A&P Quick Check Unit 3
Which structure resides in the vertebral cavity?
Spine
How are the oral and nasal cavities related structurally?
roof of oral cavity is same as floor of nasal cavity (hard palate)
Where are the femoral and tibial condyles located?
Femoral: distal end of femur with a medial and lateral condyle below a medial and lateral epicondyle Tibial: proximal end of tibia with a medial and lateral condyle
What are the epiphyses and diaphysis?
Epiphyses: Superior and inferior ends of bones Diaphysis: shaft of long bone
What are collagen fibers?
Made of collagen, provides support, extremely tough, high tensil strength.
With which structures does the clavicle articulate?
Manubrium of the sternum and the acromion of the scapula
What are the three components of the sternum?
Manubrium, body, Xiphoid process
What are the bony projections of the medial and lateral ankle called respectively?
Medial and lateral malleolus
What are the three arches of the foot?
Medial longitudinal arch: calcaneus to metatarsals I-III Lateral longitudinal arch: calcaneus to metatarsals IV-V Transverse arch: runs along middle of foot and involves distal tarsals and all 5 metatarsals
What are the three parts of a metacarpal and a phalanx?
Metacarpal: Proximal epiphysis, middle diaphysis, distal epiphysis Phalanx: proximal, middle, distal phalanx
How many metacarpals and phalanges are in the hands and fingers?
Metacarpals: 5 Phalanges: 14
Define the terms mineral, electrolyte, and buffer.
Mineral: elements of the periodic table that make up less than 4% of the human body Electrolyte: result of cations and anions mixture into a solution (dissolving of salt in water makes electrolytes) Buffer: chemical systems that resist change in pH and prevent large swings in pH when acid or base is added to solution
Which type of synovial joint has the greatest range of motion, which type has the least?
Most: ball-and-socket Least: plane
What are the seven tarsal bones?
Talus, calcaneous, navicular, medial cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, lateral cuneiform, cuboid
What are the main functions of joints?
movement, stability, lengthening of bones
What are the main organs of the skeletal system?
Bones
Where is the epiphysis?
knobby end of a long bone
What is the perichondrium?
(Peri=around)=A covering of dense irregular connective tissue. Surrounds the surface of most cartilage. Gives cartilage oxygen and nutrients through its blood vessels
Describe the structure of an intervertebral disc.
- circular ANNULUS FIBROSIS made of collagen lamellae that encloses a well-hydrated, gel-like NUCLEUS PULPOSUS - both structures contain water, collagen, and proteoglycans, but the nucleus pulposus contains most of the fluid
Which parts of the skeleton belong to the appendicular skeleton? Which parts belong to the axial skeleton?
Appendicular: Pectoral girdle (clavicle and scapula), upper limb (humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges), pelvic bone, lower limb (femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges) Axial: Skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage (ribs and sternum), sacrum
Match the following terms with the correct definition: Lacunae
Cavities that house osteocytes
Match each bone with the correct description from the right column: Ethmoid bone
Features the crista galli and the superior and middle nasal conchae
What is a short bone?
cube shaped, wirst and ankle bones
Why do synovial joints require stabilization?
very unstable due to increased mobility, part of normal function is being continually stressed so it needs extra support
What are the properties of fibrocartilage?
-Higher fiber content than other cartilage -Provides the shock absorption the articular cartilage and the tensile strength of ligaments and tendons -Dense type I collagen with a moderate number of GAGs -Ideal shock absorber in regions of body subject to high, multidirectional forces
Walk through the basic steps of intramembranous ossification
1. Osteoblasts develop in primary ossification center from mesenchymal cells 2. Osteoblasts secrete organic matrix , which calcifies, and trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes 3. Osteoblasts lay down early trabeculae of spongy bone, and some of the surrounding mesenchyme differentiates into the periostenum 4. Osteoblasts in the periostenumlay down early compact bone
Walk through the basic steps of fracture repair.
1. hematoma fills fracture site 2. soft callus forms when fibroblasts and chondroblasts enter hematoma 3. osteoblasts build bone callus 4. bone callus is remodeled and primary bone is replaced with secondary bone
Describe four ligaments the stabalize the knee joint.
Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL): anterior of tibia to posterior of femur, when knee is extended ACL is tighted to prevent hyperextension, also prevents tibia from moving to anteriorly from femur Posterior Cruciate Ligament (PCL): posterior of tibia to anterior of femur, tightens when knee is flexed, prevents knee from displacing itself poseriorly to femur Medial (Tibial) Collateral Ligament (MCL): connects femur and tibia and attaches to medial meniscus, prevents tibia from hyperabducting from the femur Lateral (Fibular) Collateral Ligament (LCL): connects femur and fibula (NOT LATERAL MENISCUS) and prevents tibia from hyperadducting from the femur
Where are the six main fontanels located?
Anterior, poterior, 2 mastoid (one on each side), and 2 sphenoid (one on each side) fontanels
Which type of ossification? Features secondary ossification centers?
Endochondral
Which type of ossification? Involves a bone collar?
Endochondral
How do the atlas and axis differ from the other cervical vertebrae?
Atlas: no body or spinous process and has foramina in transverse processes, attached to occipital bone to allow for nodding yes Axis: has dens which points superiorly into atlas to allow for nodding no, also has foramina on transverse process
How does the structure of the foot and toes parallel that of the hand and fingers?
Both have 14 phalanges with pollex/hallux only having 2 bones, metacarpals numbered I-V starting with the great toe/finger, had a handful of short bones to create ankle/wrist made of 7/8 bones respectively
Identify each of the following characteristics as belonging to the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar vertebrae; the sacrum; the coccyx: Contains transverse foramina
Cervical
How many cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal vertebrae are normally present in the vertebral column?
Cervical: 7 (neck) Thoracic: 12 (articulate with ribs) Lumbar: 5 (lower back) Sacral: 5 (fused) (articulate with pelvic bone) Coccygeal: 3-5 (fused)
What are the properties of cartilage?
Chondroblasts, chondrocytes, lacunae avascular lacks lymphatic drainage lacks nerves tough but flexible, absorbs shock, resistant to tension, compression, and shearing forces
Which bones form by intramembranous ossification?
Clavicles and skull bones (flat bones of the skull)
Identify each of the following characteristics as belonging to the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar vertebrae; the sacrum; the coccyx: Makes up the inferiormost portion of the vertebral column
Coccyx
Where are compact bone and spongy bone located, and what are their functions?
Compact: outer bone, hard and dense, resist majority of stresses placed on it (linear compression and twisting forces) Spongy: inner bone, honeycomb like, place for bone marrow to reside, framework of many bony struts that allow it to resist forces
Match each bone with the correct description from the right column: Sphenoid bone
Composed of a body, greater, and lesser wings, and pterygoid processes
Explain how compression, continuous pressure on a bone, and dietary factors influence bone remodeling/
Compressional load or exercise: increase osteoblast activity Continuous Pressure: increase osteoclast activity Dietary factors: adequate vit D, K, and C increase osteoblast activity
What are the major sutures joining the cranial bones?
Coronal, sagittal, squamous, lamboid
How does a short bone differ from a long bone?
Cube shaped, does not have epiphyses and diaphysis
Where and how is vitamin D produced?
Dehydrocholesterol (provitamin D) is made by cells in the digestive system, travels in blood to skin; exposure to UV light from sun converts it to Vitamin D which is used for bone and tooth development
What are dense regular and dense irregular collageonous connective tissue?
Dense regular: collagen fibers arranged in regular bundles, found in tendons Dense irregular: collagen fibers in irregular bundles, found in joints and organ capsules
What are some functions of bone markings?
Depressions: where bones can articulate or where blood vessels can travel along bone Openings: enclose delicate structures and allow them to travel through bones Projections: where ligaments or tendons attach and where bones articulate
Match each bone with the correct description from the right column: Zygomatic bone
Forms the anterior parts of the cheek
Match each bone with the correct description from the right column: Vomer
Forms the inferior part of the nasal septum
Which bones form the orbit?
Frontal, Ethmoid, Sphenoid, Maxillary, Lacrimal, Zygomatic, Palatine
What are the glenoid cavity, acromion, and coracoid process?
Glenoid: shallow indentation lateral superior part of clavicle that joins with the humerus to make the shoulder joint Acromion: superiormost-lateralmost part of scapula that joins with the clavicle to make the acromioclavicular joint Coracoid Process: hook like projection anterior and inferior to the acromion
Compare and contrast gliding and angular motions, circumduction and rotation, and abduction and adduction
Gliding: sliding motion, nonaxial, direction depends on shape of articulating surface Angular: increase and decrease angle between articulating bone includes flexion and extension Circumduction: distal part of bone can make full circle while proximal part of bone stays stationary Rotation: bone pivoting and twisting along imaginary line running down its middle, whole bone moves together Abduction: body part moving away from designated midline Adduction: body part moving towards designated midline
What is a long bone?
