work on theory compiled by the gestaltists (Mills, 1988). It was time for American psychology to catch up. As Hull put it, these Gestalt people are so terrifyingly articulate. Practically every one of them writes several books. The result is that whereas they constitute a rather small proportion of the psychological population of this country, they have written ten times as much in the field of theory as Americans have. (Hull, 1942, quoted in Mills, 1988, p. 393) Hull worked on the theory right up to his death, and the final account of it, A Behavior System (1952a), appeared posthumously. The best-known version of the system, however, can be found in Prin- ciples of Behavior (1943); it includes a set of 16 postulates, presented both verbally and mathematically, along with descriptions of research supporting the theory. A complete description of Hull's theory is well beyond the scope of this chapter segment, but some insight can be gained by examining his most famous postulate, number 4. Postulate 4: Habit Strength Postulate 4 reveals the core of Hull's belief about the condi- tions necessary for learning to occur. It also illustrates the extent to which Hull aimed for theoretical precision—Principles of Behavior was not meant to be light reading. Here is just a portion of the fourth postulate: Whenever an effector activity (r → R) and a receptor activity (S → s) occur in close temporal contiguity (s Cr ), and this s Cr is closely associated with the diminution of a need (G ̇ ) or with a stimuluswhichhasbeencloselyandconsistentlyassociatedwiththediminutionofaneed(G ̇),there will result an increment to a tendency (ΔSHR) for that afferent impulse on later occasions to evoke that reaction. The increments from successive reinforcements summate in a manner which yields a combined habit strength (SHR) which is a simple positive growth function of the number of reinforcements (N). (Hull, 1943, p. 178) The key elements here are contiguity and reinforcement. According to Hull, learning occurs when there is a close contiguity between stimulus and response. A rat learns to associate a location X in a maze, for instance, with the response "turn right." This contiguity is necessary, but it is not sufficient, however. In addition, reinforcement must be present for learning to occur. Reinforcers for Hull were stimuli that reduce drives; food reduces hunger, for example. Together, S-R contiguity and reinforce- ment gradually increase SHR, or habit strength. Thus, by repeatedly reaching X, turning right, and finding food, the rat accumulates habit strength with each reinforced trial. To learn is to increase SHR. That learning is incremental ("a simple positive growth function"), rather than sudden, echoes the results of Hull's dissertation on concept learning. The importance to Hull of the ideas in postulate 4 may be inferred from Figure 11.10, a portrait completed late in Hull's career. The graph in the background is a theoretical learning curve—notice that habit strength increases gradually.

H Munsterburg

Hugo Munsterberg (1863-1916) James did not consider himself a psychologist and so when he gave up his psyc lab at Harvard the person he hired was Munsterberg. Hugo was one of the first to have an applied approach to psyc and he started many topics of study that we still investigate today. He made contributions in: clinical psyc forensic - eye witness memory studies start with him industrial psyc Hugo became disappointed in James because James became interested in spiritualism in later life and the drifted apart because of that. When he first arrived at Harvard he was already well known and he remained attached to Germany. He often criticized the Germans for their view of the Americans and vice versa and then opps WW I started and he was denounced for being a German sympathizer and he faced death threats because he was saying the Germans weren't all bad. And at 53 he dropped dead of a heart attack during a lecture but is considered the founder of the above areas.

Walter Freeman

If Moniz was conservative about the use of his new procedure, two American neurologists were not. Walter Freeman and James Watt thought the Moniz procedure was a major breakthrough in the treatment of a wide range of psychiatric disorders, and they set about to spread the good news far and wide, while at the same time completing as many of these surgeries as they could. They renamed the procedure lobotomy. In 1946, Freeman invented a new procedure that he called a transorbital lobotomy. It involved inserting a device similar in design to an ice pick through the eye sockets and into the prefrontal and frontal lobes. Compared with the Moniz technique, the new procedure could be completed more quickly, and it enabled a greater number of fibers to be cut. Freeman was undeterred by the occasional death (about 2.5 percent of patients), however, and became a passionate advocate for the new procedure, partly because of how quickly it could be done and the fact that it could be completed on an outpatient basis (i.e., more lobotomy income per unit of time). Freeman's enthusiasm caused a split with Watt, who appeared increasingly nervous about Freeman's crusading zeal for the procedure (Watt was a trained surgeon; Freeman was not). Freeman soldiered on, even traveling around the country in a small RV that came to be called the lobotomobile, doing demonstrations like the one pictured in Figure 13.2, in which he can be seen tapping his transorbital leucotone into the eye of a patient, while nurses hold onto the patient and onlookers carefully observe (note the absence of surgical gloves and masks). By himself, Freeman was responsible for just under 3,000 transorbital lobotomies.

