A&P 1 Lab Final

How is the heart protected from rubbing against the lungs and body cavity as it moves?

The heart is enclosed in the pericardium, a double-walled sac. It is made of the fibrous pericardium (superficial) and the serous membrane (deep), which contains the Visceral pericardium (next to heart) and the Parietal pericardium (lines inner surface of fibrous pericardium). In between the parietal and visceral pericardium is serous fluid that creates a frictionless environment for the heart.

Be able to explain how a bell jar model lung works.

The jar model demonstrates the elasticity of the diaphragm and how pressure change causes breathing to occur. When the diaphragm contracts, it pulls the lungs down, increasing their volume. Negative pressure draws air in.

What is a neuromuscular junction? What chemical is released at this junction to stimulate an action potential?

The junction between a nerve fiber (axon) and a muscle fiber. Acetylcholine (Ach) is released to stimulate an action potential.

What is heart rate variability (HRV)?

The measure of the variation in time between each heartbeat

What membrane protects the brain and spinal cord that circulates cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)?

The meninges are composed of 3 connective tissue membranes (the dura mater, pia mater, and arachnoid mater) The subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

What is the function of the myelin sheath and what is it comprised of?

The myelin sheath is composed of layers of rolled-up Schwann Cells, its function is to speed up the transmission of electric signals and insulates electrical signals.

What accessory organ secretes glucagon and insulin and why?

The pancreas secretes glucagon and insulin as an endocrine function to keep blood glucose levels maintained

What part of the tooth encases blood and nerve supply?

The root of the tooth contains blood vessels and nerves, supplying blood and feeling to the whole tooth "pulp" of the tooth

Why might the apical be faster than the radial count (act. 2)?

There's a slight lag in time as the blood rushes from the heart into the large arteries where it can be palpated.

Why are platelets necessary?

They are needed for the clotting process that occurs in plasma when blood vessels are ruptured.

Be able to explain how a spirometer works.

This is how respiratory capacities are measured, as a person breathes the volumes of air exhaled can be read on an indicator, which shows the exchanges in air volume inside the apparatus This can help evaluate losses in respiratory diseases

Be able to identify in which body cavity a major organ or body part would be found.

Thoracic cavity- Heart, lungs, Pelvic Cavity- kidneys, ovaries, Dorsal cavity includes the cranial cavity (which contains the brain) and the vertebral cavity which contains the spinal cord. Abdominal Cavity- stomach, intestines

Be able to identify under a microscope:

areolar CT- irregular composition, contains elastic fibers and collagen fibers (widely distributed under epithelia around the body) reticular CT- irregular, thicker reticular fibers containing white blood cells (spleen) hyaline cartilage- firm matrix, contains chondrocytes in lacuna (costal cartilages of the ribs) adipose tissue.- contains vacuoles (fat droplets). (found around eyeballs and in the breasts)

What type of CT is found deep to the skin?

dense irregular connective tissue

What structure allows for implantation of a fertilized egg?

stratum functionalis

Which layer contains nerves and vascular tissue?

submucosa

Cell shapes and organization. (ie: squamous, columnar, etc. and simple vs stratified)

Squamous- flat, scale-like Cuboidal- cubelike Columnar- column-shaped Simple- one layer of cells attached to a basement membrane Stratified- two or more layers of cells; only the deepest layer rests on the basement membrane Pseudostratified- its cells extend at varying distances from the basement membrane so it gives them a false appearance of being stratified (often ciliated)

What type of epithelium is found lining the mucosa layer?

Stratified squamous epithelium

Know and understand Body Orientation and Directions. Be able to understand them in practical use.

Superior/Inferior- above/below Anterior/posterior- front/back Medial/Lateral- Toward the midline/away from the midline Cephalad/Caudal- toward the head/toward the tail Ventral/Dorsal- belly side/backside Proximal/Distal- near the trunk or attached end/farther from the trunk or attached end Superficial/deep- toward the body surface/more internal

Difference between systole and diastole

Systole: contraction in the ventricles Diastole: relaxation in the ventricles

How is blood pressure measured (and the units) and what is considered to be high or low blood pressure.

Systolic pressure: pressure of arteries at peak ventricular contraction Diastolic pressure: pressure during ventricular relaxation Blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) Systolic pressure appears first, than diastolic pressure (120/80; 120 over 80; systolic pressure of 120 mm Hg and diastolic pressure of 80 mm Hg)

tactile corpuscle vs. lamellar corpuscle.

Tactile Corpuscle- responds to light or fine pressure Lamellar Corpuscle- responds to deep pressure

What are the accessory organs to the digestive system?

Teeth, Salivary glands, Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas

Know what muscle separates the thoracic from the abdominal cavity.

