A&P 1 FInal Exam

What are two possible functions of projections? Give a specific example of each.

site of muscle and ligament attachment articulatewith something ?

Where is a cutaneous membrane found?

skin

Major Organs of the Integumentary System

skin, hair, sweat glands, nails

Compare and contrast smooth muscle and skeletal muscle. (table)

smooth muscle: involuntary and non striated skeletal: voluntary and striated

What causes Lyme disease?

spirochete bacteria transmitted by the bite of ticks that live on mice and deer

What is the outermost layer of the epidermis called? What is its function?

stratum corneum protection because its keratinized so its hard and waterproof

layers of the epidermis

stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale

What is an example of a superficial reflex?

stroking skin with tongue depressor

Describe the structure, function, and location of serous membranes.

structure: have visceral and parietal layer separated by serous fluid function: lubricate visceral and parietal layers so they slide against each other easier location: body cavities closed to exterior

Describe the structure, function, and location of mucous membranes.

structure: moist membranes bathed by secretions function: secretion and absorption location: all body cavities that open up to outside

Define anatomy

study of structure of body parts (form) and their relationship to each other (what its made of, where its located, and associated structures)

Define physiology

study of what the structure does (function) and how and why it does a particular way (individual and cooperative function)

(a) What is another name for sweat glands? What is their function? (b) What part of the nervous system regulates sweat gland activity? Be as specific as possible.

suderiferous

Which structural joint (classification, not type) is most common? How are these joints classified functionally?

synovial classified by their type of movement

What cells in the epidermis function as sensory receptors for touch?

tactile epithelial cells (Merkel cells)

What causes Alzheimer's disease? What is the main symptom?

tangles in neurons or senile plaques in the brain memory loss

What structure is the "gateway to the cerebral cortex"?

thalamus

What functional system is responsible for emotion and plays a role in memory?

the limbic system

What feature do cartilage and bone have in common?

the matrix is similar but bone is more rigid because it has calcium salts added to its abundant collagen fibers

What area receives information related to pitch and loudness?

auditory association area

What are the regions of the skeleton? How do they differ in function?

axial - protection and support appendicular - leverage for movement and support

n a neuron, what long process usually carries impulses away from the cell body?

axon

What is the function of joints?

hold bones together, allow for mobility

What is a ventricle? Name the ventricles of the brain.

holes of the brain filled with cerebralspinal fluid left and right lateral, third, and fourth

Why is homeostasis important? What happens if homeostasis is not maintained?

homeostasis is important to keep the body within the dynamic range of equilibrium If homeostasis is not maintained... - increases risk of disease - contributes to changes associated with aging - may allow destructive positive feedback to take over

What is the autonomic control center of the body?

hypothalamus

What is paralysis?

loss of sensation/motor function

What is another term for dislocation of a joint?

luxation

Major Organs of the Lymphatic System

lymph (fluid) lymphatic vessels lymphoid tissues and organs lymphocytes (type of WBC)

What is the function of the blood-brain barrier?

maintain brains stable environment

Define homeostasis.

maintenance of a stable internal environment despite outside changes

What pigment is synthesized in the skin and protects against UV damage? Name two other places in the body besides the skin where this pigment is found.

melanin ??

Which type of akin cancer is the most dangerous?

melanoma

What are the three structures of the brain stem?

midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata

Where are ceruminous glands located and what do they secrete?

modified apocrine sweat glands in the lining of the external ear canal their secretion mixed with sebum produces cerumen (earwax)

Briefly describe bone repair.

p 191 in book 1. a hematoma forms 2. fibrcartilagenous callus forms 3. bony callus forms 4. bone remodeling occurs

What results if the spinal cord is transected in the thoracic region?

paraplegia: just lower limbs

What tissue type predominates in the dermis? (Hint: Which layer is thicker?)

reticular dermis

What is a gyrus?

ridge

Major Organs of the Digestive System

salivary glands, mouth, teeth, tongue pharynx, esophagus stomach liver, gallbladder, pancreas large & small intestine

What is the functional unit of a skeletal muscle?

sarcomere

Review spinal cord anatomy. What is the functional type of neurons found in the dorsal roots? What is the functional type of neurons found in the ventral roots?What is the functional type of neurons whose cell bodies lie in the lateral horn? How do neurons originating in the lateral horn differ from those originating in the ventral horn?

sensory motor viscera

What is a sulcus?

shallow groove

List and describe the two stages of memory.

short term: do something and never think of it again like dial a phone # long term: can store info like song lyrics

What two tissue types (be specific) make up a serous membrane?

simple squamous epithelium resting on a thin layer of areolar connective tissue

Diagram the divisions of the nervous system. Include a brief description of each division.

