adult development and aging

selective attrition

attrition, the fact that the people who drop out of a longitudinal study are not necessarily representative of the sample that was originally tested.

neurological evaluation in NCDs

Some of the Neurological evaluation targets: •Aphasia - Inability to comprehend and express language •Apraxia - Inability to execute purposeful movements •Agnosia - Inability to recognize or process sensory information •Executive function - Inability to connect past experience with present action

distribution of those who are currently married

by age 85, 33% of men and 70% of women are widowed

social age

calculated by evaluating where people are compared to the "typical" ages expected for people to be when they occupy certain positions in life -tends to center around family and work roles -ex. grandparent would have an older social age than a parent but may be chronologically younger -work roles -family status -potion in the community

life course theory

changes in the work role in later life are best seen as logical outgrowths of earlier life events. factors that shaped individual's prior vocational development will have a persisting influence throughout retirement

Generation vs. Cohort

generation is a period that spans about a 20- to 30-year time frame. cohort can be any length of time

gains:

optimal aging: age related changes that improve the individuals functioning

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

or "social class" reflects peoples position in the educational and occupational ranks of society education: measured in years occupation: prestige rankings income: flow of earnings ex. Whitehall II -this study showed that the men in the lowest employment brackets had poorer health than their health habits would predict

Erikson's Psychological Theory of Development

proposes that at certain points in life, biological, psychological and social changes come together to influence the individuals personality

identity process theory

proposes that identity continues to change in adulthood in a dynamic manner

psychological age

refers to the performance an individual achieves on measures of such qualities (all of which are known to change with age) -reaction time -memory -learning ability -intelligence

The 2060 structure

reflects projections that there will be more people alive than was the case in 1960 in the upper-age brackets of of the population -nearly 1 in 4 Americans is projected to be an older adult

correlational designs

relationships are observed among variables as they exist in the world. •Simple Correlational Designs •Multivariate Correlational Designs

contextual influences on development

sex, race, ethnicity, social class, income, religion and culture

free radical theory

the cause of aging is the increased activity of these unstable oxygen molecules that bond to other molecules and compromise the cell's functioning -free radicals (unpaired electrons) cause cellular damage -antioxidants protect the cell by contributing electrons to stabilize the free radical

Genome

the complete set of instructions for "building" all the cells that make up an organism -inherited characteristics are found in the genome -the genome is organized into chromosomes

mediation

the correlation between two variables is compared with and without their joint correlation to a third variable. Mediation analysis begins by determining the direct effect of one variable on a second.

plasticity in development

the course of development may be altered depending on the nature of the individual's specific interactions in the environment -plasticity improving activities include mental and physical exercises and preventing harm

identity balance

the dynamic equilibrium that occurs when people tend to view themselves consistently but can make changes when called for by their experiences

social clock

the expectations for the ages at which a society associates with major life events

independent variable

the factor that the researcher manipulates

collagen

the fibrous protein that makes up about one quarter of all bodily proteins

highest rates of cancer

the highest rates of new cases and cancer deaths exist for black men, and lowest are for asian/ pacific islander women

identity assimilation

the tendency to interpret new experiences in terms of a person's existing identity

caloric restriction

the view that the key to prolonging life is to restrict the total number of calories that individuals consume

sensation and perception: somatosensory system

touch and pain: -tough sensitivity due to changes in receptors in the skin -chronic back pain can result from osteoarthritis •Higher rate of memory loss appears related to chronic backpain •Obesity, depression, stress, and lack of sleep are associated with chronic backpain

using age to define "adult"

we set the threshold into adulthood based on the individuals having reached the chronological age associated with the expectations and privileges of a given society or subculture emerging adulthood: the transition prior to assuming the full responsibilities associated with adulthood, normally the years 18 to 29

unemployment rates and earnings

§Education level is directly related to unemployment rate and weekly earnings. §Race/ethnicity variations: Asians have the highest employment rates, followed by Whites. Among college-educated, Blacks have 5.2% unemployment rate, compared to overall unemployment rate of 2.2% among college-educated, further highlighting the disparity

support for the RIASEC Model

evidence that congruence explains patterns of vocational development personality is influenced by where you work

divisions by age of the over-65 population

- 65 = old age because of retirement -subgroups: young-old (65-74) old-old (75-84) oldest old (85+) centenarians (100+) supercentenarians (110+) chronological age can be used to represent expectations and privileges within that culture

skin

- the largest organ in human body - begins to show aging as early as 30s. •Changes in skin's surface reflect changes beneath it. •Skin's color may change -brown pigmentation, pigmented outgrowths, and elevations of small blood vessels on the skin surface •Photoaging refers to age-related changes in the skin due to radiations from the sun •Changes in the hands reflect alterations in the skin as well as nails. •Teeth may become yellowish due to loss of enamel surface •Anti-aging treatments - dermatologists, plastic surgeons •Genetic plays a role in the rate of skin aging

the "reminiscence bump" in early adulthood

- very clear memories for the ages of 10 to 30 years

ADL and IADL

-ADL and IADL measures provide functional assessment of health status by indicating the degree of independence the individual can maintain whether living at home or in an institution -=WHO's biopsychosocial perspective -Unhealthy behaviors contribute to the development of chronic disease in adulthood

Neuroticism

-Anxiety -Hostility -Self-consciousness -Depression -Impulsiveness -Vulnerability

processing speed and attention

-PSAT: an important area of cognition -It is the amount of time it takes for an individual to analyze incoming information from the senses, formulate decisions, and then prepare a response on the basis of that analysis. -Processing speed is measured as an indicator of the integrity of the central nervous system. -Three areas of processing speed: •Reaction Time •Attention •Videogames And Attention

focus groups

-a meeting of respondents asked to provide feedback about a particular topic of interest. -an investigator attempts to identify important themes in the discussion and keep the conversation oriented to these themes. The goal is to develop concrete research questions to pursue in subsequent studies.

meta-analysis

-a statistical procedure that allows them to combine findings from independently conducted studies. -superior, may become more common and therefore provide a more accurate picture of how a given variable or set of variables change over the adult years

criticisms of the midlife crisis theory

-age is not a marker of development -Levinson's book was highly subjective -the findings were never replicated

qualitative method

-allows for the exploration of such complex relationships outside the narrow restrictions and assumptions of quantitative methods. -are also used in the analysis of life history information, which is likely to be highly varied from person to person and not easily translated into numbers.

individuality matters

-as people age, they become more different from each other -living through more experiences affects everything from health to physical well-being causing people to change at different rates and to differing degrees interindividual differences: differences between people intraindividual differences: variations in performance within the same individual -not all systems develop at the same rate within the same person multidirectionality: intraindividual differences illustrate the fact that development can proceed in multiple directions within the same person

pain in older adults

-can increase risk of falling -related to poorer cognitive performance -increases chances of sleep disorders, depression, and stress

middle adulthood (30-65)

-continue in career -raise family -plan for retirement

leisure pursuits in later adulthood

-contribute to sense of identity -provide focus and meaning in life -help maintain health and cognitive functioning -enable social connections to others leisure pursuits can play important roles throughout life, but particularly in retirement

thyroid horemones

-control the rate of metabolism. -also known as the basal metabolic rate (BMR)

advantages of cross-sectional studies

-cross-sectional studies are relatively quick and inexpensive -the latest and most up-to-date technology can be brought to bear on the problem.

marraige

-defined as union between partners sanctioned by law -financial, health care, and death benefits -2013 supreme court struck down defense of marriage act making same sex marriage legal in the united states

coronary artery disease

-disease is caused by plaque buildup in the wall of the arteries that supply blood to the heart (called coronary arteries). Plaque is made up of cholesterol deposits. Plaque buildup causes the inside of the arteries to narrow over time. This process is called atherosclerosis •As plaque builds up in the arteries of a person with heart disease, the inside of the arteries begins to narrow, which lessens or blocks the flow of blood.

rates of teeth loss

-general. In the United States, about 19% of all adults 65 and older have lost all their natural teeth, with the highest rates (29%) in non-Hispanic black older adults. By age 75, 26% of all older adults have experienced complete tooth loss -The rates are doubled for people in lower income brackets and those without private medical insurance.