Has an iregular epiphysis at each end, composed mainly of spongy (cancellous) bone, and a shaft or diaphysis, composed mainly of compact bone.
Describe the structure and location of the following: the humeral head capitulum trochlea deltoid tuberosity greater tubercle
Humeral head: articulates with glenoid cavity to form shoulder, ball shaped, superior part of proximal epiphysis Capitulum: sphere shaped looks like head, anterior and lateral on distal epiphysis Trochlea: wheel shaped, anterior and medial on distal epiphysis Deltoid tuberosity: attachment of deltoid muscle, middle lateral side of diaphysis Greater tubercle: on proximal epiphysis, lateral to anatomical neck
What two joints form the elbow joint?
Humeroradial and Humeroulnar joints
How do hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage differ?
Hyaline: ground substance is predominant element with fine type of collagen forming small bundles, in nose, articulating ends of bones, and sternum Fibrocartilage: collagen fibers is predominant element leaving little space for ground substance, in intervertebral discs
How is appositional growth different from longitudinal growth?
Instead of creating new osteons like in longitudinal growth, appositional growth forms new circumferential lamellae, once they're added the deeper lamellae are either removed or made into osteons
Which type of ossification? Features multiple primary ossification centers?
Intramembranous
For each type of ossification: What is the model for ossification?
Intramembranous: Mesenchymal Membrane Endochondral: Hyaline Cartilage
For each type of ossification: Does spongy bone or compact bone form first?
Intramembranous: Spongy Bone Endochondral: Compact Bone
For each type of ossification: Which bones form by each type?
Intramembranous: flat bones Endochondral: All bones below head besides clavicle
What is unique about the hyoid bone?
It doesn't articulate with any other bone, it is suspended in the superior neck by muscles
Where is the pubic symphysis located?
Junction of the two pubic bones lying roughly 4"-5" below the navel
Where is the acetabulum, and which bone articulates with it?
Lateral surface of the hip bone, head of femur articulates with it
Where is the glenoid cavity, and which bone articulates with it?
Lateral surface of the scapula, head of humerus articulates with it
What is the epiphyseal plate?
Layer of hyaline cartilage that allow the bone to grow lengthwise
What is the epiphyseal plate? What is its function?
Layer of hyaline cartilage that allow the bone to grow lengthwise
What are the basic structural and functional properties of ligaments, tendons, and bursae?
Ligaments: dense regular collagenous connective tissue, attaches bone to bone, intrinsic ligaments found in articular capsule and extrinsic ligaments around joint cavity Tendons: dense regular collagenous connective tissue, attaches bone to muscle, usually crosses over or around joint, stabalizes joints Bursae: synovial fluid filled structure like a water balloon, fibrous structure lines with synovial membrane, can be attached to capsule or separate, usually found in high stress regions with lots of bone, ligament, tendon, muscle, skin interaction to reduce friction
Where is the cranial cavity located and what is housed within this cavity?
Located in the skull, houses the brain
Match each bone with the correct description from the right column: Mandible
Lower jaw bone
Identify each of the following characteristics as belonging to the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar vertebrae; the sacrum; the coccyx: Have thick block like bodies with thick spinous processes
Lumbar
What are the two components of bone ECM? How do these components differ?
Organic Matrix: osteoid, include protein fibers, proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins, and osteocalcin, includes collagen fibers, resists torsion and tensile forces, mostly contributes to strength and support Inorganic Matrix: mostly calcium salt and phosphorus salt, gives strength and resists compression Both use hydroxyapetite to strengthen the bone and resist fracture
Compare organic and inorganic substances.
Organic: produced by living organism, make up much of human body and other living things, large and complex, carbon-hydrogen backbone is basis for all organic compounds, groups of atoms attached can change function, includes carbohydrates, lipid, proteins, and nucleotides Inorganic: do not contain carbons bonded to hydrogens, include water, acids, bases, salts
Comare and contrast the locations and functions of osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts.