Helmholtz

If Müller was the leading German physiologist of the first half of the 19th century, the honor for the second half goes to one of his followers—Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894; Figure 3.2). Shortly after he died, Helmholtz was eulogized by Carl Stumpf, another well-known German physiologist, as the person most responsible for building the "bridge between physiology and psychology that thousands of workers today go back and forth upon" (quoted in Turner, 1972). Helmholtz became the 19th-century authority on the sensory systems for vision and audition, developing theories still considered to be at least partly correct. He also provided a simple demonstration of nerve impulse speed that paved the way for one of psychology's most enduring methods, reaction time. And despite accomplishing more than any other 19th-century physiologist, his true love actually was physics, to which he also made original contributions. Helmholtz was born in 1821 into a family of modest means in Potsdam, Germany. He quickly emerged as an academic star at the local gymnasium (high school), where he developed his lifelong love for physics, but financial straits prevented him from attending a university. The government was offering full scholarships for students to attend medical school in Berlin, however, and Helmholtz jumped at the Given such design flaws, Helmholtz asked, what accounts for the quality of our perception? The answer, he believed, could be found in the doctrine of the specific energies of nerves and in British empiricist philosophy. Thus, because our nervous system mediates between reality and the mind, we are only indirectly aware of the external world. As a result, the role of experience is central to percep- tion, he argued. The raw information processed by the sensory systems is meaningless by itself, but takes on meaning only when a particular combination of sensory events becomes associated with spe- cific consequences. Consider, for example, perceiving objects located at different distances. According to Helmholtz, we make what he called an unconscious inference about distance, based on our past experiences of various cues that are associated with distance (this should remind you of Berkeley). As a person gets closer to us, for example, the retinal image enlarges, but we perceive the person getting closer, not doubling or tripling in size. Helmholtz would say that because we know through experience that people don't actually grow as they approach, we conclude (i.e., unconsciously infer) that the person must be getting closer. All this occurs quickly and without our awareness, hence the term unconscious inference.

I Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Showed how psychology can be studied through physiology. Study of digestive processes (put windows in dogs' bodies so he could see production of gastric acid, sold gastric acid to fund his research). His discover of conditioned response (we had known about the associative principles of contiguity and frequency for centuries) is what he is best remembered for. He earned the Nobel Prize for his painstaking and ingenious investigations of the physiology of digestion. Yet when the 54-year-old scientist delivered his acceptance address in December of 1904 at the awards ceremony in Stockholm, Sweden, he did not have much to say about the work that won him the Nobel Prize. Rather, in an address entitled "The First Sure Steps along the Path of a New Investigation" (Babkin, 1949), Pavlov described research that had interested him for the past several years and would occupy the rest of his life. This research is the familiar salivating dogs. Pavlov's conditioning research eventually provided a model for American behavioral scientists, despite the fact that Pavlov himself always insisted that he was a physiologist, not a psychologist, and his regard for psychology was not high. He once pointed out that although the study of reflexes had been dominated historically by those taking a psychological (by which he meant introspective) approach, his more objective strategy offered the hope of these investigations of the reflex "being liberated from such evil influences

Kurt Lewin

Lewin contributed more empirical research than the three gestalt founders combined, but like them he was first and foremost a theorist—in response to the criticism that theories are sometimes far removed from useful applications, he once said that "[t]here is nothing as practical as a good theory" (quoted in Marrow, 1969, p. 128). Lewin called his theory a field theory because he believed that understanding a person's behavior required knowing about all the forces acting on a person at a given moment. Lewin named the particular field within which the person operates the life space. It is the pivotal concept in his Lewin pointed out that the same objects in the environment can be phenomenologically different, depending on whether they are part of the war landscape or the peace landscape. A narrow path in the woods, which might produce enjoyment and relaxation under peaceful circumstances, can be deadly in the war landscape because it can provide cover for the enemy. Field theory: personality should be viewed in the context of a dynamic field of individual-environment interactions (can't predict behavior just based on a personality survey) • Conflict types: approach—approach (2 things really appealing, must choose between); avoidance—avoidance; approach—avoidance (avoidance might be of consequences of approach) Kurt Lewin • Field theory, conflict types, leadership styles, action research (bring psychology to politics) • Student: Bluma Zeigarnik: we don't forget unfinished tasks as easily as we forget finished tasks