"normal" aging is different from disease

-growing older doesn't mean growing sicker -primary aging (or normal aging) refers to the normal changes over time that occur due to universal, intrinsic, and progressive alterations in the body's systems -secondary or impaired aging are changes over time leading to impairment due to disease rather than normal aging -tertiary aging sets in toward the very end of life, when individuals experience a rapid loss of functions across multiple areas of functioning primary, secondary, and tertiary aging refer to processes that, over time, accumulate, and in the absence of accident or injury, cause the individuals death

androgenetic alopecia

-hair loss occurs according to a pattern, and is classified differently for men and women. This is a condition that affects 95% of adult men and 20% of adult women, to some degree. -causes hair follicles to stop producing the long, thick, pigmented hair (terminal hair) and instead produce short, fine, unpigmented and largely invisible hair (vellus hair)

hierarchical linear modeling (HLM)

-individual patterns of change are examined over time rather than simply comparing mean scores of people at different ages. -In HLM, individual patterns can be explored statistically in addition to examining whether particular variables affect some individuals more than others.

problems with the RIASEC model

-interests may not equal abilities -incongruence can come from boredom -doesn't take prestige into account -assumes equal job opportunities

multivariate correlational design

-involves the analysis of relationships among more than two variables. - enable researchers to test models in which a set of variables is used to ''predict'' scores on another variable.

Census Data Provides Information On Living Arrangements Of Children Under The Age Of 18

-living with 2 parents: 50.7M -living with mother only: 17.2M -living with father only: 3.0M -living with no parent present: 2.8M

disadvantages of surveys

-many surveys tend to be short, with questions that are subject to bias by respondents who may attempt to provide a favorable impression to the researcher

distribution of the U.S. population according to the marital status

-married 53% -never married 29% -divorced 10% -widowed 6% -separated 2%

prevention of heart diseases and stroke

-medications -healthy diets -psychosocial changes

protective factors against Alzheimer's disease

-mental activity -social support -physical exercise -Mediterranean diet -limited alcohol

dermis

-middle layer of the skin -made up of connective tissue, among which reside nerve cells, glands, and the hair follicles. -Collagen undergoes cross-linking, leading the skin to become more rigidified and less flexible. Elastin, a molecule that is supposed to provide flexibility, becomes less able to return to its original shape after it is stretched during a person's movements.

the dynamics of the breakup

-negative emotional outcomes include anxiety, depression, loss of trust -being able to "save face" may help divorced partners feel less negatively about the experience Research shows the importance of being able to protect one's identity as individuals go through the divorce process

integrational solidarity model

-normative -affectional -consensual -obligatory -associational -structural

life course perspective

-norms, roles, and attitudes about age have an impact on the shape individual lives -ageism the course of progression of a persons life events

worker factors that contribute to improvement

-openness to change -greater expertise -fewer absences -know the ropes -fewer injuries

epidermis

-outermost skin layer -consists of a thin covering of cells that protects the underlying tissue -Over time, and not visible to the naked eye, the epidermal skin cells lose their regular patterning.

daily diaries

-participants enter data on a daily basis. -The data may consist of ratings on such variables as happiness, perceived stress, or interactions with friends, family, or coworkers. -Typically, these studies are carried out over a period of weeks or months.

longitudinal study

-people are followed repeatedly from one test occasion to another. -In a longitudinal study, participants in one cohort are observed at different ages, which also represent different times of measurement

continuity principle

-people remain the "same" even though they change -the changes that people experience in later adulthood build on the experiences they had in their earlier years -you don't look the same to others, but you feel the "same" on the inside -older adults prefer to be treated as they always were rather than as "old people"

job factors that contribute to decline

-physical exertion -shift work -age bias -lack of collaboration -cognitive effort

later adulthood (65+)

-plan for retirement -become grandparent -spend time on leisure

advantages of surveys

-providing data that allow the researcher to gain insight into the behavior of more people than could be studied in the laboratory or other testing site. -can be administered over the telephone or, via the Web.

forms of cancer treatment

-radiation -surgery -chemotherapy -targeted drug therapies •Targeted therapy treats cancer by targeting the changes in cancer cells that help them grow, divide, and spread. •becoming better refined through research

advantages of archival research

-readily accessible

Surveys

-rely on the survey method to gain information about a sample that can then be generalized to a larger population. -typically short and easily administered with simple rating scales to use for answers.

observational methods

-researchers draw conclusions about behavior through careful and systematic examination in particular settings.

ethical issues in research

-researchers must take precautions to protect the rights of their participants -Researchers must present a potential respondent as full a disclosure as possible of the risks and benefits of becoming involved. -minors must have the consent of their legal guardian -informed consent -debriefing: participants are also entitled to know what the study was about after they completed it -participants are entitled to know what will happen with their data

Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)

-researchers test models involving relationships that include latent variables. -SEM is typically used to assess the relationships among variables collected at one point in time.

early adulthood (20-30)

-start career -commit to relationship -start family

Case studies/case reports

-summarizes the findings from multiple sources for those individuals -Data may be integrated from interviews, psychological tests, observations, archival records, or even journal and diary entries. -a high level of expertise is required so that the findings are presented in a manner that balances the objective facts with the subjective analysis of the researcher. .

the survivor principle

-survivors not only manage to avoid random causes of their own death, but are also more likely to not engage in risky behaviors, or using drugs and alcohol excessively -avoiding death until late in life suggests they inherited good genes or maintained their physical abilities (biological factors), and cognitively and emotionally healthy (psychological factors), and have surrounded themselves with a good support system (social factors)

disadvantages of archival research

-that the researcher does not necessarily have control over the form of the data. -material may not be systematically collected or recorded.

subcutaneous

-the bottommost layer of skin, giving the skin its opacity and smoothing the curves of the arms, legs, and face. -Starting in middle adulthood, this layer starts to thin, providing less support for the layers above it, which then exacerbates the wrinkling and sagging caused by changes in the dermis and blood vessels become more visible

cortisol

-the hormone produced by the adrenal gland -provides energy to the muscles glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis: the idea that aging causes dangerous increases in cortisol levels

limitation of longitudinal studies

-the inability to differentiate between aging within the individual from changes in the social and historical context. - It takes years, if not decades, to see the study come to fruition -results are not available for many years

DHEA

-the most abundant steroid in the human body -a weak male steroid produced by the adrenal glands

sequential research

-the most efficient design -Each type of study in the "Most Efficient Design" involves different combinations of the factors of age, cohort and time of measurement -the trifactorial model

advantage of using qualitative methods

-they provide researchers with alternative ways to test their hypotheses. -can be adapted in a flexible manner to the nature of the problem at hand.