The Diaphragm

dentify outer parts of the brain: frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe, cerebellum, and brain stem. (FIG 14.1b)

The cerebral hemispheres are divided by the deep longitudinal fissure. The central sulcus divides the frontal lobe, from the parietal lobe, and the lateral sulcus divides the temporal lobe from the parietal lobe. The parieto-occipital sulcus divides the occipital lobe from the parietal lobe. The cerebellum sits inferior to the brain and superior to the brainstem.

How does pH impact protein digestion?

The correct pH is necessary to activate Trypsin, which is important in protein digestion

What part of the neuron sends/receives signals?

The dendrites

How are muscles connected to bone?

The endomysium, perimysium, epimysium form TENDONS which connect muscle to bone

Lab 10 Urinary System

Exercise 26

Lab 11 Reproductive System

Exercise 27

Lab 2 Tissue & Skin

Exercise 5 & 6

Lab 3 Skeletal

Exercises 7-10

What is the function of hemoglobin and what metal does in contain to perform this function?

Hemoglobin is the RBC protein responsible for oxygen transport; it contains iron in it's heme, which is what the oxygen binds to.

Understand what exams can be performed to determine adequate cranial nerve function

Identify smells of aromatic substances Vision can be tested with eye charts Pupil reflexing can be tested with a penlight Sensations of pain, touch, and temperature can be tested with sharp, soft hot, and cold objects The ability to sense sweet, sour, salty, and bitter are tested. The symmetry of the face is checked (close eyes, smile, whistle) Gag and swallowing reflexes are tested as a subject is asked to talk and cough

Know how to explain pulmonary ventilation, external respiration and internal respiration.

Inhalation and Exhalation are Pulmonary Ventilation (breathing), external respiration exchanges gases between the lungs and the bloodstream, internal respiration exchanges gases between the bloodstream and body tissues

Know which factors influence rate and depth of respiration.

Neural Centers (maintain rate of breathing): Medulla and Pons Physical Actions (can modify the rate and depth of respiration): Talking, yawning, coughing, and exercise Chemical Factors (can modify the rate and depth of respiration): Changes in oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations in the blood, or changes in blood pH

What are the 3 areas of the small intestine and know their location

1. Duodenum, connects to the stomach 2. Jejunum, middle part 3. Ileum, attaches to the colon

The male duct system accessory structures (4) and their function/location.

1. Epididymis Location- the elongated cordlike structure running up/on back of a testis. Function- first part of duct system, that provides a site for immature sperm to mature and transports sperm out of man's body 2. Duct deferens (vas deferens) Location- runs superiorly from the epididymis pass through the inguinal canal into pelvic cavity and arches over the superior aspect of urinary bladder Function- tube that recieves sperm from the epididymis 3. Ejaculatory duct Location- small duct that connects the vas deferens to the urethra Function- during ejaculation contraction of the ejaculatory duct propels the sperm through the prostate gland to the prostatic urethra then empties into intermediate part of the urethra and then into spongy urethra 4. Urethra Location- runs through the length of the penis to the body exterior. Function- tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body

Explain the process of peristalsis and if it's voluntary or involuntary.

1. With the upper esophageal sphincter contracted (closed), the tongue pushes the food bolus posteriorly and against the soft palate. 2. The soft palate rises to close off the nasal passages as the bolus enters the pharynx. The larynx rises so that the epiglottis covers the trachea as peristalsis carries the food through the pharynx and into the esophagus. The upper esophageal sphincter relaxes to allow food entry. 3. The upper esophageal sphincter contracts again as the larynx and epiglottis return to their former positions and peristalsis moves the food bolus inferiorly to the stomach. 4. The cardioesophageal sphincter opens, and food enters the stomach.

What structures within the penis fill with blood to produce an erection?

3 elongated cylinders of erectile tissue. The corpora cavernosa.

What charge does a cell membrane have at resting potential? action potential? Why?

A neuron at rest is positively charged. When the neuron is activated by a threshold stimulus, the membrane briefly becomes more permeable to sodium, and sodium ions rush into the cell, depolarization takes place and the inside membrane becomes less negative.

Lab 1 Human Body Overview

Exercise 1 & 2

Lab 4 Muscular System

Exercise 11 & 12

Lab 5 Brain & Cranial Nerves

Exercise 13 & 14

Know the procedure used to identify urine characteristics and how to determine levels of these characteristics in an unknown sample.

Abnormal constituents of urine: Glucose could indicate diabetes Proteins could indicate renal disease Ketone bodies could indicate a low-carb diet, starvation, or diabetes Hemoglobin could indicate a transfusion reaction, hemolytic anemia and renal disease Bile pigments could indicate liver disease, or obstruction of bile ducts from liver or gallbladder Erythrocytes could indicate bleeding in the urinary tract Leukocytes could indicate a urinary tract infection

What is the difference between afferent and efferent?

Afferent (sensory)- carrying impulses from the sensory receptors in internal organs or skin. Efferent (motor)- carrying impulses from the CNS to the viscera and/or body muscles and glands

What are the organs of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract (alimentary canal)? Also, know their functions and locations.