Leon Festinger

Lewin's influence was widespread, and he had a direct effect on his most famous student, Leon Festinger. Leon Festinger was born and raised in New York City, the son of Jewish immigrants. When he graduated from City College of New York in 1939, he already had a publication (with one of his college teachers) in the prestigious Journal of Experimental Psychology (Hertzman & Festinger, 1940). This professor also introduced Festinger to Lewin's ideas, prompting Festinger to apply to graduate school at the University of Iowa to study with Lewin. During his Stanford tenure that Festinger made his reputation and attracted students who became prominent social psychologists themselves (best known: Elliott Aronson). Over the years, his students remained fiercely loyal to him, even though he could be a hard taskmaster and was not tolerant of imprecise thinking (Brehm, 1998). Festinger is best remembered for developing what could be the most important theory that social psychology has yet seen, the theory of cognitive dissonance. Another legacy of the Festinger research program concerned research design. Although influenced by Lewin in terms of the topics he studied, Festinger thought Lewin's approach to design was rather casual, and he set out to increase control and be more systematic in the manipulation of independent variables (e.g., $1 vs. $20) and the measurement of dependent variables. He also relied heavily on the analysis of variance (ANOVA), developed by British statistician Sir Ronald Fisher, and becoming widely used in the 1950s as the way to analyze data (Rucci & Tweney, 1980).5

Lewis Terman

Lewis Terman (1877-1956) Developed (added and removed items) and established norms (for each age group) for Stanford-Binet scale He used the Intelligence Quotient (divide mental age by chronological age x 100). His version of the test correlates with school performance and is popular today. He used a single score as an accurate representation of intelligence. Lewis Terman institutionalized intelligence testing by revising and standardizing the Binet tests, thereby creating the Stanford-Binet, one of the best-known modern tests of intelligence. The test was scored in terms of William Stern's concept of IQ, a ratio of mental age to chronological age. To support his belief in a meritocracy, Terman conducted an extended study of gifted children, finding that they broke the stereotype that such children are intellectually superior but socially and physically inferior.

Lightner Witmer

Lightner Witmer was the first to use the term clinical psychology. He studied with Wundt and as a part time job he was teaching teachers about learning and how children learn and as a result of that he got interested in designing programs that would help kids with disabilities learn better. This was the root of clinical psyc, psyc that was used in clinics using psychology to design materials that could be used in clinisc Until WWII psychotherapy was the domain of psychoanalysis But at WWI you get greater psychological testing and in the 30s we start to get more psychological tests. But at WWII where you get veterans returning and many were requesting counselling. In 1946 the VA fund program to train psychologists to do therapy many use the Freudian approach In Roman times the term for PTSD was nostalgia hat soldiers were sick because they were far from home, WWI shell shock WWII battle fatigue Because of the large demand for care after WWII VA funded programs at university so students could be trained to give therapy. AT first they used Freudian techniques. .

Albert Maslow

Maslow (1908-1970) He was trained as an experimental psychologist and researched dominance behavior in primates with Harry Harlow (well known to students for his surrogate mother studies), but later exchanged what he saw as a sterile and reductionist scientific approach for the more wholistic humanistic strategy. He once wrote that laboratory psychology was fine for the laboratory, but that it was "useless at home with your kids and wife and friends ... It's not a guide to living, to values, to choices" After completing a lab-based doctorate in 1934, Maslow came to New York and eventually settled into a faculty position at Brooklyn College, where he stayed until 1951, when he moved to Brandeis University (near Boston) and completed his career. During this time, and strongly influenced by his discovery of gestalt psychology, Maslow made his shift from experimental to humanistic psychology. Maslow is now known to all students in general psychology for his hierarchy of needs, a model that proposed a series of need systems, arranged in a pyramid, with lower level and more primitive needs at the bottom and culminating with the goal of self-actualization at the top. Achieving self-actualization required satisfying all the needs below it—physiological needs, safety needs, the need for love and belonging, and the need for self-esteem, in that order. As he once wrote, healthy people have sufficiently gratified their basic needs for safety, belongingness, love, respect, and self-esteem, so that they are motivated primarily by ... self-actualization, defined as ongoing actualization of potentials, capacities and talents, as fulfillment of mission ... , as a fuller knowledge of, and acceptance of, the person's own intrinsic nature, as an unceasing trend toward unity, integration or synergy within the person. Maslow argued that studying self-actualization, in contrast with a strategy focusing on psycho- logical disorders (e.g., as Freud did), would produce a healthier psychology.