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

-trust vs mistrust -autonomy vs shame and doubt -initiative vs guilt -industry vs inferiority -identity vs role confusion -intimacy vs isolation -generativity vs stagnation -integrity vs despair §look linear, individuals may re-visit different stages. §Joan Erickson (Erickson's wife) & Erickson published a 9th stage (posthumously) §Gerotranscendence §A culmination of stage-revisits §Stages of identity and generativity have gathered much attention

the meaning of age

-using age the define "adult" -divisions by age of the over-65 population -functional age -personal vs. social aging people at the same age can vary substantially from one another, and people of different ages can be more similar to each other

Stages of Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

0 to 1-1/2: trust vs. mistrust 1-1/2 to 3: autonomy vs. shame and doubt 3 to 6: initiative vs. guilt 6 to 12: industry vs inferiority 12 to 21: identity vs. identity diffusion 21 to 30: intimacy vs. isolation 30 to 65: generativity vs. stagnation 65 and older: ego integrity vs. despair

four principles of adult development and aging

1. Changes are continuous over the lifespan 2. Only the survivors grow old 3. Individuality matters 4. Normal aging is different from disease

variable

A characteristic that ''varies'' from individual to individual

Age, Cohort And Time Of Measurement

Age -definition: Chronological age, measured in years -index of: Change within individual Cohort -definition: Year or period of birth -index of: Influences relevant to history Time Of Measurement -definition: Time of testing -index of: Current influences

sensation and perception: hearing

Age-related hearing loss occurs progressively through later adulthood Presbycusis: the most common from of age-related hearing loss in which degenerative changes occur in the cochlea or auditory nerve leading from the cochlea to the brain Tinnitus: a common hearing disturbance in which the individual perceives sounds in the head or ear (ringing in the ears) when there is no external source

performance by age and education on everyday problems test

Adults 75 and older perform more poorly in general on the Everyday Problems Test, but there are significant variations by education.

agreeableness (opposite of antagonism)

Agreeable people are not: -Skeptical -Mistrustful -Callous -Unsympathetic -Stubborn -Rude -Skillful manipulators -Aggressive go-getters

Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD): A form of neurocognitive disorder (NCD) in which the individual suffers progressive and irreversible neuronal death. •Identified in 1906 by Aloysius Alzheimer •Sundowning: symptoms are worse in the evening causes: •Beta-amyloid cascade hypothesis (See next slide) •Changes in blood flow in the brain •Impairment in the brain's ability to use glucose •Other unknowns •Prevalence: •Of all NCDs, 60% to 70% are due to AD. •Intervention strategies: •Memory improvement drugs •Behavioral strategies are more effective than drugs. oOne is called spaced retrieval: involves using an implicit-internal memory intervention

two biological/ neuronal changes in Alzheimer's disease: amyloid Plaques

Amyloid Plaques: Formation of abnormal deposits of protein fragments knowns as amyloid plaques (insoluble deposits in the brain). The form of amyloid most closely linked with Alzheimer's disease consists of a string of 42 amino acids and is called beta-amyloid-42. -Beta amyloid is formed from APP - amyloid precursor protein, which is naturally found in the brain. -As APP is formed, it embeds itself in the neuron's membrane and a small piece of APP is lodged inside the neuron and a larger part of it remains outside the neuron. -In normal healthy aging brain, the part of APP that remains outside the neuron is trimmed by enzymes called secretases, so that it is flush with the neuron's outer membrane. -In AD, the APP is snipped at the wrong place due to some reasons, causing beta-amyloid-42 The cutoff fragments eventually lump together into beta-amyloid plaques, the abnormal deposits that the body cannot dispose or recycle.

processing speed and attention: attention

Attention: •the ability to focus or concentrate on a portion of experience while ignoring other features of that experience, •to be able to shift that focus as demanded by the situation, •to coordinate information from multiple sources •Attention is a prerequisite to memory and problem solving (other factors of cognition). Two methods in studies on attention and aging: •1. visual search tasks: locating a target among distractors •A. simple visual search (e.g., an x among Xs) •B. conjunction visual search (e.g., a red X among blue Xs, blue +s, red +s) - Stroop test (see next slide): a test of inhibitory control: the ability to turn off one response while performing another (e.g., name the color of ink in which a word is printed). •2. Sustained attention task •Sustained attention for a specific target that appears in an array of objects. (e.g., Xs appearing among an array of moving Ys & As)

time-sequential design

In a time sequential design, scores are compared at different times of testing for groups that differ in age. the data are organized by age and time of measurement.

cognition

Cognition refers to the way the mind works, specifically: -The processes of attention -Problem-solving -The use of language -Intelligence -Memory Aging affects each of these areas of functioning, leading to important changes in many of people's ability to carry out their everyday activities

nervous system

Central Nervous System: •Neuronal fallout model: The hypothesis that individuals gradually lose brain tissue over time (nervous system of older adults is subject to inevitable declines) •The plasticity model proposes that the remaining neurons are able to take over the roles of those that die •Hemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults (HAROLD) model states that the brains of older adults become activated in the opposite hemisphere when the original area suffers deficits •Posterior-Anterior shift with aging (PASA) model posits that the front of the brain (prefrontal cortex) in older adults becomes more responsive to make up for the lower responsiveness found in the rear of the brain (occipital cortex) •Compensation-related utilization of neural circuits hypothesis (CRUNCH) model: the demands of cognitively challenging tasks cause an overall excitation of brain activity in older adults leading to overall patterns of compensation (Using more heavily the areas not affected by aging) •Diet and exercise are important factors in preserving a healthy nervous system

Conscientiousness

Conscientious people are: -Hardworking -Ambitious -Energetic -Scrupulous -Persevering -Desirous to make something of themselves

extraversion

Has six facets in two groups: Interpersonal traits oWarmth oGregariousness oAssertiveness Temperamental traits oActivity oExcitement seeking oPositive emotions

memory and health-related behaviors

Health-related factors that can influence memory in older adults: -smoking -diet -aerobic exercise -strength training •Memory in older adults can be modified through these four health-related lifestyle factors.

cohort sequential design

In a cohort sequential design, two or more cohorts are followed across at least two different age periods. cohorts are compared at different ages

openness

Fantasy Aesthetics Action Ideas Values Occupational choice

cross sequential design

In a cross sequential design, different cohorts are compared at different times of testing. cohorts are examined at different times of measurement (the only design that does not specifically include age as a factor).

emphysema

In emphysema, the inner walls of the lungs' air sacs (alveoli) are damaged, causing them to eventually rupture. This creates one larger air space instead of many small ones and reduces the surface area available for gas exchange. Emphysema and chronic bronchitis are the two most common conditions that contribute to COPD

identity status theory

In the identity status model, there are four combinations of identity statuses based on the two dimensions of commitment-lack of commitment and exploration-no exploration.

sensation and perception: balance

Loss of balance is one of the main factors responsible for falls in older adults Falls are also one of the most common causes of traumatic brain injury (TBI) Dizziness and vertigo contribute to falling episodes Dizziness and vertigo are two symptoms of age-related vestibular dysfunction The vestibular system is made up of the peripheral vestibular organ (located in the inner ear), vestibulocochlear nerve, central vestibular organ, and neural connections situated in the brain-stem. When the inner ear sends the wrong information, or conflicting signals to the brain, dizziness can occur. As a result, the natural response is to limit movement in order to minimize the rocking or spinning sensation.