Osteoblasts: immature cells that build bone within the bone, this occurs on the surface of the bone, derived from osteogenic cells, perform bone deposition where they secrete organic matrix and aid in creating inorganic matrix Osteocytes: mature cells that form once osteoblasts are fully surrounded in the secreted matrix, secrete chemicals needed to maintain ECM, recruit osteoblasts to build up areas of bone under tension, also found on surface of bone Osteoclast: found in endosteum, large and multinucleated, perform bone resorption which breaks down ECM by hydrogen ions and enxymes secreted by ruffled border, dissolve and breakdown organic and inorganic matrix
What are the layers of the articular capsule and what are their functions?
Outer fibrous layer of dense regular collagenous connective tissue, keeps articulating bones from being pulled apart, isolates internal environment of joint from external blood supply of connective tissue Inner layer called synovial membrane, loose connective tissue, maintains homeostasis by obtaining nutrients and oxygen and expelling wastes, secrete synovial fluid
Classify the following bones as long, short, flat, or irregular: phalanges ribs carpals pelvis humerus
Phalanges: long Ribs: flat Carpals: short Pelvis: flat Humerus: long
Compare the six structural classes of synovial joints.
Plane: glide across each other, most stable of synovial joints, found in carpals and tarsals Hinge: uniaxial, moves in one direction, less stable that plane, found in elbow and knee Pivot: uniaxial, found in atlantoaxial joint in neck to shake head no, projection of one bone fits into another, less stable that hinge Condylar: biaxial, moves in two directions, less stable that pivot, found at metacarpal phalange joint Sadle: biaxial, looks like something is sitting in sadle, less stable that condylar, found in thumb joint Ball-and-socket: least stable of all joints in body, multiaxial, moves in every direction, found in shoulder and hip
Match each bone with the correct description from the right column: Occipital bone
Posterial cranial bone; contains the foramen magnum
What are the normal spinal curvatures?
Primary: Thoracic and sacral Secondary: Cervical and lumbar
How do primary bone and secondary bone differ?
Primary: immature bone, formed by both types of ossification (intramembranous and endochondral), comes first Secondary: replaces primary bone when it is resorbed by osteoclasts, has more inorganic matrix making it stronger, fully formed lamellae, regularly arranged collagen fibers parallel to one another making it stronger
What are primary and secondary bone, and how do they differ?
Primary: immature bone, formed by both types of ossification (intramembranous and endochondral), comes first Secondary: replaces primary bone when it is resorbed by osteoclasts, has more inorganic matrix making it stronger, fully formed lamellae, regularly arranged collagen fibers parallel to one another making it stronger
What are the differences between primary and secondary bone?
Primary: immature bone, formed by both types of ossification (intramembranous and endochondral), comes first Secondary: replaces primary bone when it is resorbed by osteoclasts, has more inorganic matrix making it stronger, fully formed lamellae, regularly arranged collagen fibers parallel to one another making it stronger
What are protein fibers and ground substance?
Protein fibers: large, long structures in ground substance, multiple fibrous protein subunits that entwine to form a ropelike structure, lots of tensile strength, include collagen, elastic, and reticular Ground substance: shapeless, gel-like substance making up ECM, includes interstitial and extrastitial fluid with water, ion, nutrients and solutes as well as macromolecules
With which structures does the humerus articulate at its proximal and distal epiphyses?
Proximal: glenoid cavity with the ball shaped humeral head Distal: medial and lateral epicondyles are muscle attachment points, articulation with ulna and radius with capitulum, trochlea, as well as radial, coronoid, and olecronon fossas
With which bones does the femur articulate? Be specific.
Proximal: head articulates with acetabulum of hip bone Distal: medial and lateral condyles articulate with tibia, patellar surface articulates with patella
Which parts of the femur form these articulations?
Proximal: head of femur articultes with acetabulum Distal: medial and lateral condyles articulate with tibia, patellar surface articulates with patella
List the proximal and distal carpal bones from lateral to medial
Proximal: scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform Distal: trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate
Which parts of the radius and unla articulate with the humerus?
Radius: Radial head with capitulum Ulna: Olecranon with olecranon fossa, coranoid process with coranoid fossa, trochlear notch with trochlea
How do the radius and ulna differ in shape and features?