- Central - Peripheral -- Sensory -- Motor ---Somatic --- Autonomic ----Sympathetic ----Parasympathetic

What are the glial cells of the CNS? Summarize their functions.

- Ependymal cells: secretion absorption of cerebrospinal fluid - Astrocytes: repair damaged neural tissue - Oligodendrocytes: myelin sheath - Microglia: phagocytize microorganisms and debris

What are the glial cells of the PNS? Summarize their functions.

- Satellite: regulate environment around neuron - Schwann cells: myelin sheath around peripheral axons

List the levels of structural organization (Arabic numerals). For the first five levels, give a specific example from each of the four organ systems we covered this semester (Roman numerals).

- atoms - molecules 1. Organelles i. ii. iii. iv. 2. cells i. ii. iii. iv. 3. tissues i. ii. iii. iv. 4. organs i. ii. iii. iv. 5. organ system i. ii. iii. iv. - organism

What are the components of a homeostatic mechanism?

- continuous monitoring & regulation of may variables - nervous and endocrine systems communicate through nerve impulses and hormones

What are the functions of the integumentary system?

- protection - body temp regulation - cutaneous sensations - metabolic functions - blood reservoir - excretion

List any three types of receptors and what they respond to. There are several.

- thermoreceptors: temp - mechanoreceptors: pressure, stretch, etc - chemoreceptors: chemicals in solution (taste, etc)

Where would you find small motor units? Name a specific muscle.

?? anything that doesn't need a lot of strength

Draw a sketch of a sagittal section of a typical long bone. Label diaphysis, epiphysis, periosteum, endosteum, compact bone, spongy bone, medullary cavity, and epiphyseal line.

???

What are the three structural classifications of joints (Arabic numerals)? Define each. List the types of each (Roman numerals) and give an example of each type.

1. Fibrous - sutures: skull bones - syndesmosomes: distal tibiofibular joint - gomphoses: connect teeth to gum 2. Cartilaginous - synchondroses: sternum & rib - symphyses: pubic bones 3. Synovial - - - - - -

What are two types of integral proteins? How do they function?

1. 2.

What is required for the eye to adjust for close vision?

1. 2. 3.

List and describe the characteristics of neurons.

1. 2. 3. 4.

List the components of a reflex arc.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

List and describe the two types of growth seen in cartilage (and in bone).

1. Appositional - cells in perichondrium secrete new matrix around outside face of existing tissue 2. Interstitual growth - lacunae bound chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix (expand from within)

Where is skeletal hyaline cartilage found?

1. Articular cartilages - moveable joints 2. Costal cartilages - ribs to sternum 3. Respiratory cartilages - form skeleton of larynx 4. nasal cartilages - support external nose

What are the four concepts of the cell theory?

1. Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. 2. All cells come from the division of preexisting cells. 3. The biochemical activities of cells are dictated by the specific sub-cellular structures of cells. 4. Activities of an organism depend on the individual and collective activities of cells.

List and briefly describe the three pathways for regenerating used ATP in a skeletal muscle fiber.

1. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate • Very quick energy transfer• ATP stores do not decrease• Can supply ATP for 15 seconds of muscle contraction• Reaction reversible when muscles inactive 2. Recharging ATP with Creatine Phosphate • Energy recharges ADP to ATP• Uses the enzyme creatine phosphokinase (CPK) • When CP is depleted, other mechanisms generate ATP 3. Anaerobic glycolysis • Relatively quick ATP production• Produces 2 ATP molecules per molecule of glucose• Provide ATP for up to 2 minutes of contraction• Occurs in the absence of oxygen• Primary energy source for peak muscular activity • Muscles lack oxygen to support mitochondria• Leads to lactic acid formation• Lactic acid- used by liver, heart, or kidney cells for energy- converted back to glucose in liver (requires 6 ATP)- contributes to fatigue and soreness• Can get glucose from glycogenolysis

What are the meninges covering the brain, superficial to deep?