Melanie Klein

Melanie Klein is perhaps the most important woman psychoanalyst who ever lived and yet is probably the least well-known to American psychologists. In her approach to psychoanalysis Klein inaugurated the school of psychoanalysis known as object relations theory, which places the mother-infant relationship at the center of personality development, and influenced the work of prominent psychologists like John Bowlby and Donald Winnicott. Although Klein questioned some of the fundamental assumptions of Sigmund Freud, she always considered herself a faithful adherent of Freud's ideas. Klein was the first person to use traditional psychoanalysis with young children. She was innovative in both her techniques[6] (such as working with children using toys) and her theories on infant development. Strongly opinionated, and demanding loyalty from her followers, Klein established a highly influential training program in psychoanalysis. She is considered one of the co-founders of object relations theory. Klein's insistence on regarding aggression as an important force in its own right when analysing children brought her into conflict with Freud's own daughter, Anna Freud, who was one of the other prominent child psychotherapists in continental Europe but who moved to London in 1938 where Klein had been working for several years. Many controversies arose from this conflict, and these are often referred to as the Controversial discussions. Battles were played out between the two sides, each presenting scientific papers, working out their respective positions and where they differed, during war-time Britain. A compromise was eventually reached whereby three distinct training groups were formed within the British Psychoanalytical Society, with Anna Freud's influence remaining largely predominant in the US. Today, Kleinian psychoanalysis is one of the major schools within psychoanalysis. The differences between Klien and Anna Freud were so strong British Psychoanalytical Society split into three separate training divisions: (1) Kleinian, (2) Anna Freudian, and (3) independent. This division remains to the current time

Broca

Not mentioned much in this course but covered in other places and we know him from his patient Tan and work on aphasia which has an impact on localization of function. Broca guessed that Tan had a cerebral lesion that for the first 10 years of the illness remained confined to a fairly limited area in the left side of the brain, but then had spread. He did not have long to wait to confirm the diagnosis—Tan died 6 days after Broca examined him. Broca immediately performed an autopsy and removed the brain Over the next few years, Broca examined and autopsied at least eight other aphasic patients like Tan, found the same general pattern of left frontal lobe (third frontal convolution) damage, and concluded that the ability to produce speech was localized in the left frontal lobe. Others with a strong belief in localization of function had argued that speech production resided in the frontal lobe. Broca's research challenged Flourens's conclusions about the degree of localization to be found in the cortex. Broca joined a growing number of physiologists who were willing to argue for localization, even while they were rejecting the specific claims of the phrenologists. Additional evidence for localized language function came from clinical studies by the German neurologist Carl Wernicke (1848-1905). He studied a group of patients who had the ability to produce articulate speech, but the speech tended to be nonsensical; they also had difficulty comprehending the speech of others. He named the disorder sensory aphasia, to distinguish it from motor aphasia, and discovered consistent brain damage to an area of the left temporal lobe of the brain, several centimeters behind Broca's area.

Kurt Koffka

Of the three early gestaltists, Koffka was primarily responsible for introducing the movement to the United States. He accomplished this first by writing an article in 1922 for Psychological Bulletin called "Perception: An Introduction to Gestalt-Theorie" (Koffka, 1922). Koffka also spread the gestalt word in person starting in 1924, in a 30-campus lecture tour, in an invited address to the annual meeting of the APA in 1925, and in a pair of visiting professor appointments at Cornell and Wisconsin (Sokal, 1984). In 1927, he accepted a full-time academic position at Smith College in western Massachusetts, a private liberal arts college for women, where he remained until his death from a heart attack in 1941. In 1935, Koffka wrote his most important book, Principles of Gestalt Psychology. It established his reputation as gestalt psychology's major theorist, but also contributed to a growing impression among Americans that the gestaltists were more interested in theory than data. At a time when most American psychologists were firmly committed to active programs of experimental research, this tendency to emphasize theory was seen as a weakness. Kurt Koffka: perception (came to America in 1924)—his book became known as representing all of Gestalt, even though he only wrote about part of it. Objects in a scene appear to group pre-attentively per certain laws or principles. There are over 100 configurations (Gestalten) into which information is arranged, e.g., figure ground relationships: what is the figure and what is the ground can be changed by shifting one's attention. Principle of continuity: stimuli that have continuity with one another will be experienced as a perceptual unit. Principle of proximity: when stimuli are close together, they tend to be grouped together as a perceptual unit. Principle of inclusiveness: when there's more than on figure, we're most likely to see the figure that contains the greatest number of stimuli (e.g., FedEx logo has an arrow in it which symbolizes movement even though you might not notice it). Law of similarity: items that are similar tend to be grouped together (e.g., columns of circles and squares vs. alternating rows). Principle of closure: incomplete figures in the physical world are perceived as complete ones

Philippe Pinel

Phillipe Pinel (1745-1826) Pinel was in charge of Bicetre asylum (1793) and at Salpetriere (1795). He advocated traitment morale: remove chains, nutrition, hygiene and humane living conditions (+ occupational therapy: give them something to do). He took records of patients and people got better. Mental illness came to be viewed in naturalistic terms as being biologically based and amenable to treatment.. Although it has been shown that the number of liberated patients was relatively small, about 15 percent of the total hospital population, Pinel nonetheless deserves credit for bringing the concept of reform to institutions housing the mentally ill. Pinel's efforts, occurring in the context of the French Revolution, provide an example of the combined effects of an "enlightened" approach to insanity and an assault on institutions perceived to be repressing individual freedom. His reforms united the Enlightenment faith in progress and the revolutionary desire to liberate the oppressed.