Radius: narrow proximally and gradually gets wider distally, radial head is proximal, articulates with capitulum, has a tuberosity, attaches to ulna at proximal and distal points, has styloid process at distal end Ulna: wide proximally and gradually gets more narrow distally, has U shaped notch called trochlear notch articulating with trochlea, has olecranon which articulates with olecranon fossa, anterior lip of trochlear notch is coranoid process with articulates with coranoid fossa, ulnar head on distal end, medial side of head has syloid process
What are the two types of bone marrow, and what are their functions?
Red: network of reticular fibers supporting islands of blood forming cells (hematopoietic) Yellow: stores triglycerides, is mostly blood vessels and adipocytes
How do bone resorption and bone deposition differ?
Resorption: osteoclast function increases, breaks down hydroxyapatite in inorganic matrix, released calcium can be reused elsewhere Deposition: osteoblast function increases and more bone is formed
Match the following terms with the correct definition: Lamellae
Rings of bone matrix
Match the following terms with the correct definition: Central Canal
Runs down the center of the osteon, contains blood vessels
Match the following terms with the correct definition: Perforating Canal
Runs perpendicular to the osteons, contains blood vessels
Identify each of the following characteristics as belonging to the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar vertebrae; the sacrum; the coccyx: Consists of five fused vertebrae
Sacrum
Compare scoliosis, lordosis, and kyphosis
Scoliosis: spine moves laterally, makes C or S shape, can be congenital, neuromuscular, or idiopathic Lordosis: happens in lumbar and sacral spine, gives extra curve forward, happens in overweight and pregnant people as well as dancers Kyphosis: hunchback, cervical and thoracic spines overly curved, caused by arthritis, osteoporosis, and fractures
What type of bone is the patella and where is it located?
Sesamoid bone located within the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle group
What are dental alveoli?
Sockets in the jaw bones in which the teeth are held
What is hyaline cartilage?
Stiff, flexible support Reduces friction between bones Found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, and trachea
What features increase the stability of the shoulder joint?
Tendon of the lond head of the biceps brachii, coracohumeral ligament, three glenohumeral ligaments, subacromial bursa, subscapular bursa, subscapularis muscle, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor muscles these four muscle's tendons make the rotator cuff, glenoid labrum
How is bone growth affected by the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone?
Testosterone: increases appositional bone growth, increases rate of mitosis at epiphyseal plate, accelerates closure of epiphyseal plate Estrogen: increases longitudinal growth and inhibits osteoclasts, accelerates closure of epiphyseal plate (more potent than testosterone)
Why is the shoulder joint less stable than the hip joint?
The glenoid cavity is much more shallow than the acetabulum cavity making it more unstable, it also does not need to be as stable because unlike the hip joint, it is not holding the body's weight
What is intramembranous ossification?
The transformation of mesenchymal tissue into bone.
Where are the menisci, and what are their functions?
They sit on the tibial condyles, provide shock absorption and cushion to articular surfaces of femur and tibial condyles
Identify each of the following characteristics as belonging to the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar vertebrae; the sacrum; the coccyx: Have downward pointing spinous processes and costal facets
Thoracic
With which bones does the tibia articulate? With which bones does the fibula articulate?
Tibia: medial and lateral condyles articulate with the femoral condyles, medial malleolus articulates with tarsal bone talus Fibula: head articulates with lateral tibia, distally articulates with tibia, lateral malleolus articulates with talus
Match the following terms with the correct definition: Canaliculi
Tiny canals that connect lacunae
How do true, false, and floating ribs differ?
True: connect directly to the sternum through costal cartilage False: Do not connect directly to sternum, but create a costal margin which is a prominent rim of costal cartilage where ribs 8-10 connect before only connecting to the sternum at one point Floating: do not have any cartilage connecting them to sternum and just floating on their own
What role does parathyroid hormone play on calcium homeostasis?
When parathyroid gland detects too low calcium in body, parathyroid hormone is released, osteoclast activity is then increased which secretes calcium that can be redistributed elsewhere in the body
What is a fibroblast?
a cell in connective tissue that produces collagen and other fibers.
What is a gomphosis? Where are gomphoses found in the human body?
a fibrous joint between tooth and alveolus, synarthrosis, attached by periodontal ligaments, only found in teeth
What is a sesamoid bone?
a specialized short bone that occurs within a tendon, such as the patella (kneecap).