1. Dura Mater 2. Arachnoid Mater 3. Pia mater

What are the special characteristics of muscle tissue?

1. Excitability (responsiveness or irritability): ability to receive and respond to stimuli 2. Contractility: ability to shorten when stimulated 3. Extensibility: ability to be stretched 4. Elasticity: ability to recoil to resting length

List the classifications of burns and which layers they affect.

1. first degree - only epidermis 2. second degree - epidermis and upper dermis 3. third degree - entire thickness of the skin

List the three types of arthritis we covered in class and briefly describe the disorder.

1. Osteoarthritis - wear and tear of joint surfaces 2. Rheumatoid arthritis - inflammatory, autoimmune 3. Gouty arthritis - calcium salt crystals form in synovial fluids

What are the functions of muscle tissue?

1. Produce skeletal movement 2. Maintain body position and posture 3. Support soft tissues 4. Guard body openings 5. Maintain body temperature

What are the three functional classifications of joints? Define each. Give an example for each classification.

1. Synarthroses - no movement 2. Amphiarthroses - little movement 3. Diarthroses - more movement

What are three types of cell junctions? Give an example of where each is found. You should understand why that cell junction would be important in that location.

1. Tight junctions: - packed really tight so nothing can go b/w cells and it has to go through to get by 2. Gap junctions: - channels b/w cells that allow water and ions to go through - cardiac cells have lots of gap junctions b/c gap junctions let cells communicate electrically 3. Desmosomes: - anchor the cell in place

What three types of fibers are found in the white matter of the cerebrum and what do they connect?

1. association fibers: diff parts of same hemisphere 2. commissural fibers: connect corresponding gray areas of the two different hemispheres 3. projection fibers: onnect the cerebral cortex with lower CNS centers

List three types of skin cancer and which cell layer they affect.

1. basal cell carcinoma - stratum basal 2. squamous cell carcinoma - keratinocytes at stratum spinosum 3. melanoma - melanocytes

What are the three "layers" of the brain? (Hint: gray, white, gray)

1. cerebral cortex 2. white matter 3. basal nuclei

What are the two types of ossification? What bones does each type form? What type of tissue does each type of ossification originate in?

1. endochondral ossification - forms long bones - originates in hyaline cartilage "bones" 2. Intramembranous ossification - forms cranial bones & clavicles (flat bones) - originates in fibrous connective tissue/ mesenchymal cells

What are the four major types of tissue? Give the general function of each type.

1. epithelial - covers exposed surfaces and lines internal passageways 2. connective - supports other tissue and transports material 3. muscle - contracts 4. neural - signal/stimulus input, integration, and output

List the eleven organ systems of the human body. Give two functions for each system. Be able to identify the major organs in each system.

1. integumentary 2. skeletal 3. muscular 4. nervous 5. endocrine 6. cardiovascular 7. lymphatic/immunity 8. respiratory 9. digestive 10. urinary 11. reproductive

hat are the necessary functions of a living organism? For each one, briefly describe how it is accomplished in the human body. You may want to include an organ or organ system that is responsible for that function in humans.

1. maintain inside & outside boundaries 2. movement 3. responsiveness 4. ingestion 5. digestion 6. metabolism 7. excretion 8. reproduction

What are the three types of functional areas of the cortex? Know in general where they are located.

1. motor (front top) 2. sensory (back half) 3. Multimodal association areas (Front of motor part and then front of sensory part)

What are the structural classifications of neurons?

1. multipolar 2. bipolar 3. unipolar

What do humans need to survive?