Alimentary canal- the hollow muscular tube from mouth to anus; aka gastrointestinal (GI) tract Organs, functions, locations: Mouth: mechanical breakdown of food; mixing food with saliva Initiation of chemical digestion of carbs by salivary amylase Pharynx: conduction of food to esophagus Esophagus: conduction of food to stomach Stomach: 1) mechanical breakdown of food 2) secretion of acid, Pepsi oven, and intrinsic factor 3) initiation of chemical digestion of proteins by pepsin 4) secretion of gastric into bloodstream 5) transformation of food into chyme Small intestine: 1) chemical digestion of all nutrient classes by pancreatic enzymes and brush border enzymes 2) absorption of digestive end-products, water, ions, vitamins 3) secretion of enterogastrones into bloodstream 4) secretion of bicarbonate rich fluid Large intestine: 1) Compact and propel fecal matter toward the anus and to eliminate it from the body 2) Provides a site for intestinal bacteria to manufacture vitamins B and K (which is absorbed into the blood stream) 3) Reclaims most of the remaining water (& some electrolytes) from undigested food, thus conserving body water

What enzymes digests starch while food is in oral cavity?

Amylase breaks down starches (complex carbohydrates) into sugars, which can be more easily absorbed by the body

Use Fig 7.1 to label bones of the axial and appendicular skeletons.

Axial Skeleton: Skull (cranium and facial bones) Thoracic cage (ribs, sternum, thoracic vertebrae) Vertebral Column Appendicular Skeleton: Clavicle (collar bones) Scapula/Bones of the pectoral girdle Humerus, radius (lateral), ulna (medial). Carpals (wrist) Metacarpals (hand) Phalanges Bones of the pelvic girdle, ilium, ischium, and pubis (pelvis) The femur (thigh) Patella (knee cap) Tibia (medial), fibula (lateral) Tarsals (ankle) Metatarsals (foot bones)

Know which bones are found in the Axial vs. Appendicular skeleton.

Axial- includes the bones that form the body's longitudinal axis Appendicular- forms the bones of girdles and limbs

How was BP and HR affected by exercise in comparison to rest?

BP and HR increased with exercise and remained high even after 5 min of recovery after exercise, because your muscles need more oxygen than they do when you're at rest

Know the 5 different types of leukocytes and their roles and abundance in blood.

Basophils -It's granules contain several chemicals, including histamine (a vasodilator), that help mediate the inflammatory response -Makes up 0.5-1% of the WBCs Eosinophils -They increase in number during allergies and parasite infections -Makes up 2-4% of WBCs Neutrophils -Function as phagocytes, and their number increases explosively during acute infections -Makes up 50-70% of WBCs Lymphocytes -Function as "warriors" of the immune system -Makes up 25-45% of WBCs Monocytes -In tissues, it develops into a macrophage that phagocyticizes pathogens/debris, increasing dramatically in number during chronic infections -Makes up 3-8% of WBCs

Identify movement, for example:

Bending knee = flexion Dropping head forward= flexion Setting hand in correct anatomical position= supination Arms straight out then move to your hips= adduction

Where does exchange of gases occur and how can this be impaired?

Between the alveoli and the blood (pulmonary gas exchange) and internal respiration is the gas exchange process that occurs between the blood and the tissue cells (systemic capillary gas exchange)

What is the function of bile?

Bile is secreted by the liver cells to perform 2 primary functions: carry waste and break down fats during digestion

Difference between bolus and chime.

Bolus is food that had been mixed with saliva Bolus is chewed and then swallowed to reach the stomach Chyme is food that has been mixed with gastric juice Chyme enters the small intestine after passing through the stomach

How did you take a pulse in activity 1? And what possible arteries can be used to take a pulse?

By listening through a stethoscope Common carotid artery: At the side of the neck Superficial temporal artery: Anterior to the ear Facial artery: Anterior to the masseter muscle in line with the corner of the mouth (clench teeth) Brachial artery: In the antecubital fossa, at the point where it splits into the radial and ulnar arteries Radial artery: At the lateral aspect of the wrist, just above the thumb Femoral artery: In the groin Popliteal artery: At the back of the knee Posterior tibial artery: Just above the medial malleolus Dorsalis pedis artery: On the dorsum of the foot

Lab 5 Spinal Cord & Spinal Nerves

Exercise 15

Lab 6 Blood & Heart

Exercise 19 & 20

Lab 7 Blood Vessels & Cardio Physiology

Exercise 21 & 22

Lab 8 Anatomy & Physiology of the Respiratory System

Exercise 23 & 24

Lab 9 Digestive System

Exercise 25

Know the location of the different spinal nerve plexuses, associated nerves, and impacts of damage to specific plexuses and associated nerves (TABLE 15.1)