treatments of NCDs

Medical treatments e.g., tetrahydroaminoacridine (THA): tacrine (brand name: Cognex): donepezil hydrochloride or Aricept; galantamine or razadyne or rivastigmine and mementine Psychosocial treatments Cognitive retraining, environmental changes, behavioral modifications Caregiver burden and interventions medical treatments for Alzheimer's disease Anticholinesterase THA (tacrine) Donepezil hydrochloride (Aricept) Galantamine (Razadyne) Rivastigmine (Exelon) Glutamate Memantine (Namenda) Anti beta-amyloid oligomers Aducanumab (still in development)

health factors affecting aging of intelligence

Multiple health and lifestyle factors can affect intelligence test scores across adulthood -people with more active engagement show less decline -among men, obesity predicts lower intelligence scores -greater decline among smokers

two biological/ neuronal changes in Alzheimer's disease: neurofibrillary tangles

Neurofibrillary Tangles: It is a profusion of abnormally twisted fibers within the neurons themselves. -The neurofibrillary tangles are made up of a protein called tau. -Tau plays a role in maintaining the stability of the microtubules that form the internal support structure of the neuronal axons. -In AD, the tau is changed chemically and loses it ability to separate and support the microtubules. -With the support of tau is gone, the tubules begin to wind around each other and they can no longer perform their function. The collapse of the transport system within the neuron may first result in malfunctions in communication between neurons and may eventually lead to the death of the neurons.

Raven Progressive Matrices

RPM is a nonverbal test typically used to measure general human intelligence and abstract reasoning and is regarded as a non-verbal estimate of fluid intelligence.[1] It is one of the most common tests administered to both groups and individuals ranging from 5-year-olds to the elderly.

differences between normal aging and Alzheimer's disease

Normal aging •Making a bad decision once in a while •Missing a monthly payment •Forgetting which day it is and remembering it later •Sometimes forgetting which word to use •Losing things from time to time Alzheimer's disease Making poor judgments and decisions a lot of the time Problems taking care of monthly bills Losing track of the date or time of year Trouble having a conversation Misplacing things often and being unable to find them

reaction time: Brinley plot

Performance of older adults is plotted against performance by younger adults, revealing that as the task becomes more difficult (requires more time), older adults are disproportionately slower.

prevalence of osteoporosis

Prevalence of osteoporosis or low bone mass at the femur neck among adults aged 50 and older having elevated 10-yr probability of hip or major osteoporotic fracture

telomeres

Repetitive DNA sequences at the ends of chromosomes.

retirement

Retirement is defined as the withdrawal of an individual in later life from the labor force. Retirement occurs in a series o f phases though which individuals progress At least once, or multiple times throughout their life. Crisp retirement pattern: single, unreversed, clear-cut exit. Blurred retirement pattern: they exit and reenter the labor force several times Bridge employment: in which retirees work in a completely different occupation than they had during most of their adult life.

time of measurement effects

Social, historical, and cultural influences that are presently affecting people participating in developmental research

validity

Test measures what it is supposed to measure -content -criterion -construct

reliability

Test produces consistent results -consistency -test-retest

tests of verbal fluency

Tests of verbal fluency ask test-takers to generate as many words as they can that begin with a single letter

Trail Making Test

The Trail Making Test is a neuropsychological test of visual attention and task switching. Trail Making Test Part A - only numbers Trail Making Test Part B - numbers and alphabets - A to 1, b to 2 c to 3

nonnormative influences

are the random idiosyncratic events that occur throughout the life -occur with no regular predictability -ex. winning lottery, smart investment, car accident, fire

Eric Kandel and gene-environment interactions

The genetic structure of cells actually changes as a result of learning experiences -ex. an inactive gene may become active because of environmental influences the diathesis stress model -ex. blood-injury-injection phobia, alcoholism

Correlation

The relationship between age and another variable A significant positive correlation indicates that the two variables are positively related so that when the value of one variable increases, the other one does as well. A significant negative correlation indicates that the two variables are negatively related so that when one increases in value, the other one decreases. A correlation of zero indicates no relationship between the variables.

what keeps the midlife crisis myth alive?

These four factors contribute to the continued belief in popular psychology of the validity of the midlife crisis, despite research that does not support it. -makes great story -good excuse for naughty behavior -one-size-fits-all psychology -just too popular

Experimental design in aging

This condition of random assignment of participants to groups makes it difficult to conduct experimental research on aging. An experimenter cannot randomly assign people to a particular age group by making some people young and some people old. This means that you can never state with certainty that aging ''causes'' people to receive certain scores on a dependent variable of interest. Studies on aging therefore suffer from the problem that age is not a true ''independent'' variable because its value cannot be set by the experimenter.

controlling cohort differences

select younger samples comparable in important ways to the older sample.

age and vocational performance

Whether age contributes to better or poorer vocational performance depends on the balance between: Factors that contribute to decline Factors that contribute to improvement.

cataract

a clouding or opacity in the lens

urge incontinence

a form of urinary incontinence in which the individual experiences a sudden need to urinate and may even leak urine -ex. overactive bladder

neurocognitive disorders

a group of conditions that frequently lead to impaired mental function.

FOXO genes

a group of genes that influence crucial cellular processes regulating stress resistance, metabolism, the cell cycle, and the death of cells

DNA

a molecule capable of replicating itself that encodes information needed to produce proteins

ageism

a set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, and values used to justify age-based prejudice and discrimination based on their chronological age

Identity

a set of schemas that the person holds about the self

Most Efficient Design

a set of three designs manipulating the variables of age, cohort, and time of measurement

single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

a small genetic variation that can occur in a person's DNA sequence in which one nucleotide is subsituted for another

metabolic syndrome

a term used to characterize people who show 3 of the 5 risk factors: -high blood sugar -high blood pressure -low HDL ("good") cholesterol -high triglycerides -excess fat around waist

somatopause of aging

accounts for a number of age-related changes in body composition across adulthood

the selective compensation with optimization model (SOC)

adults attempt to preserve and maximize the abilities that are of central importance and put less effort into maintaining those that are not -there are losses in adulthood that can often outweigh the gains -people adapt to these changes by readjusting their goals and can maintain their sense of well being

summary of exercise recommendations from AHA-ACSM

aerobic -150 minutes of moderate activity per week -no less than 10 minutes for each session resistance -each major muscle group 2-3 days per week -2-4 sets of each exercise -previously sedentary should start with light intensity

biological age

age of an individual's bodily systems -cardiovascular functioning -respiratory (lung) functioning -muscle and bone strength -cellular aging

age-as-leveler view

age overrides all other "isms"

religion

an individual's identification with an organized belief system (organized religion, spirituality) religion provides a source of coping strategies, social support in times of of a crisis, and a systematic basis for interpreting life experiences religion is investigated in several ways within the field of adult development and aging, but a distinction is typically made between participation in organized religion and a sense of spirituality

bronchitits

an inflammation of the lining of your bronchial tubes, which carry air to and from your lungs. People who have bronchitis often cough up thickened mucus, which can be discolored.

epidemiolgical studies

are based either on prevalence or incidence data.

normative history-graded influences

are events that occur to everyone within a certain culture or geopolitical unit and include large scale occurrences, such as world wars, economic trends or sociocultural changes in attitudes and values -ex. natural disasters

random error theories

based on the assumption that aging reflects unplanned changes in an organism over time

skinner

believed that development consisted of the acquisition of a series of increasingly complex habits reflecting the childs exposure to new experiences

Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

believed that development involves continuing growth of the individuals knowledge about the world through a set of opposing, complementary processes schemas: mental structures we use to understand the world assimilation: people use their existing schemas as a way to understand the world around them -individuals change their interpretation of reality to fit the schemas they already hold accommodation: when you change yourself in order to fit the larger culture that you're now a part of

biopsychosocial model of driving and aging

biological: -mobility -strength -coordination -pain sociocultural: -social attitudes -availability of other transportation psychological: -anxiety confusion -acuity -night vision -headline glare

biopsychosocial model of retirement

biological: -physical changes -health sociocultural: -social class -income -opportunities for engagement psychological: -cognitive functioning -personality -expectations about retirement retirement is best thought of as a biopsychosocial process

the biopsychosocial model

biological: how the body's functions and structures change throughout the aging process -physical changes -genetics sociocultural: reflect the cultural, historical, and interpersonal influences on the individual -social context -history -culture psychological: the individuals thoughts, feelings and behaviors relating to growing older -cognition -personality -emotions

incontinence in women

contributing factors: •Poorer health •Decreased mobility •Current use of hormone replacement therapy •Being overweight •History of falls •Heart disease

functional age

capability of age normed standards

the C-H-C theory of intelligence

categorizes five major domains of abilities which each are indexed by a specific "G," or skill.

the baby boomers grow up

changes in the middle-aged and older populations in the U.S. and the world

race

classification within the species based on physical and structural characteristics since race is biologically determined, racial differences in functioning in adulthood and aging may reflect differences in genetic inheritance social and cultural aspects of race may also alter an individuals development in adulthood through the structure of a society and whether there are systematic biases against people who identify with that race differences in health may be attributed to lack of opportunities for education and well-paying jobs, but systematic discrimination is also believed to take a toll on health by increasing the levels of stress experienced by African Americans

Ethnicity

cultural background of an individual -influences a persons familial attitudes and experiences -discrimination against people of certain ethnic backgrounds may serve the same function as race in limiting the opportunities for educational and occupational achievements

sequential design

data collection strategies that consist of different combinations combinations of the variables age, cohort, and time of measurement. studies automatically provide an element of replication, but when they are carried out as intended, statistical analyses can permit remarkably strong inferences to be drawn about the effect of age as distinct from cohort or time of measurement.

terminal decline

decline, individuals gradually lose their cognitive abilities as they draw closer to death

cross-sectional study

design, researchers compare groups of people with different ages at one point in time. reflects not only differences between cohorts but also the effects of current social and cultural influences.

cohort effects

effects refer to the social, historical, and cultural influences that affect people during a particular period of time

types of coping

emotion-focused: -make yourself feel better -don't change the situation -works when situation can't be changed problem-focused -find a solution -change the situation -works when situation can be changed social support: -talk to friends -find someone knowledgeable about the problem

super's life-space life-stages model of vocational development life factors

environmental determinants -labor market -employment practices situation determinants -historical -socioeconomic personal determinants -psychological -biological

prevalence

estimate of percentage who ever had symptoms in given period

incidence

estimate of percentage who first develop symptoms in given period

five-factor model (FFM)

extraversion: -sociability -talkativeness gregariousness openness: -curiosity -originality -creativity Conscientiousness: -diligence -punctuality -dependability agreeableness: -tolerance -warmness -sensitivity to others neuroticism: -anxiousness -irritability -moodiness

watson

extreme "nurture" position that a child's development was entirely dependent on the environment the parents provided

general slowing and inhibitory deficit

general slowing: Loss of attentional resources leads to longer times to respond inhibitory deficit: Inability to tune out irrelevant information The two primary approaches to aging and attention/speed contrast the general slowing hypothesis with the inhibitory deficit model.

gene

functional unit of a DNA molecule carrying a particular set of instruction for producing one of those proteins 0all gene sin DNA are formed by the pattern of four necleotides: (A) Adenine (G) Guanine (T) Thymine (C) Cytocine

sex and gender

gender: individual's identification (male, female, nonbinary) sex: individuals inherited predisposition both important in the study of adult development and aging social and cultural factors relevant to gender are important to the extent that the individual assumes a certain role in society based on being viewed as male or female -women continue to face a more restricted range of choices and the prospects of lower earnings than men the phenomenon of transgendered individuals is too recent to have produced enough information relevant to aging gender inclusive restrooms are increasingly common in public facilities as the binary concept of gender is becoming outdated

niche-picking

genetic and environmental factors work together to influence the direction of a child's life -being good at a sport (partly genetically determined) leads to further involvement in the sport which further improves those abilities

How geneticists study genes; 2 types

genome-wide association study (GWAS) -a method in behavior genetics in which researchers search for genetic variations related to complex diseases by scanning the entire genome genome-wide linkage study (GWLS) -researchers study the families of people with specific psychological traits or disorders

hormones produced by the anterior pituitary

growth hormone (GH, also called somatotropin), thyroidstimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and prolactin.

lipid metabolism

high-density lipoproteins (HDLs): "good" cholesterol, transport lipids out of the body low-density lipoproteins (LDLs): "bad" cholesterol, transport cholesterol to the arteries triglycerides: reflect the amount of fat stored in the body's cells •Cholesterol metabolism is critical to cardiovascular fitness •Aging per se is not the problem here. •Most of the CV problems are preventable with exercises and nutrition

identity

how people view themselves in the biological, psychological and social domains of life

ecological perspective (bronfenbrenner)

identifies multiple levels of the environment as they affect the individual over time microsystem: the setting in which people have their daily interactions and which therefore have the most direct impact on their lives (family, peers, organized religion, health services, school) mesosystem: the realm of the environment in which interactions take place among two or more microsystems exosystem: the environments that people do not closely experience on a regular basis but that impact them nevertheless (social services, neighbors, local politics, mass media, industry) macrosystem: the larger social institutions ranging from a country's economy to its laws and social norms -influences the individual indirectly through the exosystem (attitudes and ideologies of the culture) chronosystem: the changes that take place over time

environmental factors

interact with genetic predisposition to influence the individual's rate of aging

archivial research

investigators use existing resources that contain data relevant to a question about aging. -ex. governmental data bank, or the records kept by an institution, school, or employer, or newspaper or magazine reports.

advantage of focus group

issues can be identified prior to conducting a more systematic investigation

normative age-graded influences

lead people to choose experiences that their culture and historical period attach to certain ages or points in the life span exert their impact beyond what the norms themselves imply because people are socialized into believing that they should structure their lives so that they conform to these influences -when people don't follow these norms they feel like something is wrong with them -ex. someone retiring at 40, a woman at 35 not wanting to start a family partly linked to the biological aging process -the peak of a woman's reproductive cycle (20-40 years) sets the normative age period for becoming a biological parent

presbyopia

loss of ability of the lens to focus on objects that are closer to the viewer

disengagement theory

proposed that the normal and natural evolution of life causes older adults to loosen purposefully their social ties -well being depends on becoming disengaged

multiple jeopardy hypothesis

older individuals who fit more than one discriminated-against category are affected by biases against each of these categorizations

multiple regression analysis

one set of variables are designated as predictors of performance on another variable designated as the outcome.

one-dimensional models vs. multidimensional models

one-dimensional models -explain behavior in terms of a single cause -could mean a paradigm, school, or conceptual approach -tend to ignore information from other areas ex. explaining heart disease as the result of family history alone multidimensional models -interdisciplinary, eclectic, and integrative -"system" of influences that cause and maintain suffering -draw upon information from several sources -abnormal behavior results from multiple influences