What is cartilage?
a type of flexible connective tisssue
Where are skeletal cartilages located?
at joints/articulations (hyaline), between ribs and sternum (hyaline), in epiphyseal plates (hyaline), between vertebrae and pelvic bones (fibro)
What is a syndesmosis? Where are syndesmoses located?
attached by long membranes, interosseous membrane or ligament, dense regular collagenous tissue, amphiarthrosis, found between radius and ulna or fibula and tibia
Where is the pelvic cavity located?
below the abdominal cavity, anterior cavity, part of abdominopelvic cavity
What are adipocytes and what do they store?
fat cells, has large lipid in cytoplasm
What are the features of synchondrosis?
bones united by hyaline cartilage, no motion allowed making them synarthroses, found in epiphyseal plate of children and ribs of all ages
Where is the thoracic cavity?
chest (above diaphragm), anterior cavity
What is an endocrine gland?
ductless gland whose secretory products are picked up by capillaries supplying blood to the region
How are joints classified structurally?
fibrous: united by short collagen fibers of dense regular collagenous connective tissue, no joint space making it synarthrosis or anphiarthrosis cartilaginous: cartilage between articulating bones, no joint space making it synarthrosis or amphiarthrosis synovial: fluid filled cavity between bones giving it free range of motion and making it diarthrosis
What are the structural and functional properties of a suture?
fingerlike projections to close it like a zipper, help together by very short collagenous fibers, stable synarthrosis, reinforce the bone and protect the brain
What is dense regular collagenous connective tissue?
found in tendons, collagen fibers arranged in regular bundles
What are the properties of hyaline cartilage?
ground substance predominant, strong yet flexible
Which bones articulate to form the hip joint?
head of femur and acetabulum of os coxae
What are the paranasal sinuses and how are they related to the nasal cavity?
hollow cavities in ethmoid, maxillary, sphenoid, and frontal regions and are continuous with the nasal cavity
What tissue type makes up the epiphyseal plate?
hyaline cartilage
What type of cartilage makes up articular cartilage, and what is its function?
hyaline cartilage, gives smooth surface to reduce friction and is good at shock absorption
What are the mature and immature cells of cartilage called?
immature chondroblasts and mature chondrocytes
What functions are served by synovial fluid?
lubrication, metabolic functions, shock absorption
Which organs does the thoracic cavity enclose?
lungs
What is an osteocyte?
mature bone cell
What is osteoarthritis, , and in what age group might you expect the disease to develop? How does osteoarthritis differ from rhuematoid and gouty arthritis?
most common arthritis, associated with wear and tear, typically found in people over 65 (athletes can get it) any joint can be affected, pain and stiffness and decreased joint mobility, nonreversible Differs because it is from wear and tear where rheumatoid is autoimmune and gouty is from excess uric acid
What are osteoblasts and osteoclasts?
osteoblasts = bone builders (increase bone material) osteoclasts = bone destroyers (decrease bone material)
What are the primary functions of the skeletal system?
protection, mineral storage and acid-base homeostasis, blood cell formation, fat storage, movement, and support
Which organs are located within the pelvic cavity?
reproductive, digestive, and urinary organs
Which bones are flat bones?
skull, sternum, ribs, scapula
What are fontanels, and why are they important to the fetal skull?
soft spot in fetal skulls where sutures have not fused yet, these are important because it makes the infants head flexible to fit through the mother's vaginal birth canal
Where is the plantar surface of the foot located?
sole of the foot
Where is the vertebral cavity?
spine, dorsal cavity, posterior cavity
How does growth hormone affect bone growth?
stimulates general bone growth and the epiphyseal plates, increases rate of mitosis in chondrocytes, increases activity of osteogenic cells, and triggers apposition growth by direct stimulation of osteoblasts in periosteum
How are joints classified functionally?
synarthrosis: no movement, best stability amphiarthrosis: little movement, decent stability diarthrosis: free range of movement, least stability
With what other bones do the radius and ulna articulate?
themselves
What are the functions of the trochlea and trochlear notch of the humerus and ulna respectively?
they form the elbow joint
How does bone grow in length in the epiphyseal plate?
through longitudinal growth when chondrocytes divide through mitosis, then they and their lacunae enlage and mature, they then die due to distance from blood supply and eventually their matrix calcifies, osteoblasts then invade and lay down new bone and the chondrocytes are taken by osteoclasts until it is completely bone
What are the general features of a symphysis, what are two examples of a symphysis?
tough fibrocartilage pad, permit small amount of motion making them amphiarthrosis, resist compression and tension, absorb shock, found between vertebrae and two public bones of the pelvic girdle