Cervical (C1-C5)- phrenic; serves the diaphragm; respiratory paralysis (and death) Brachial (C5-C8 and T1)- includes axillary, radial, median, and ulnar nerves; paralysis and atrophy of deltoid muscle; wrist drop inability to extend hand at the wrist; decreased ability to move the hand and thumb; decreased ability to flex arm and forearm. Lumbar (L1-L4)- includes femoral and obturator nerves; inability to extend the leg and flex at the hip; inability to adduct the thigh. Sacral (L4, L5, S1-S4)- Sciatic largest nerve in the body, common fibular nerve, tibial nerve, superior and inferior gluteal nerves; inability to extend at the hip and flex at the knee; footdrop- inability to dorsiflex foot; inability to plantarflex and invert foot; inability to extend at the hip or abduct and medially rotates the thigh.

Figure 8.7 - Be able to identify the different sections of the vertebral column:

Cervical- C1-C7 smallest and lightest, contain foramina to allow for the passage of arteries to the brain (atlas C1, axis 'dens' C2) Thoracic-T1-T12 larger than the cervical vertebrae; all 12 are the same; have coastal facets where they articulate with the ribs; long sharply-hooking spinous processes. Lumbar- L1-L5 largest and strongest since they handle the most stress Coccyx- 5 fused vertebrae Sacrum- 4 fused vertebrae

Characteristics of urine: color, pH, specific gravity, normal solutes, odor.

Color- pale yellow pH- 4.5-8.0 Specific Gravity- 1.001-1.030 Odor- aromatic Transparency- clear

For a sperm cell; where is DNA located? Why is the midpiece concentrated with mitochondria?

DNA is located in the head. Midpiece contains the mitochondria in order to have energy for the whip like movement of the tail

Know the anatomy of a neuron.

Dendrites- a receptive region of the cell body Axon (nerve fibers)- carries impulses away from the cell body Axon terminals- store a neurotransmitter chemical in tiny vesicles Synaptic cleft- separates axon terminals from the cell body or dendrites Schwann Cells- special neuroglia which myelinates nerve fibers in the PNS Myelin Sheath- encompasses the axon Myelin sheath gaps (node of Ranvier)- gaps or indentations between Schwann Cells

What type of CT makes up the tendons and some ligaments?

Dense regular connective tissue

Which muscles control breathing?

Diaphragm and intercostal muscles (external and internal)

What are effectors and what do they act on?

Effectors are parts of the body - such as muscles and glands - that produce a response to a detected stimulus

What is the importance of the epiglottis?

Elastic cartilage at the back of the throat, COVERS THE GLOTTIS DURING SWALLOWING

Be able to identify (epidermis & dermis): Subcutaneous layers (from superficial to deep):

Epidermis- most superficial layer of the skin; avascular, keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Dermis- connective tissue making up a bulk of the dermis; consists of the papillary and reticular areas. Stratum corneum- outermost layer consisting of 20-30 layers of dead keratinocytes. Stratum lucidum- only present in thick skin such as palms or soles of the feet; a thin, transparent band of dead keratinocytes. Stratum granulosum- thin layer named for the abundance of granules in its cells; cells begin to die Stratum spinosum- several layers of cells, containing web-like bundles made of pre-keratin protein. Stratum Basale- a single row of cells immediately above the dermis; cells here are constantly undergoing mitosis to form new cells.

Know diagrams 12.1 and 12.2.

Facial Epicranius- wrinkles forehead Orbicularis oculi- squints the eyes Zygomaticus- lifts the corners of the mouth to smile Orbicularis oris- mouth muscle Head Temporalis Masseter- helps to chew Neck Platysma- pulls lower lip down Sternohyoid Sternocleidomastoid- rotates the head, causes forward flexion of the neck Epicranius- pulls scalp posteriorly Shoulder Deltoid- the curve of the shoulder Infraspinatus Trapezius- extends head, adducts scapula Arm Triceps brachii Biceps Brachii- flexes and supinates the forearm Brachialis- flexor of the arm Forearm Pronator teres- pronates forearm Brachioradialis Flexor carpi radialis- flexor and abductor of the hand Flexor carpi ulnaris- flexes and adducts hand Palmaris longus Extensor carpi radialis longus Extensor carpi ulnaris Extensor digitorium Pelvis/Thigh Gluteus Medius- abducts and medially rotates thigh; steadies pelvis during walking Gluteus Maximus- powerful hip extensor; especially when using stairs Iliopsoas- flex the trunk at the hip Pectineus Tensor fascia lata Sartorius- flexes and laterally rotates thigh, flexes leg "tailor's muscle" Adductor longus Gracilis Rectus femoris-extends leg and flexes thigh Vastus lateralis- extends leg Vastus medialis- extends leg Adductor Magnus- adduct, laterally rotate and flex the thigh (hamstrings) Bicep femoris- laterally flexes the leg, semitendinosus- medially rotates the leg, semimembranosus- medially rotates the leg Leg Fibularis longus- plantar flexes and everts foot; helps keep it flat on the ground Extensor digitorium longus- extends the toes Tibialis interior- prime mover of dorsiflexion; inverts foot Gastrocnemius- flexes knee when the foot is dorsiflexed Soleus- plantar flexes foot Calcaneal tendon

On a sheep brain, identify cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem (pons, medulla), optic nerve, olfactory bulb

Figure 14.7

Differentiate between flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, pronation/supination.