3 models of developmental science

organismic model -heredity drives the course of development -inherited traits, change through maturation -regard development as reflecting inherited traits that change through maturation mechanistic model -outside forces drive the course of development - environmental influences, change in response to learning -proposes that environment and learning are the main forces in development interactionist model -both heredity and environment drive the course of development -individuals actively shape their own development -views development as reflecting interactive processes between the two

baby boom generation

people born in the post WWII years of 1946-1964 -baby boom generation made nearly 40% of the entire U.S. population

reciprocity in development

people both influence and are influenced by the events in their lives -people influence and are influenced by the people around them, leading to developmental change -according to the reciprocity principle, you can influence the people around you who can lead you to change

identity accommodation

people make changes in their identities in response to experiences that challenge their current view of themselves

terror management theory

people regard with panic and dread the thought that their lives will someday come to an end

personal vs. social aging

personal aging: changes that occur within the individual, reflecting time's effects on the body social aging: effects of a persons exposure to a changing environment

Gompertz function

plots the relationship between age and death rates for a given species

social cognitive approaches

possible selves theory: we are motivated to achieve a hoped-for self and avoid a feared self identity process theory: self-esteem maintained through seeking balance coping and control: coping strategies work to reduce stress

programmed aging theories

propose that aging and death are built into the hard-wiring of all organisms and therefore are part of the genetic code

error theories of aging

propose that mutations acquired over the organisms lifetime lead to malfunctioning of the body's cells

continuity theory

proposes that whether disengagement or activity is beneficial to the older adult depends on the individual's personality -well being depends on on maintaining prior activity levels

telomere theory of aging

proposes that with each cellular replication the telomeres shorten until they are no longer present to protect the ends of the chromosomes -programmed aging theory

related concepts in vocational development

protean career: Individuals feel self-directed and driven by own values e.g., individual seems personal growth though self-reflection and self-learning. boundaryless career: Career that crosses boundaries of employer or organization e.g., I enjoy jobs that require me to interact with people in many different organizations core self-evaluation: Feelings of self-esteem and inner directedness e.g., I can shape my own career §These are very similar concepts, but the protean career refers more to self-directedness §The boundaryless career can apply to people feeling connected to their occupations, not just their employers as in professional societies.

model linking environmental factors to disease

psychosocial factors can cause disease either through the direct pathway of causing harmful biological changes or the indirect pathway of causing unhealthy behaviors (smoking, poor diet) that cause biological changes -the outcome in either case is increased risk of disease

§Holland's RIASEC model proposes that all occupations are organized according to six basic types.

realistic -engineer -farmer -technician -cook -machinist investigative -chemist -economist -physician -computer scientist -mathematician artistic -dancer editor -singer -artist -writer social -coach -teacher -massage therapist -psychiatrist -aide -waitperson enterprising -chief executive -entrepreneur -manager -salesperson -lawyer conventional -accountant -cashier -clerk -paralegal -financial analyst -things -ideas -people -data

the interaction of genetic and environmental effects

reciprocal gene: environment model -outcomes are a result of interactions between genetic vulnerabilities and experiences ex. depression, impulsivity epigenetics and the nongenomic inheritance of behavior -genes are not the whole story -environmental influences (ex. parenting style) may override genetics

prospective study

researchers draw from a population of interest before the sample develops a particular type of illness or experiences a particular type of life event. -ex. researchers who wish to study widowhood may recruit participants from a population of married individuals while they are still married. Over the ensuing period of the study, the researchers can expect that a certain percentage of these individuals will suffer the death of their spouses. After that point, the now-widows can be compared to the way they were prior to the loss.

path analysis

researchers test all possible correlations among a set of variables to see if they can be explained by a single model. mediators and moderators are investigated simultaneously.

logistic regression

researchers test the likelihood of an individual receiving a score on a discrete yes-no variable.

continuity theory

retired individuals maintain their self-concept and identity over the retirement transition

role thoery

retirement has deleterious effects because the loss of the work role loosens the ties between the individual and society

Key social factors in adult development and aging

sex and gender race ethnicity socioeconomic status religion

latent variable

statistical composite of several variables that were actually measured.

attrition

subjects may drop out of study or become unreachable

Instrumental activities of daily living (IADL)

the ability to: -use the telephone -go shopping -prepare meals -complete housekeeping tasks -do the laundry -use private of public transportation -take medications -handle finances

activities of daily living (ADL)

the activities usually done during a normal day in a person's life -eating -bathing -dressing -transferring -toileting

simple correlational designs

the analysis of the relationship among two variables

life expectancy

the average number of years of life remaining to the people born within a similar period of time

wear and tear theory

the body acquires more and more damage as it is exposed to daily wear and tear -from weather, use, accidents, and mechanical insults

compression of morbidity

the illness burden to a society can be reduced if people become disabled closer to the time of their death

modernization hypothesis

the increasing urbanization and industrialization of western society is what causes older adults to be devalued

stress incontinence

the individual is unable to retain urine while engaging in some form of physical exertion

resource model

the individual's adjustment to retirement reflects his or her physical, cognitive, motivational, financial, social and emotional resources; the more resources, the more favorable will be the individual's adjustment at any one point through the retirement transition

replicative senescence

the loss of the ability of cells to reproduce

life span

the maximum age for a given species

geriatrics

the medical specialty in aging

disadvantage of focus group

the method is not particularly systematic, and the data cannot readily be analyzed or systematically interpreted

health expectancy

the number of years a person could expect to live in good health and with relatively little disability if current mortality and morbidity rates persist

dependent variable

the outcome that researchers observe

gerontology

the scientific study of the aging process

activity theory

theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they are able to remain involved in their social roles -well being depends on remaining active

aging population in the world

these demographic shifts will occur in part due to increasing migration into the U.S. the population worldwide is aging at disproportionate rates from region to region the larger proportion o the aging population in the world will place a strain on the economies and health care systems of all nations but particularly those that lack the resources to support the rise in the older adult population, particularly those in low-income countries

an advantage of using functional indices of aging

they can be more accurate than chronological age however chronological age is easier but does not tell the whole story

experiment vs quasi-experiment

true experimental design -assignment to treatment: The researcher randomly assigns subjects to control and treatment groups. -Control over treatment: The researcher usually designs the treatment and decides which subjects receive it. -Use of Control groups: Requires the use of control and treatment groups. quasi-experimental design -assignment to treatment: Some other, non-random method is used to assign subjects to groups. -Control over treatment: The researcher often does not have control over the treatment, but instead studies pre-existing groups that received different treatments after the fact. -Use of Control groups: Control groups are not required (although they are commonly used). •In an experimental study, the independent variable is randomly assigned. •In quasi-experimental study, the independent variable (such as age) is not randomly assigned.

error catastrophe theory

when mitochondrial DNA is damaged by mutations

moderation

when two variables are believed to have a joint influence on a third a third variable is investigated as a contributor to the outcome variable

immune senescence

widespread age-related declines in immune system functioning Factors that affect immune changes: •Zinc intake •Protein intake •Obesity •Exercise •Stress •Study of "semisupercenenarians" suggests that resistance to immunosenesence could be an important contributor to longevity

women vs men

women over the age of 65 currently outnumber men -expected to diminish somewhat by 2050 majority of the 65+ population are non-hispanic white -decreasing

Berlin Wisdom Paradigm

§According to the Berlin Wisdom Paradigm, wisdom incorporates a set of complex cognitive abilities. -factual knowledge -procedural knowledge -value relativism -management of uncertainty -lifespan contextualism

correspondence principle

§According to the correspondence principle, people seek environments consistent with their personalities which further influences their personalities to conform to the environment.