Robert Yerkes

Robert Yerkes (1876-1956) Robert Yerkes, a comparative psychologist at heart, became involved in mental testing in World War I by organizing the Army testing program. He and his team developed two group intelligence tests, one for literate soldiers (Army Alpha) and one for illiterates (Army Beta). The program was minimally useful to the Army, but launched intelligence testing as big business and made testing a popular enterprise in the 1920s. After the war, Yerkes's report on the program, which suggested that the typical American soldier scored barely higher than moron level, generated much controversy over mental testing, IQ, and the question of how much intelligence resulted from nature and nurture. Most work with primates; animal research centre in Florida named after him Felt that psychologists needed to do something to help the WW1 effort—use intelligence tests to determine who was fit/should be an officer. Problems: low literacy and no time to test everyone individually. Deterioration of national intelligence (from data analysis after the war) Average mental age of soldiers = 13 (morons) 50% of whites and 50+% of blacks = morons Due to immigration from southern Europe? Psychologists and biologists tend to focus on the inheritance of intelligence; sociologists and anthropologists tend to focus on its environmental influences.

John B Watson

Rough childhood involving father leaving—had depression, always concerned with money and security. Took whatever jobs he could at university to pay the bills • PhD (U. Chicago, 24-yr old) • 1907: move to Johns Hopkins University editorship of Psychological Review (important journal that Baldwin used to edit) • 1913: Behaviorist Manifesto • Left academia in 1920 due to scandal with wife being published—was very good as a drug salesman, however • Short career in psychology, but large impact: went against introspection and a lot of prominent current psychologists. Behaviorist Manifesto • Purely objective and experimental psychology • Goal is prediction and control of behavior • Reject introspection and consciousness (not just that we shouldn't study consciousness, but that it doesn't exist) • No difference between people and animals • Controversial perspectives, but still got to be head of APA for a while; still made a lot of money after leaving psychology Different views across history of the links between the mind and the body • Interactionist view: the mind can influence the body, and the body influences the mind • Psychophysical parallelism: the mental and bodily events are parallel with no interaction between them • Epiphenomenalism: mental events are the by-products of bodily events but don't cause behavior Mind-body problem • Physical monism (materialism) (Watson) o Reject the existence of mental events (consciousness) altogether. The mind doesn't exit. • Thought is subvocal speech (i.e., a behavior) • Emotions are conditioned (i.e., contiguity) Watson In 1913, Watson accepted an invitation from Cattell to speak at Columbia University. By then he believed he had sufficient stature to proclaim what he had believed for at least 10 years—that it was time for the field to move away from the introspective psychology of consciousness and toward a psychology of behavior. His Columbia lecture, published later that year with the provocative title "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (Watson, 1913), has come to be called the Behaviorist Manifesto. What did Watson proclaim? The opening sentences set the tone: Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. Watson (1913) believed the time had come "when psychology must discard all reference to consciousness" (p. 163) and turn to behavior as the data to be observed. In place of psychology as the study of consciousness, Watson proposed that psychology become the science of behavior. Just as behavioral methods had increased our understanding of animals, he argued, so could they enhance our knowledge of humans. He set as a goal for psychology the prediction and control of behavior and boldly proclaimed that in a mature S-R system, "given the response the stimuli can be predicted; given the stimuli the response can be predicted" (Watson, 1913, p. 167). E