Flexion/extension- decreases/increases the angle of a joint Abduction/adduction- moves the limb away from the midline/moves the limb towards the body Pronation/Supination- rotates the radius over the ulna (inward rotation of the arm)/rotates the thumb away from the body

Know Fig. 8.1 and 8.4 for the skull bones.

Frontal- forehead Parietal bones- form superior and the lateral aspects of the skull Temporal bones- inferolateral aspects of the skull Styloid process- site of neck muscle attachment; allows us to pivot our head Mastoid process- sinuses located here Occipital- forms the posterior aspect and base of the skull Ethmoid bone- forms part of the nasal septum and nasal cavity Paranasal Sinuses: (frontal sinus, ethmoid sinus, sphenoid sinus, maxillary sinus) hollow portions of the bone surrounding the nasal cavity, lightens the skull and project our voices. Crista Galli- attachment site for the brain to the skull Sella turcica- encloses the pituitary gland Cribriform Plate- holey area for the olfactory nerves to pass through; the sense of smell Vomer- forms the nasal septum Sphenoid bone- bat-shaped bone which articulates with all other cranial bones; greater/lesser wings Maxilla- upper jaw Mandible- Freely moveable lower jaw Alveolar processes- houses teeth Hyoid bone: only bone that does not articulate with another bone, a moveable base for our tongue, aids in speech and swallowing.

Describe function and location of the larynx.

Function- Routes air and food into its proper location; it is also the "voice box" Location- Anterior to the esophagus

Characteristics and function of epithelia.

Functions: protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sometimes sensory reception. Characteristics include: (Specialized contacts) cells fit closely together to form membranes or sheets, bound together by special junctions. (Polarity) membranes always have an apical (free) surface and deep basal surface (Supported by connective tissue) the cells are attached to and supported by a basement membrane (Avascular but Innervated) no blood supply, but receive nutrients from the diffusion of underlying connective tissue. (Regeneration) epithelial cells can normally easily regenerate themselves, important for tissues that are subject to much trauma and abrasion.

In a cross-section of the spinal cord, what is the gray matter comprised of? White matter?

Gray Matter mainly contains the cell bodies of neurons and glia and is divided into four main columns: dorsal horn, intermediate column, lateral horn, and ventral horn column. White Matter is composed of bundles of myelinated fibers. The axons connect various grey matter areas (the locations of nerve cell bodies) of the brain to each other and carry nerve impulses between neurons.

Know each of the heart chambers and the blood flow through these chambers. (use FIGURE 20.3 as a guide for blood flow)

Heart Chambers: Atrium (2): superior chambers of the heart on the left and right side. Functionally, they are receiving chambers, making them relatively ineffective as pumps. Left and right atria are separated by the interatrial septum Ventricle (2): inferior chambers of the heart on the left and right side. They form the bulk of the heart and force blood out of the heart into the large arteries that emerge from its base. The left and right ventricles are separated by the interventricular septum Blood flow: Blood enters from the superior and inferior vena cava into the right atrium Blood then goes from the right atrium to the right ventricle, which then pumps the blood into the pulmonary arteries, into the lungs to be oxygenated. Blood leaves the lungs through the pulmonary veins and enters the left atrium Blood goes from the left atrium to the left ventricle, which pumps the blood out of the heart through the aorta, to circulate through the body again

What factors are involved in blood coagulation? What if the body is unable to produce one of these proteins such as fibrinogen?

Injured tissues and platelets release tissue factor (TF) and phosphatidylserine (platelet factor 3), triggering clotting mechanism (cascade) TF and phosphatidylserine interact with other blood clotting factors and calcium ions to form prothrombin activator (converts prothrombin to thrombin) Thrombin acts enzymatically to combine the soluble fibrinogen proteins into insoluble fibrin (this forms a meshwork of strands, like a safety net, that traps the RBCs) forming the basis of a clot If one of these proteins isn't present, you run the risk of forming a fatal blood clot

Differentiate between internal and external sphincters of the urinary bladder.

Internal anal sphincter is involuntary (smooth muscle) that helps control defecation, External anal sphincter is voluntary (skeletal muscle) that controls micturition

What cells produce testosterone?

Interstitial cells (in the testes) btw the seminiferous tubules

How do gastric glands contribute to digestion?

It secretes hydrochloric acid which (1) creates an environment that is hostile to foreign organisms, and (2) activates the digestive enzymes that are initially secreted into the stomach in an inactive form

What are kidney stones and how can they form?