1. nutrients - chemicals for energy & cell building - need fat, protein, minerals, vitamins 2. oxygen - essential for energy release (ATP production) 3. water - most abundant chemical in body - site of chemical reactions 4. normal body temp. - affects rate of chem reactions 5. appropriate atmospheric pressure - for adequate breathing and gas exchange

Active transport mechanisms require energy, and they may involve the movement of a substance from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. List and briefly describe three types of active transport through the plasma membrane.

1. primary active transport - energy of ATP causes shape if transport protein and its pumped out (like sodium potassium pump) 2. secondary active transport - use concentration gradient made by active transport and uses it to move something else (like glucose hitching a ride back in with sodium) --symport: same direction --antiport: diff direction 3. vesicular transport - exocytosis - endocytosis

What are the three functions of the nervous system?

1. sensory input 2. integration 3. motor output

What are the functional classifications of neurons?

1. sensory/afferent neurons 2. interneurons 3. motor/efferent neurons

Passive transport mechanisms do not require energy, and they involve the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. List and briefly describe three types of passive transport through the plasma membrane.

1. simple diffusion/osmosis - just goes through the membrane 2. channel mediated facilitated diffusion - goes through leakage or gated channel 3. carrier mediated facilitated diffusion - carried to other side

What types of epithelial tissue are found in the body? Give an example of where each type would be found (location). You should understand why that epithelial tissue is appropriate for its location (function)

1. simple squamous epithelium - lung air sacs and line heart & blood vessels - b/c allows materials to diffuse and secretes lubricating substances 2. stratified squamous epithelium - nonkeratinized: esophagus, mouth, vagina - keratinized: epidermis - b/c protects underlying tissue from abrasion 3. simple cuboidal epithelium - kidney and ducts of glands - b/c it secretes and absorbs 4. stratified cuboidal epithelium - rare!, some larger glands 5. simple columnar epithelium - nonciliated: digestive tract, gallbladder, excretory ducts - b/c absorbs and secretes - ciliated: bronchi, uterine tubes, uterus - b/c propels mucus 6. stratified columnar epithelium - also kinda rare, pharynx, urethra 7. pseudostratified columnar epithelium - ciliated: trachea & upper respiratory tract - b/c propulsion of mucus - nonciliated: sperm carrying ducts and ducts of large glands - b/c secrete mucus 8. transitional epithelium - ureters, bladder, urethra - b/c stretches

List and briefly describe three spinal reflexes.

1. stretch & tendon reflex: 2. flexor & cross extensor: 3. superficial: gentle cutaneous stimulation

What two ways can postsynaptic potentials summate? How do these occur?

1. synaptic potentiation: continuous use of the synapse that makes larger EPSPs 2. Presynaptic inhibition: release of excitatory neurotransmitter is inhibited by activity of another neuron

Define motor unit.

A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates

What four types of brain waves can be seen on an EEG? Give an example of an activity during which each type would be seen.

Alpha: calm, relaxed, awake Beta: mentally alert like concentrating on a problem Theta: common in kids, uncommon in adults except sometimes when concentrating Delta: deep sleep

What area detects that your stomach is upset?

hypothalamus

What is the broad term for inflammatory or degenerative diseases that damage the joints?

Arthritis

What is bone remodeling?

Bone deposition and resorption for the purpose of shaping, strengthening or repairing bone

What types of gated channels are involved in graded potentials?

Ca? ligandor something?

What is the function of Broca's area?

Controls muscles involved in speech production.

What causes eyebrow hairs to be short and hair on your head to be long?

Having a short anagen phase means that the hair will stop growing before reaching the eyes

Where is the hypodermis? What tissue type predominates in this layer?

deep to the dermis adipose tissue ?

Why does cartilage heal slowly?

It is avascular

What are the functions of cerebrospinal fluid?

It protects the brain when the head is hit or jerked, and it provides nourishment to the brain tissues, and it makes it lighter, and delivers signals and removes waste

Where do you find reticular loose connective tissue?

Lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen)

Define membrane potential.