adult attachment theory

§Adult attachment theory proposes that early bond between the infant and caregiver set the stage for all of the individual later significant relationships §The attachment styles are mental representation or frameworks about what to expect in a relationship. §It also creates a sense of self, which are important to understand personality §Secure attachment style: confident themselves and confident that others treat them well §Anxious attachment style: they feel that their adult partners will abandon them (consistent with previous sense of being abandoned or fear of being abandoned) §Avoidant attachment style: they stay away from close relationships for fear of being abandoned or neglected (consistent with their previous experiences)

aging and executive functioning

§Aging and Executive Functioning: research on the effect of aging on executive functioning is nonconclusive (depending on what age/decade the participants are in). §There appears to be a general consensus that in later adulthood, several domains of executive functioning decline, perhaps due to the changes in specific brain regions. §Individuals' backgrounds, especially education and lifetime habits play important roles §Again, it's not all doom and gloom! §Brain plasticity offers opportunities for compensatory changes §Exercise helps with executive functioning, e.g., attention, mental flexibility §Videogames have positive effects §Exergaming is drawing much attention: §Combining physicals exercises with video games.

trait approaches

§Another approach to personality is based on the concept to traits §Traits are stable enduring dispositions §Persists over time §The trait perspective to personality is based on the assumption that the organization of the personal dispositions (traits) guide the individuals' behaviors. §Similar to Freud, William James also believed that personality is "set in plaster" §trait perspective is influenced by the two §The most famous trait model is Costa and McCrae's Five-Factor Model (FFM): §Openness §Conscientiousness §Extraversion §Agreeableness §Neuroticism §Mnemonics: OCEAN or CANOE

PMAT

§Another test, which is currently not in clinical use, but widely used in research is primary mental abilities test (PMAT) - has comparable domains to WAIS-IV: §Assesses 7 abilities of: 1.Verbal meaning 2.Word fluency (ability to generate words following a certain lexical rule) 3.Numbering (arithmetic) 4.Spatial relations 5.Memory 6.Perceptual speed 7.General reasoning PMAT is administered typically in group format (rather than individualized manner) - more convenient for research purposes

theories of attention and aging

§Attentional resource theory: Attention as a process reflecting the allocation of cognitive resources. §Every attention deployed requires a certain proportion of one's mental operations. §Older adults have difficulty with attentional tasks because they have less energy available for cognitive operations §Inhibitory deficit hypothesis: Aging reduces individuals' ability to inhibit or tune out irrelevant information. §If irrelevant info remains, not ignored, then attentional performance will suffer. §Middle aged/older adults perform better when there are less distractors, including the anxiety about poor performance. §So, people who are worried about aging of their cognitive abilities may be more likely to engage in identity accommodation, which will ultimately contribute to poorer performance. §Not all is that bad. §Older adults may overcompensate for attentional deficits, but falling back on their lived experiences in certain situations §When stimuli were presented in two modalities - visual and auditory - older adults had comparable performance with younger cohorts. §Although aging may affect attentional performances, older adults' experiences and training may mitigate some of the effects of aging

bilingualism and aging

§Bilingualism - the ability to speak and think in two languages, actually helps with executive functioning. §Imaging shows better neural connectivity among bilinguals §Gains are not universal - not to all cognitive tasks

cohabitation

§Cohabitation refers to living in a stable relationship prior to or instead of marrying §Younger, middle-aged, and older adults are increasingly co-habiting, compared to previous generations

cognitive aspects of language

§Despite the (general) preservation of cognitive functions relevant for language in older adults, some changes may be detrimental to the effective use of language: §E.g., slower processing speed while reading. §Difficulty forming visual images to accompany concrete words (e.g., younger adults may benefit from having the visual images of the written materials). §Changes in hearing and speech perception also negatively affect speech comprehension. §Retrieval errors - in written language - may cause misspellings §Slower cognitive processing may affect grammatical structures and sentence construction §CRUNCH model of neuroplasticity may be relevant here, helping older adults with certain compensatory neural circuits. §Experience also helps

ego psychology - identity

§Erickson proposed that adolescents go through an identity crisis stage and either ends up identity achieved vs. identity diffused §Amidst the developmental changes such as puberty, cognitive changes, social role changes §James Marcia developed the identity status interview model (see next slide). §One difference between Erikson and Marcia is that the latter thinks that people could achieve strong identities, without going through the "crisis" by following/learning from parents, religions, society. §Also, people can be in chronic crisis (if they are in moratorium stage - see next slide). §Researchers have studied identity status model to understand people's personality. §E.g., people in the 4th quadrant (identity achieved) tend to be balanced in their thinking, mature in their relationships, and thoughtful of their life options §People in moratorium tend to be open and curious on one hand, and anxious, depressed, and low in self-esteem on the other hand. §One problem with this model is that adolescents who "achieve" identity does not necessarily continue to be so even in old age.

affective events theory

§Events at work lead individuals to experience affective reactions, which in turn influences attitudes toward work and performances. -affective events theory highlights importance of moods -"affect spin" can be reset by the beginning of work on the following day -personality traits also play a role

everyday problemsolving

§Every day problem-solving: refers to the ability to solve problems that typically occur in people's daily lives, that can be solved in more than one way, and that require the problem solver to decide which strategy will lead to the desired result. §Several factors contribute: education, health, experience, other demographics §Characteristics of problem solving include assessing a current situation §Deciding on a desired end-state §Finding ways of transforming the current into the desire state. §Evaluating the final stage §Problems vary in their structure and complexity. §Technology provides new problem-solving skills §Complexity and vagueness in instructions in the use of technology/devices/apps may impede problem-solving skills of older adults •In problem-solving (e.g., Rubik's cube), first assess the situation, decide on the desired end state, and then transform the current into the desired state.

psychodynamic perspective

§Freud's psychodynamic approach emphasizes that the "unconscious" motives and impulses express themselves in people's personalities and behavior. §Importance of early development in personality formation §By age 5, for the most part, personality is "all set" with slight changes happening up to early adulthood. §Then it is rigid, non-malleable. §Psychotherapy has no value after age 50, because personality is unalterable §Contemporary Freudians still emphasize the importance of early development, but does not believe in the strict age cutoffs of personality changes.

women's earnings by occupation

§Gender gap: the proportion of women's salaries to men's salaries. §Despite women's increasing involvement in the labor force, women earn less than men §As can be seen in this chart, women's earnings are highest in the occupations with 80% or more male workers.

ego psychology - generativity

§Generativity in mid life means multiple things §One, literally, generativity means procreation/parenting of children and contributing to their psychosocial development §E.g., Children of parents with higher generativity showed higher prosocial personality attributes §Two, it also means securing a legacy, contributing to one's family as parents, grandparents, but also contributing to the common good. §Generativity is not exclusively altruistic, it does, in turn, help themselves, it enriches themselves, a process called "redemptive self." §Research has amassed evidence on the role of psychosocial development across life stages. E.g., Rochester Adult Longitudinal Study (RALS) conducted sequential analysis with different batches of participants §According to the pathways model, there are five differing routes that individuals take through adulthood. §Personality continues to evolve through adulthood, but not in a single, universal direction. §Also, there is individual variations in personality, depending on life events and personal developmental patterns

divorce and remarriage

§In 2019, the divorce rate is 2.9 per 1,000 §It's a drop since 2000, when the rate was 4/1000. §Among several factors for this change, the millennial generation is waiting longer to get married, but appear to have strong and lasting commitments when married §Higher education also contribute to relationship longevity §Probability of divorce rates is higher for people who are in the 2nd marriage, and less in those who are in their 1st marriage. §Remarried individual's may further inflate divorce statistics because they include those high in divorce proneness, the greater tendency to contemplate divorce when their marries is in trouble

What is personality?