Kidney stones form when your urine contains more crystal-forming substances — such as calcium, oxalate and uric acid — than the fluid in your urine can dilute. At the same time, your urine may lack substances that prevent crystals from sticking together, creating an ideal environment for kidney stones to form.

Where are nephrons located?

Kidneys (about 2 million nephrons in each kidney) Begin in the cortex and tubules dip down to the medulla, then return to the cortex before draining into the collecting duct

Which lung has 3 lobes? 2 lobes? And, why are they different?

Left lung has 2 lobes and the right lung has 3 (left has 2 to make room for the heart)

Be able to apply information gained from the case study to answer questions regarding blood diseases and afflictions. (There are more, this is just all I could find in the lab manual)

Leukocytosis: abnormally high WBC count; may indicate bacterial/viral infection, hemorrhage, or poisoning by drugs or chemicals Leukopenia: abnormally low WBC count; may indicate measles, infectious hepatitis or cirrhosis, tuberculosis, or excessive antibiotic or X-ray therapy. One with leukopenia lacks typical protective mechanisms Leukemia: a malignant disorder of the lymphoid tissues characterized by uncontrolled cell division of abnormal WBCs and a reduction of the amount of RBCs and platelets. Detection by WBC count and differential WBC count Anemia: Lower oxygen-carrying capacity, results from decreased RBC number/size or decrease hemoglobin content in RBCs

Function of liver and gallbladder to the digestive system.

Liver: produces bile to export to the duodenum Gallbladder: stores, concentrates, and releases bile

Where is the appendix located and complications that could arise

Located in lower right abdomen Appendicitis: a rupture can spread infection throughout your abdomen

On a dissected rat be able to identify: lungs, heart, liver, stomach, spleen, large intestine, diaphragm.

Lungs- behind the heart Liver- large and black Stomach- tucked behind the liver Spleen- inferior to the stomach Large intestine- inferior to the spleen and shorter than the small intestine. Diaphragm- Inferior to the heart and lungs, superior to the liver.

What are the primary sex organs of the male? Female?

Male- testes, gonads Female- ovaries

Differentiate between a male and female pelvis in terms of thickness, pubic angle/arch, and pelvic outlet.

Male: Bones are heavier and thicker, the cavity of the pelvis is narrow and deep. Female: bones are lighter, thinner, and smoother, the cavity of the pelvis is broad, shallow, and has a greater capacity.

Know and understand Body Planes and Directions and understand the terms in practical use.

Median (midsagittal) plane- divides the body into R/L portions Frontal (coronal) plane- divides the body into posterior and anterior aspects. Transverse Plane- divides the body into superior and inferior portions.

What is the difference between microvilli and villi? Understand the importance of their structure.

Microvilli: Microscopic projections of the surface plasma membrane of the columnar epithelial cells of the mucosa Villi: Fingerlike projections of the mucosa that give it a velvety appearance and texture that contain lacteals and capillary blood that absorb digested foodstuff

Be able to identify a monocyte, lymphocyte and neutrophil.

Monocyte: The largest WBC (about twice the size of RBCs), dark blue kidney/U-shaped nucleus, and it's cytoplasm stains grey-blue Lymphocyte: Smallest WBC (about the size of RBCs), nucleus is generally spherical or slightly indented and stains dark blue/purple, cytoplasm appears as a thin blue rim around the nucleus Neutrophil: Nucleus contains 3-7 lobes, pale lilac cytoplasm which contains granules that stain acidic (red) and basic (blue).

Describe the histology of the alimentary canal by each of the tunics (3). From deep to superficial:

Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis Externa, and Serosa/Adventitia

Know the characteristics of a muscle cell and arrangement (Fig 11.3)

Myofibrils- fill the cell interior Alternating light (I) bands and dark (A) bands along the length of perfectly aligned myofibrils give the muscle fiber a striped appearance. Myofibrils are composed of threadlike myofilaments (composed of the contractile proteins actin and myosin) Sarcomeres- actual contractile units of muscle that extend from the middle of one I band to the middle of the next. Muscle fiber- composed of many compacted myofibrils. Endomysium- delicate connective tissue sheath that encloses each muscle fiber Perimysium- collagenic membrane that wraps several muscle fibers into a fascicle Fascicle- a bundle of muscle fibers Epimysium- dense irregular connective tissue that encloses a large number of fascicles to enclose the entire muscle.

What filaments are responsible for muscle contraction?

Myofilaments

What part of the brain functions in:

a. maintaining heart rate/breathing Brain stem b. language/comprehension Wernicke's area in the Temporal lobe c. visual area Occipital lobe d. skeletal muscle control motor cortex behind the Frontal lobe

Know the cranial nerves and their basic functions.