Measurable electrical charge difference across a cells plasma membrane due to different concentrations of ions

Define the following terms. For each one, give an example of a reflex that exhibits that characteristic. Monosynaptic - Polysynaptic - Contralateral - Ipsilateral -

Monosynaptic - one synapse (knee jerk) Polysynaptic - many synapses (visceral reflex) Contralateral - opposite sides react (stepping on tack) Ipsilateral - one side reacts (puling hand away from stove)

What causes Parkinson's disease? What is the result?

degeneration of dopamine releasing neurons perisistant tremor and slow movement

What are the two major types of sleep? Circle the one that occurs first when a normal person goes to sleep.

NREM (non rapid eye movement)- occurs first REM (rapid eye movement)

What is slow-wave sleep?

NREM stages 3 and 4

What types of gated channels are involved in action potentials?

Na+ and K+

Major Organs of the Muscular System

ONLY SKELETAL muscles

What is the organic component of bone matrix called? What is its function?

Osteoid -ground substance and collagen fibers contributes to structure, flexibility, and tensile strength so it can resist stretching and twisting

Briefly explain the cause of the following: Osteomalacia - Rickets - Osteoporosis - Paget's disease -

Osteomalacia - osteoid is produced but calcium salts aren't adequately deposited so the bones are soft and weak Rickets - same as osteomalacia , caused by insufficient calcium or vitamin D Osteoporosis - resorption > deposition Paget's disease - excessive and haphazard bone deposit and resorption, too much spongy bone to compact bone, causes spotty weakness

What is considered a critical burn?

Over 25% of the body has second-degree burns over 10% of the body has third-degree burns there are third-degree burns of the face, hands, or feet

Define muscle fatigue.

Physiological inability to contract • ATP production can't keep up with ATP use

In a neuron, what short processes usually receive input?

dendrite

What cells are responsible for the myelin sheath of axons in the PNS? What are the gaps between these cells called? What is the function of the myelin sheath?

Schwann cells aka internodes gaps are called nodes increase speed of AP

What is excitation-contraction coupling?

Sequence of events by which transmission of an AP along the sarcolemma leads to sliding of the myofilaments Neural stimulation of sarcolemma • Transmitted down T-tubule • Action potential reaches a triad •Cisternae of SR release Ca2+ • Binds to troponin • Pulls on tropomyosin • Allows binding of Myosin

The function of the basal nuclei overlaps with that of what other brain region?

Subconscious control of muscle tone and coordination of muscle movements initiated by the cerebral cortex

What are functions of the skeletal system?

Support• Protection Leverage necessary for movement Mineral and lipid storage Blood cell production

Define muscle twitch. What are the three periods associated with a muscle twitch and what is happening in a muscle cell during each period?

The most basic muscle contraction, result of single AP •Latent period •~ 2 ms •Events of excitation-contraction coupling •Action potential moves through sarcolemma down t-tubule •Causes Ca2+ release •Contraction phase •~ 15 ms •Calcium ions bind •Cross-bridges active •Tension builds to peak •Relaxation phase •~ 25 ms•Ca2+ levels fall •active sites are covered •tension falls to resting levels

Briefly explain the sliding filament model of contraction.

The thin filaments of the sarcomere slide toward the M line b/w the thick filaments and the zone of overlap gets larger and z lines move closer together

What is a sprain?

Torn collagen fibers in ligaments

What area is involved in understanding language?

Wernicke's area

What causes a stroke?

When oxygen to brain is blocked so tissue dies from lack of nutrients

Circle the long-distance signal: graded potential or action potential.

action ?

Where is red marrow (hematopoietic tissue) found in adults? In children?

adults: flat bones and head of femur kids: almost all bones

Which pathway is most efficient (produces the most ATP)?

aerobic respiration?

Major Organs of the Skeletal System

all bones of the skeleton cartilage ligaments other connective tissues

Major Organs of the Nervous System

all neural tissue brain and spinal cord peripheral structures (sensory receptors) nerves

What structure is responsible for both autonomic AND emotional response?

amygaloid body and cingulate gyrus??