BF Skinner

Skinner, like Watson, believed that psychology should have but two goals—the prediction and control of behavior. This would be accomplished through an "experimental analysis of behavior," that is, through a full description of operant behaviors, the environments in which these behaviors occurred, and the immediate consequences of the behaviors. While recognizing that behaviors are influenced by an individual's innate behavioral tendencies and capabilities, Skinner focused on how behaviors were shaped by the environment. Hence, he made contact with the British empiricists, the environmentalism of Watson, and he provided a clear example of neobehaviorism's emphasis on learning. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Skinner: pure induction—study samples of behavior, look for regularities that could become general principles, no intervening variables (so radical behaviorism) Like Watson, Skinner denied the existence of a separate realms of conscious events (was a radical behaviorist, not a neobehaviorist) Consciousness as a nonphysical entity doesn't exist (mental events are nothing but neurophysiological events to which we have assigned mentalistic labels). Operant Conditioning: a behavior occurs, and the immediate consequence of the behavior determines its future probability of occurrence • "Change reinforcement contingencies, and you change behavior" • Applications of operant conditioning o Behavior therapy (juvenile delinquency, phobias, etc.) o Token economies (e.g., psychiatric hospitals, disruptive schoolrooms) • Applications: baby box—just a basic habitat for a baby; never a commercial success (newspaper stories said he was treating his kids like lab rats, but they did quite well) • So...what happened in the 1950s? o Why isn't every psychology thesis done with rats like it was then? o Why don't we all call ourselves behaviorists? Answer 1: Evolution (or, radical behaviorism was only dominant for a short time, and only in America) • Europe: Piaget (1920s), Bartlett (1932) • Wundt, Kulpe • Cognitive psychology has always been underlying psychology as a whole; radical behaviorism was just a blip. Today, we still use radical behaviorism's scientific methods. Answer 2: Revolution (or, the Cognitive Revolution in the 1950s changed everything) • Computer science: the computer as a model of the human brain o We can only see the input and output, but we can extrapolate the processing Revolution • Skinner: language is learned through operant conditioning • Noam Chomsky: language development occurs too rapidly for conditioning to be relevant o Highly important paper, directly critical of Skinner o Linguist, cognitive scientist, philosopher, political commentator, social justice activist Also... Skinner's philosophy of science differed fundamentally from that of Hull and Tolman. Rather than deducing hypotheses from theoretical statements, designing studies to test these hypotheses, and then adjusting a complex theory depending on the research outcome, Skinner preferred an inductive approach to research, studying samples of behavior and looking for regularities that could become general prin- ciples. His reference to Pavlov and the search for orderly behavior hints at the strategy. This freedom from the dictates of theory is also evident in his recommendation to researchers that "[w]hen you find something fascinating, drop everything else and study it" (Skinner, 1956, p. 223). 330 CHAPTER 11 THE EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM Skinner's modus operandi was to study behavior intensively under a variety of circumstances, and then draw general conclusions. His research on so-called reinforcement schedules is a classic illustration of this inductive strategy. Starting from the observation that, in real life, reinforcers occur sporadically rather than after every response, he set out to examine how different schedules of reinforcement could produce different patterns of behavior. For example, in a fixed ratio schedule for a bar-pressing rat, rein- forcement might follow every twentieth bar press instead of every bar press (i.e., an FR20 schedule). In a fixed interval schedule, affected more by time than by responses per se, reinforcement might follow the first response after 20 seconds had passed (i.e., an FI20 schedule). Skinner and his student, Charles Ferster, examined dozens of different reinforcement schedules and then wrote Schedules of Reinforce- ment (Ferster & Skinner, 1957). The book is massive (739 pages) and filled with over 900 different cumulative records illustrating various reinforcement schedules and the characteristic behaviors each produces (e.g., higher rates of responding for FR than for FI schedules). The book is not much fun to read, but for Skinnerians, it became an indispensable reference source for information about how behavior can be predicted from knowledge of various reinforcement schedules. Skinner and the Problem of Explanation We have learned that both Tolman and Hull pro- posed the existence of intervening variables to help account for learned behavior, and these variables were carefully tied to stimuli and responses via operational definitions. Skinner avoided interven- ing variables, however, mainly because he thought it opened the door to what he called explanatory fictions. These refer to a tendency to propose some hypothetical internal factor mediating between observable stimuli and measurable behaviors and then later to use the factor as a pseudoexplanation for the behavior. It is something that we do all the time, at least informally. For example, suppose your new roommate stays up late at night studying and seems to spend more time in the library than any- one else you know. You ask his friends about him. They say that he has a high need for achievement. According to Skinner, at this point we might make the mistake of thinking that we have explained the studying behavior by attributing it to the high need for achievement. In fact, however, this "need for achievement" is an explanatory fiction, merely a label that summarizes the studying and library-going behaviors and adds nothing to our understanding of what causes the behavior. The explanation, Skinner would contend, lies in the person's overall learning history and the specific reinforcement contingencies in place when the behavior occurs. The problem with explanatory fictions led Skinner to be critical of physiological psychologists, who sought to explain behavior by reducing it, in his view, to nervous system activity. Although Skinner recognized the importance of studying brain function and nervous system activity, he was certain that a thorough experimental analysis of behavior was possible without reference to the nervous system, and he would not be impressed by modern neuroscience. In this regard, Skinner mirrored the attitude of the Harvard physiologist W. J. Crozier, with whom Skinner studied.6 Similarly, he rejected most of contemporary cognitive psychology, on the grounds that it also resorted to explanatory fictions (e.g., attributing memory failures to short-term memory capacity limits). (Goodwin 329-330)