Olfactory- primary sense of smell Optic- primary sense for vision impulses Oculomotor- direct the eyeball, controls eyelids, controls lens shape Trochlear- an extrinsic eye muscle Trigeminal- conducts sensory impulses from the face, scalp, and mouth; activate chewing muscles Abducens- lateral rectus muscle of the eye Facial- facial expression; lacrimal (tear) and salivary glands; taste receptors and the anterior tongue. Vestibulocochlear- transmits impulses for senses of equilibrium and hearing Glossopharyngeal- gag and swallowing reflexes; pharynx, posterior tongue (taste buds), and pressure receptors of the carotid artery. Vagus- pharynx, larynx; heart, and smooth muscles of abdominal visceral organs. Accessory- provides motor fibers to the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. Hypoglossal-serve muscles of the tongue, and carry impulses from the tongue. (subject can be asked to protrude and retract tongue).

How did you test for breakdown of fats? (Act 11)

One of the test tubes had bile salts and the other did not, and after waiting, the test tube that emulsified means that test tube had fat breakdown

Explain the different peaks in an ECG (electrocardiogram).

P Wave: depolarization of atria QRS Wave: depolarization of ventricles T Wave: repolarization of ventricles

Be able to label/identify FIGURE 20.2 - Anatomy of the heart.

Page 246 & 247

Be able to identify cardiac muscle using a microscope and how it's different from other striated muscle.

Page 250

Be able to locate structures on a sheep heart: R/L ventricles, R/L atria, chordae tendineae, tricuspid valve, bicuspid valve, aorta, pulmonary artery/vein.

Page 251

Be able to differentiate between an artery and vein using a microscope.

Page 259 Artery has thicker tunica media than a vein

Identify parts of the stomach in FIGURE 25.4, including the pyloric and cardioesophageal sphincters.

Page 315

Identify structures in FIGURE 26.1 and 26.2.

Page 332

Identify structures on a dissected kidney as shown in FIGURE 26.3a.

Page 333

Know FIGURE 26.4b.

Page 335

Know structure in FIGURE 27.1

Page 344

Know structure in FIGURE 27.2

Page 345

Know structure in FIGURE 27.3

Page 346

Identify female reproductive structure in FIGURE 27.5

Page 347

Identify female reproductive structure in FIGURE 27.6

Page 348

What membranes protect the lung and how?

Parietal pleura- Outer layer attached to thoracic walls and diaphragm Visceral pleura- Inner layer attached to the lung tissue Pleura Cavity- Separates the two pleura The pleural layers produce lubricating serous fluid that keeps them close together. It also holds the lungs to the thoracic wall and allows for them to move against each other with ease while breathing.

What part of the digestive system is shared with the respiratory system?

Pharynx

Know the composition of blood and what makes up the formed elements.

Plasma (55%) Formed Elements (45%) -Erythrocytes (RBCs) -Leukocytes (WBCs) -Platelets

Know the procedure used to determine blood type in the lab and understand the ABO blood types. What factor makes it positive or negative?

Procedure: a serum containing Anti-A/Anti-B antibodies is added to a blood sample. If agglutination occurs, it means the blood contains that antigen. A blood type is positive if they have the Rh antigen and are negative if they don't contain the Rh antigen ABO Blood Type: A, B, AB, O Antigen Present: A, B, A&B, None Antibodies Present: Anti-B, Anti-A, None, Anti-A & Anti-B

What happens to the corpus luteum after release of oocyte?

Produces hormones estrogen and progesterone

Characteristics and function of connective tissue (CT).

Protect, support, and bind together with other tissues of the body

Where on the body would you find the following epithelia: pseudostratified columnar and transitional epithelium.

Pseudostratified columnar- lines the trachea and most of the upper respiratory tract Transitional epithelium- lines the ureters, urinary bladder, and part of the urethra.

Understand pulmonary circulation and the movement of oxygenated vs. deoxygenated blood.

Pulmonary circulation doesn't serve metabolic purposes like systemic circulation does. It serves to bring blood in close contact with the air sacs of the lungs to permit gas exchange. CO2 blood leaves heart through Pulmonary trunk -> Pulmonary arteries-> Lobar Arteries->gas exchange across pulmonary capillaries-> O2 blood re-enters heart through Pulmonary veins

What is the importance of the serosa?

Reduces friction as the digestive system organs slide across one another

Major blood vessels associated with the kidneys.

Renal Vein and Artery, Cortical radiate Vein and Artery, Arcuate Vein and Artery, Interlobar Vein and Artery, and Segmental arteries

Functions of the urinary system and its role in maintaining homeostasis.

Responsible for water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance and the removal of nitrogen containing wastes from the blood

What are characteristics of erythrocytes (RBCs); size, shape, function, anucleate and life span.

Size: 7.5 pum. In diameter (real unit of measurement is on page 232 of lab manual, couldn't figure out how to type it) Shape: Biconcave disc Function: Transports oxygen (and small amounts of carbon dioxide) Nucleus?: No, they are anucleate Life Span: 100-120 days

Be able to explain what tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, vital capacity, inspiratory reserve volume and residual volume are and how to measure them using the spirometer.