Where do cranial nerves attach?

brain

What two structures make up the central nervous system?

brain and spinal cord

What is the inorganic component of bone matrix called? What is its function?

calcium salts hardness and reistence to compression

What pigment is yellow to orange and is most visible where the skin is thickest?

carotene

Why is it important for the blood-brain barrier to be absent in certain places (ex. hypothalamus)?

cause there it needs to be able to sample the fluxation of chemicals in the blood

What are the four main regions of the brain?

cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum

Spinal nerves from what regions of the spinal cord form plexuses? The spinal nerves from the _______ region do not form plexuses.

cervical lumbar sacral thoracic

What structures secrete cerebrospinal fluid? What structures allow CSF to be absorbed into venous blood?

choroid plexus superior sagittal sinus through structures called arachnoid villi?

What are the four classes of connective tissue?

connective tissue proper (fat, ligaments, etc), cartilage, bone, blood

What causes gray/white hair?

decreased melanin production and air bubbles

A reduction in the membrane potential is called _____ . It _____ the probability that a neuron will produce a nerve impulse. An increase in the membrane potential is called _____ . It _____ the probability that a neuron will produce a nerve impulse.

depolarization increases hyperpolarizaton decreases

What epidermal derivative covers the dorsal surface of the distal end of each digit?

dermal papillae ??

The thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus make up the _____ .

diencephalon

What enhances the transfer of short-term memory to long-term memory?

emotional state rehearsal association automatic memory

What are the two layers of the skin?

epidermis and dermis

Define EPSP.

excitatory postsynaptic potentials - depolarizes

Where is elastic cartilage found?

external ear, epiglottis

What do the large round cells of adipose loose connective tissue contain?

fat

A single skeletal muscle cell is called a muscle ______. It is covered in a connective tissue sheath called _____ . A bundle of these cells is called a _____ . This bundle is covered in a connective tissue sheath called _____ . Many of these bundles make up the organ called a _____ . This organ is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath called _____.

fiber endomysium fascicle perimysium muscle epimysium

What are the three components that make up connective tissue?

fibers (elastic and collagenous fibers), ground substance, and cells

What is the difference between fibrosis and regeneration?

fibrosis replaces the destroyed tissue with scar tissue while regeneration replaces destroyed tissue with the same type of tissue

What is the RAS and what does it do?

filters out receptive or weak signals

What is the difference between a sulcus and a fissure?

fissure is deeper

Define the following actions. OR Draw a stick person performing each action, including arrows that indicate movement. Flexion Extension Abduction Adduction Circumduction Lateral rotation Dorsiflexion Pronation

flexion: reduce angle extension: increase angle abduction:away from midline adduction: toward midline circumduction: lexion & abduction & extension & adduction of a limb so as to describe a cone in space (like arm circles in PE) Lateral rotation: anterior surface moves away from midline Dorsiflexion: superior surface of foot comes toward shin Pronation: palm faces toward dorsal side

The _____ _____ model describes the structure of the plasma membrane. It states that the membrane is a _____ _____ with embedded ______ .

fluid mosaic ??

What is the principle of complementarity of structure and function? Explain the principle using a specific example.

form ALWAYS dictates function - the functional capabilities are determined by the structural characteristics

Major Organs of the Endocrine System

glands ????

define tissue

groups of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or related function

Where does long bone growth occur during childhood? When does it stop?

growth plate stops during adolescence

What are complex receptors?

have complex structure special sensory organs

Major Organs of the Cardiovascular System

heart blood blood vessels

What reddish pigment is responsible for the pinkish hue of fair skin?

hemoglobin

How do negative feedback mechanisms differ from positive feedback mechanisms?

in negative feedback, the action of the effector negates the stimulus. It is the primary mechanism in homeostasis. in positive feedback, the response enhances/exaggerates the original stimulus (amplifies it). It only happens during infrequent events like labor contractions and platelet plugging.