Stanley Milgram

Stanley Milgram (1933-1984) Not long after taking a general psychology course, most stu- dents forget much of the course content. One thing they are likely to recall, however, is one of psychol- ogy's most famous series of studies—the obedience research by Stanley Milgram (Figure 14.7). Even if they don't recall Milgram's name, a photo of the shock apparatus will be sufficient as a retrieval cue. After graduating from Queen's College in New York with a degree in political science in 1954, Milgram was accepted into the graduate program at Harvard's Department of Social Relations, an inter- disciplinary program that included social and clinical psychologists, sociologists, and anthropologists. There he encountered Henry Murray and Gordon Allport, both featured in this chapter's next section. Allport directed Milgram's dissertation, a cross-cultural study comparing conformity in Norway and France, but the future for Milgram was determined more by Solomon Asch than by Allport (Blass, 2004). In the 1950s, Asch had completed a series of studies on conformity that have become classics—in the face of social pressure, subjects would make errors in a line-judging task that they never made when judging lines without group pressure. Looking for a more realistic scenario than a line-judging task, Milgram eventually hit on the idea of asking how far subjects would go in responding to strong demands made by an authority figure. Obedience to authority had special meaning for Milgram, who was Jewish—he had a strong desire to understand the "I was only obeying orders" defense used by Nazi war criminals who participated in the horrors of the Holocaust (Benjamin & Simpson, 2009). With doctorate in hand, Milgram began his academic career in the fall of 1960 at Yale. There he designed and carried out the obedience research with which you are familiar (Milgram, 1963).

Sigmund Freud

This Freudian myth encompasses two components, according to Sulloway. First, it includes the image of Freud as a solitary heroic figure fighting for his ideas against all odds, in a uniformly hostile environment. Second, it maintains the illusion that the hero's theories were original to him, without serious precedent. Both aspects of this Freudian myth have been brought into question by recent historical scholarship. As will be seen: (a) Freud was indeed controversial but his ideas were not nearly as revolutionary as is normally portrayed, and (b) all his major concepts have traceable origins to related or identical ideas in existence in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Freud's genius was not in creation but in synthesis and advocacy—in weaving ideas together into a unified theory of human behavior and in vigorously promoting this theory in the medical community. Interestingly enough, Freud played a role in creating his own myth, in part by hand-picking his first biographer, Ernest Jones, but also by destroying his papers and correspondence on at least two occasions (1885 and 1907), thereby making it difficult to trace the roots of his ideas. They include: 1. Dream analysis and Free association - the idea was you could get people to tell you what was going on in their subconscious. At first he tried hypnosis but found it limited and so turned to dream analysis. The idea is that your defenses are lowered and disguised fragments of your true self are revealed in either individual or universal symbols. Analysis was like archeology. Say travel symbolized death and falling was giving into sexual temptation and many symbols for vagina and penis. Psychoanalysis is not psychology and is a branch of medicine. Freud is taken more seriously in the literature department than in psychology. Basic Components of Personality he notion of the unconscious had been around for a long time Fechner had talked about ti and used the iceberg analogy Geothe had talked about it as well. Freud did give it more importance and broadened what talk therapy could do. But Freud was a very conscious self promoter and legacy builder and wanted to appear as a pioneer. He made himself appear more under attack than he really was. Even among his supporters he tolerated no disagreements and he kept only yesmen in his circle. After the defections of Adler, Jung, and some others, Freud closed ranks. At the suggestion of Ernest Jones (1879-1958), destined to be Freud's handpicked biographer, Freud formed a secret group of five called the "Committee." The group vowed to "write nothing contradictory to Freud's theories, would publish nothing without each other's approval, and would sniff out heresy wherever it might begin" (Maddox, 2006, p. 102). Freud even gave each member of his new inner sanctum a gold ring. Their task was to safeguard orthodox Freudianism

William James

William James (1842-1910) He was the Pope of Psyc in the new world and we looked at some of his ideas. G. Boring said his importance derived from being a wonderful writer and teacher, he also provided an alternative to Titchner's view of psychology as a collection of sensory elements. And he provided a distinctly American psychology that was functional pragmatic and practical. Practical in the sense that it could fix depression as he had himself fixed his depression. Although he was an artist by temperament, was trained in medicine, and ultimately thought of himself as a philosopher, William James is considered America's first modern psychologist. He brought the new laboratory psychology to Harvard, and he published what is considered the most important book in all of psychology's history, The Principles of Psy- chology, in 1890. Disturbed by 19th-century materialism and determinism, James decided to believe in free will because it was a useful belief for him to hold. Out of this emerged his general approach to philosophy, called pragmatism. In the Principles, James took issue with those who would dissect consciousness into its elements. Instead, he argued that it was more appropriately conceived of as analogous to a stream. Consciousness was personal, constantly changing, continuous, selective, and active, and it served individuals by enabling them to adapt quickly to new environments and solve problems. Habit also had survival value, allowing individuals to avoid having to think about some activities so they could save their consciousness for more difficult and novel problems. According to the James-Lange theory of emotions, emotional responses were identified with the bodily reactions that accompanied the perception of some emotion-generating event. When trying to conceive of emotions without the physiological arousal, James argued, nothing remains. A problem with the theory is that it requires a recognizably different pattern of arousal to be associated with each different emotion. In his later years, James became interested in the possibility that there could be some validity to spiritualism. Despite criticism that he was harming the fragile scientific status of the new psychology, he believed that spiritualists and mediums should be investigated with an open mind.