Tidal Volume (TV) -Amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath under resting conditions -Inhale a normal breath, then exhale a normal breath of air into the spirometer Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) -Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume expiration -Inhale and exhale normally 2 or 3 times. Then insert spirometer and exhale forcibly as much as you can Vital Capacity (VC) -Maximum amount of air contained in lungs after a maximum inspiratory effort -Breathe in and out normally 2 or 3 times. Bend over and exhale as much as possible. As you raise yourself back upright, inhale as much as possible. Insert the mouthpiece and exhale as forcibly as you can. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) -Amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inspiration -You can calculate using the previously recorded values: IRV=VC-(TV+ERV) Residual Volume (RV) -Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration -It cannot be measured directly, you can approximate: Ages 16-34: Factor= 0.250 Ages 35-49: Factor= 1.305 Ages 30-69: Factor= 1.445 Then compute: RV=VC x Factor

What direction does an impulse move along a neuron?

Toward the body

What are the layers of the blood vessels and what are the comprised of?

Tunica intima ( inner-most layer Endothelium (it's simple squamous cells fit closely together, making it smooth to decrease resistance in blood flow) Subendothelial layer Internal elastic membrane Tunica media (middle layer) Made of smooth muscle and elastic fibers External elastic membrane Tunica externa (outermost layer) Made of collagen fibers Vasa vasorum

Function/location of vagina, uterus, cervix, fallopian tubes and ovaries.

Vagina- vestibule to uterus superiorly, copulatory organ, birth canal ,and permits menstrual to flow pass Uterus- between bladder and rectum, nurturing the fertilized ovum that develops into the fetus and holding it till the baby is mature enough for birth Cervix- directed inferiorly, allow flow of mestrual. blood from the uterus into the vagina and direct the sperms into the uterus Fallopian tubes- superior part of the uterus, transports the ova from the ovary to the uterus Ovaries- produce oocytes (eggs) for fertilization and they produce the reproductive hormones: estrogen and progesterone

Ovary development occurs in many stages; What occurs as ovum is in each follicle stage: a. Primary: b. Secondary/growing: c. Mature/Vesicular: d. Ruptured:

a. Primary: cuboidal follicle cells surrounding the larger central developing ovum. b. Secondary/growing: showing fluid accumulation, secretes estrogens. c. Mature/Vesicular: large antrum containing fluid. d. Ruptured: produces estrogen and progesterone

What is secreted from the following accessory glands to make seminal fluid: a. Prostate gland b. Seminal vesicles c. Bulbourethral glands

a. Prostate gland- a milky, slightly acidic fluid that contains citric acid, several enzymes, and prostate-specific antigen (PSA). Its secretion plays a role in activating sperm b. Seminal vesicles- a thick, light yellow, alkaline secretion containing fructose and citric acid, which nourish the sperm and prostaglandins for enhanced sperm motility. Its secretion has the largest contribution to the volume of semen c. Bulbourethral glands- a clear alkaline mucus that lubricates the tip of the penis for copulation and neutralizes traces of acidic urine in the urethra prior to ejaculation.

What muscle is responsible for:

a. chewing Masseter b. smiling Zygomaticus c. looking down, turning head yes and no Sternocleidomastoid d. flexes the elbow, used when doing curls Biceps Brachii e. extends forearm, used when doing "dips" Triceps Brachii

What CT connects the ribs to the sternum?

hyaline cartilage

Why is scrotal sac not located within the male body?

its located outside of the abdominopelvic cavity. the temperature is slightly lower than body temp, a REQUIREMENT for producing viable sperm

Know the parts of the pharynx.

nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

What type of CT makes up the bone?

osseous tissue

Where are the female gametes formed?

ovaries

Function of seminiferous tubules.

produce sperm, maintain sperm, and store the sperm

When does ovulation occur?

when a mature ovum is released from the follicle about 14 days before the onset of the next menstrual period

Be able to identify under a microscope:

simple squamous- appears stringlike (found in lungs). simple cuboidal- appears to look like cuboidal globules (Kidneys, ovaries) stratified squamous- connective tissue, basement membrane, stratified squamous, multiple flat sheets of epithelia(forms most linings of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina). simple columnar- appears in distinct columns (lines most of the digestive tract)

What are the three types of muscle tissue?

skeletal, cardiac, smooth

What structure is shared with the urinary system?

urethra

The vagina is slightly acidic (pH 3.8-4.5) and semen is pH 7.2-8.0 (slightly alkaline). What is the purpose for such a difference in pH? (not in book but think in terms of reproduction!)

the vagina is acidic the prevent bad bacteria from growing and causing an infection. semen is slightly alkaline to protect itself from the vaginas acidic environment.