What causes poliomyelitis?

inflammation of the spinal cord caused by Poliovirus

Define IPSP.

inhibitory postsynaptic potentials - hyper polarizes

What are the specialized junctions connecting muscle cells in cardiac muscle?

intercalated discs

Compare and contrast isometric and isotonic muscle contractions.

isometric: Skeletal muscle develops tension, but is prevented from changing length Note: Iso = same, metric = measure isotonic: • Skeletal muscle changes length resulting in motion' • If muscle tension > resistance- muscle shortens (concentric contraction) • If muscle tension < resistance- muscle lengthens (eccentric contraction)

How does cardiac muscle differ in appearance from skeletal muscle?

it has branching striated cells with one nucleus while skeletal cells have clear striations and multiple nuclei

What is the action of the sodium-potassium pump? (What does it move and to where?)

it moves 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in

Define synapse

junction between two nerve cells

What protein predominates in hair (and in the epidermis)? What characteristics does it provide to the skin?

keratin makes it harder and waterproof

Major Organs of the Urinary System

kidney (form urine) ureters (carry urine to bladder) urinary bladder (stores urine) urethra (single tube that exits body)

What is an example of a single-cell exocrine gland? What does it secrete? Where could it be found in the body?

mucous cells, goblet cells secretes mucin linings of intestinal and respiratory tracts

How does the body produce smooth, graded muscle contractions?

multiple units can contract

What plays the biggest role in maintaining stability of synovial joints?

muscle tendons that cross the joint

What causes Huntington's disease? What is the result?

mutant Huntingdon protein accumulates in the brain and kills tissue jerky involuntary movements

What is the primary protein of thick filaments? Of thin filaments?

myosin actin

What is a plexus?

network of nerves

What do sebaceous glands secrete? What is the function of this secretion?

oily substance called sebum softens and lubricates hair and skin, keeps hair from becoming brittle, and slows water loss from the skin

What is a function of a depression or opening? Give a specific example.

opening for blood vessels and nerves ?

What are the two points of attachment of a skeletal muscle? Circle the one attached to the more moveable bone.

origin insertion - attached to moveable bone

Describe the functions of osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts.

osteoblasts: build up osteoclasts: destroy osteocytes: mature cells in the lacunae

What is the structural unit of compact bone?

osteon (haversian system)

Where is fibrocartilage found? What characteristic makes it appropriate for its location?

places under pressure and stretch like knee or b/w vertebrae

What is the functional name for the precentral gyrus?

primary motor area

What is the functional name for the postcentral gyrus?

primary somatosensory cortex

What is caused by infection and subsequent inflammation of sebaceous glands?

propionibacterium acne

What results if the spinal cord is transected in the cervical region?

quadriplegia: all limbs

The dorsal and ventral roots join to form_______which branch into dorsal and ventral_______shortly after emerging from the vertebral column.

ramus rami

Define reflex.

rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus

What is the function of bursae and tendon sheaths?

reduce friction

How are fractures treated?

reduction (realignment of ends) and immobilization (cast, etc)

What is the period when a muscle cell cannot respond to a stimulus because voltage-gated Na+ channels are already open or are inactivated?

refractory period

Define neurotransmitter and give three examples of neurotransmitters.

the way neurons communicate AcetylCholine NorEpinephrine Dopamine Seratonin Histamine Glutamate

What is unique about fibers in the extracellular matrix of blood?

they don't connect or support anything

In an excitable cell, if the depolarization initiated by a graded potential reaches ______ , an action potential will be initiated.

threshold

Where does cartilage get its nutrients?

through the perichondrium surrounding it

How are the collagen fibers of dense regular connective tissue arranged?

tightly packed parallel fibers

What are T tubules and why are they important in skeletal muscles?

tube formed by the sarcolemma where the A and I bands meet They allow the electric impulses and signal that cause contraction to be taken into every sarcomere because it goes into it

Where is areolar loose connective tissue found?

under epithelia

Major Organs of the Respiratory System

upper respiratory system - nose, nasal cavities, paranasal sinuses, pharynx lower respiratory system - larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli of lungs

Where is the primary visual cortex?

very back of occipital lobe

Where is elastic dense connective tissue found?

walls of arteries, ligaments of vertebral column, walls of bronchial tubes

What is the purpose of pain?

warns of actual or impending tissue damage

Define joint (articulation).

where 2 bones connect

What is the function of dense irregular connective tissue?

withstand tension/strength in many directions - surrounds bones and cartilage and under epidermis and stuff

Describe an example of a bone structure that illustrates Wolff's law.

wolffs law says that bone in a healthy person will adapt to the loads under which it is placed. femur