William Wundt

William Wundt (1832-1920) He often considered the starting point for psychology. Wundt did not make any big discoveries but he brought together the ideas of other people. He was interested in broader topics like culture and language not just the introspection he is remembered for. In 1879 he started a lab and very consciously set out to start a new discipline. Graduates came to him from everywhere or at least the Western world. Wilhelm Wundt is generally known as the founder of experimental psychology. He explicitly set out to create a new psychology that emphasized the experimental methods borrowed from physiology, and he created the first laboratory of experimental psychology and the first journal devoted to describing the results of scientific research in psychology. Wundt's new science involved studying immediate conscious experience under controlled laboratory conditions. Because they could not be subjected to experimental control and replication, higher mental processes (e.g., language), as well as social and cultural phenomena, had to be studied through nonlaboratory methods (e.g., observation). In Wundt's laboratory, most of the research concerned basic sensory and perceptual processes. The lab also pro- duced a large number of "mental chronometry" studies, which attempted to measure the amount of time taken for various mental processes. James McKeen Cattell, an American student and Wundt's first official lab assistant, completed a number of these "complication" studies, which utilized a subtraction procedure developed by the Dutch physiologist F. C. Donders. Recent historical scholarship has uncovered serious distortions in the traditional accounts of Wundt's ideas. Rather than being a structuralist, seeking to reduce consciousness to its basic elements, Wundt was more interested in the mind's ability to actively organize information. One of his main interests was the process of apperception—an active, meaningful, and attentive perception of some event. He called his system voluntarism to reflect the active nature of mental processing. The distortions stem from Boring's famous history text Amazingly prolific produced 50,000 pages of work and was nominated for the Nobel three times. He talked about two very separate streams of work - voluntarism - experimental psychology - this is the best known best translated work - volkerpsychologie - cultural historical psychology this is the study of langaueg arts amyths religion laws and culture for communities around teh world - it was the precursor to sociolinguistcs cultural psyc social psyc and presonality researhc, this might have had more impact had the work been translate He used two methods one for each. - introspection to study immediate experience - naturalistic observation and hostorical analysis

Wolfgang Kohler

Wolfgang Köhler was just a year younger than Koffka and 7 years younger than Wertheimer, but he outlived his peers by 25 years and 23 years, respectively. This longevity, combined with his deliberate promotion of gestalt ideas, made him the best-known gestaltist of the three originators, especially in America. In 1913, an intriguing opportunity came Köhler's way in the form of an invitation to direct the research at a primate colony that the Prussian Academy of Sciences had created at Tenerife, largest of the Canary Islands, which lie off the northwest coast of Africa.4 He accepted, arriving just before the outbreak of World War I, which marooned him on the island with his family and his small colony of apes. In April 1933, he wrote the last anti-Nazi article published during the Hitler years, denouncing the dismissals. In the article, he argued that "only the quality of a human being should determine his worth, that intellectual achievement, character, and obvious contributions to German culture retain their significance whether a person is Jewish or not" (quoted in Henle, 1986, p. 228). Although Köhler was not arrested for writing the article (to his and his students' surprise), his situation at the Institute rapidly deteriorated. He was forced to open lectures with a Nazi salute (which he did with notable sarcasm), Nazi sympathizer students began to "monitor" his lectures and "inspect" the laboratory, and some of Köhler's students (e.g., Karl Duncker, whose problem-solving research is described later in the chapter) were denounced as Communists. By early 1935, after refusing to sign a loyalty oath to Hitler, Köhler had had enough. He resigned his beloved directorship. Wolfgang Kohler: problem-solving in apes. Was stuck on the Canary Islands during WW1 studying monkeys, would radio German boats to tell them when the British boats were and weren't there. When the Nazis started firing Jewish scholars, he published a paper criticizing them, and was thus kicked out of German academia and fled to NYC. All three of these founders took the first jobs they could find in America = universities without graduate programs = why we don't know much about them. o Gave chimps supplies required to get bananas high above them—had what he described as "aha moments"—would suddenly figure out solution after wandering around for a bit. Thorndike might talk about incremental learning based on this data, but Kohler interpreted it very differently). Gestalt and Social Psychology • Field theory: personality should be viewed in the context of a dynamic field of individual-environment interactions (can't predict behavior just based on a personality survey) • Conflict types: approach—approach (2 things really appealing, must choose between); avoidance—avoidance; approach—avoidance (avoidance might be of consequences of approach)