§In the everyday conversations, personality describes someone's (characteristic) way of doing things, style of behaving. §Kinda unique, kinda consistent, kinda special way of feeling and/or behaving §There is no single definition §Psychologists define personality from their preferred theoretical frameworks

intelligence in executive functioning

§Intelligence Tests: An intelligence test provides an assessment of an individual's overall cognitive status along a set of standardized dimensions. §Higher-order cognitive functions that constitute executive functioning also contribute to overall intelligence §Intelligence tests help obtain scores on a comprehensive array of abilities by performing a range of perceptual, memory, reasoning, and speed tasks. §Helps identify cognitive strengths and weaknesses §For adults, a common IQ test is Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV). individual differences in EFs have been consistently linked with individual differences in intelligence Research has demonstrated that, if considered as a whole, executive functions only partially correspond to the psychometric concept of intelligence; whereas some specific executive functions clearly correspond to intelligence, some others do not involve intelligence

coronary artery disease

•Coronary heart disease is the most common type of heart disease, killing 365,914 people in 2017. •About 18.2 million adults age 20 and older have CAD (about 6.7%). •About 2 in 10 deaths from CAD happen in adults less than 65 years old. •Early Action Is Important for Heart Attack •Know the warning signs and symptoms of a heart attack.

heart attack

•In the United States, someone has a heart attack every 40 seconds. •Every year, about 805,000 Americans have a heart attack. Of these, •605,000 are a first heart attack •200,000 happen to people who have already had a heart attack About 1 in 5 heart attacks is silent—the damage is done, but the person is not aware of it

intelligence

§Intelligence: Broadly, it's the mental ability of an individual §Age effects on intelligence: §Theories of intelligence differ in the number and nature of abilities of older adults §Classic aging pattern shows an inverted U-shape, with a peak in early adulthood followed by steady decline §By no means, there is any consensus. §Theories of intelligence: §Charles Spearman's g or general factor of intelligence- which is the ability to infer and apply relationships on the basis of experience. §G is not directly observable, but is estimated through tests of specific mental abilities. § Cattell and Horn: fluid-crystalized theory (Gf-Gc): Fluid Intelligence: it represents the innate ability to carry out higher-level cognitive operations: The abilities that make one a flexible and adaptive thinker, allowing to make inferences, and understand the relations among concepts. Crystallized Intelligence: The knowledge one has gained through life experiences and education. - Fluid intelligence declines through adulthood. -Crystallized intelligence improves through adulthood. §Extended Gf-Gc: there are other factors that incorporate cognitive skills: §Memory, speed, sensory processing, reading, writing, & mathematical knowledge §Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of intelligence: §There is a 3-tier structure to intelligence §There are 5 broad areas of intelligence: motor, perception, controlled attention, knowledge and speed) §Within each area, the specific abi8liteis are represented by Gs. §WAIS-IV is based on this CHC model.

work patterns in adulthood

§Labor force includes all civilians in the over-16 population (excluding people in prisons, nursing homes, and residential treatment centers) and have sought or are actively seeking employment. §Older adults in the labor force is steadily increasing. 31% of 65-69 age, who are in the labor force, are employed & 8.4% of those at/over 75 yrs

language

§Language - one of the biggest inventions of humanity - involves a wide array of cognitive functions, including comprehension, memory, and decision-making. §While several of these cognitive functions suffer with aging (e.g., memory), the average healthy older adults do not suffer significant losses in language abilities. §Most older adults - who are at least average healthy - continue to read, write, and carry on with conversation.

Marriage and Intimate Relationships

§Marriage as a relationship is changing from its traditional understanding §(this is not necessarily bad) §The centrality of marriage in people's lives come from many factors, including intimate relationships, practical aspects, social reasons, and as a basis (one of the bases) for childrearing §These (and other) factors keep marriage relevant as a social institution. Statistics show that factors related to marriage is changing

same-sex couples

§Marriage of same-sex couples was first legalized in the U.S. by Massachusetts in 2004 §In 2013 the U.S. Supreme Court legalized same-sex marriage in the U.S. §There are about 935,229 same-sex couples §About 58% (547,000) are married §Largest number live in California §Of the 2 - 3.7 million children raised by a parent identifying as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ), 200,000 are being raised by same-sex couples.

midlife crisis theories and findings

§Midlife crisis refers to a period of self-scrutiny and reevaluation of goals triggered by the individual's entry into middle age §The most popular theory of midlife crisis is that of Levinson. §Some themes of midlife crisis are: §Overcoming disillusionment due to failure to achieve the dreams of youth that inevitably cannot be fully realized §Making decision about how to pursue the life structure during middle adulthood §Resolution of polarities of hone personality involving masculinity and femininity, feelings about life and death, needs for autonomy and dependence on others §Levinson's theory of the midlife crisis is based on the idea that individuals experience transitions from one life structure to another between major periods of life.

neuropsychological assessment

§Neuropsychological Assessment: it involves gathering information about a client's brain functioning from a series of standardized cognitive tests. §For older adults with cognitive deficits, neuropsychologists may adapt their assessment to target specific areas in the brain they may have suffered a damage/lesion or decline. §These tests may include tests of executive functioning and other measures of cognitive functioning, including those from IQ tests. §Generally, neuropsychological assessments target specific problems - not overall brain functioning. §There is no "one type" that every neurologist uses. §In fact, it is recommended that neuropsychologists develop the skills to adapt tests to fit specific clinical profile of their patients. §E.g., a combination of WAIS-IV digit span, tail making tests, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test §There are also computerized tests, e.g., Cambridge Neuropsychological Testing Automated Battery.

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

§Non-cognitive factors can contribute to wisdom. §Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences: Intelligence is made up of more than abilities tested in standard intelligence tests. This model may help capture the complexity of intelligence required for adaptation to daily life

O*NET Online

§O*NET Online is a powerful searchable database of all occupations in the U.S.

driving and aging

§Older adults may develop multiple problems that affect safe driving: §Changes in: §Cognitive functions §Visual system - loss of visual acuity, increased sensitivity to glare, difficulty seeing in the dark §Physical changes - get in and out of the car, fasten a seat belt, turn the steering wheel, cope with a breakdown §Chronic conditions - e.g., drowsiness, confusion, dizziness §Driving with pets in the front seat is another potential accident hazard for older adults §Older adult drivers have fewer crashes that are fata than do younger driver, but because they drive fewer miles, older adults are reported as having higher crash rates and rates of fatality. §However, older adults' decades of driving experience may actually compensate for declining health. A key factor that increases the risk of accidents for older adults (and other adults as well) is a confusing road sign. Younger drivers are more likely to be involved in fatal accidents with blood alcohol levels of .08g/dL or higher than are older adults.

problem solving in adultohhod

§Older adults may make gains in certain aspects of problem-solving skills due to their experience (acquired expertise), they may become slower and have more memory lapses in certain areas. §E.g., grandmother producing a perfectly formed piecrust §Older adults may make decisions that are less susceptible to extraneous factors, avoiding the "attraction effect." §In behavioral economic studies, older adults made more rational choices than younger adults (who were more susceptible to attraction effects).

social aspects of language

§Older adults' tendency to reminisce about their past have both positive and negative effects, socially. §The storytelling helps them polish and refine the stories to connect with their significant others -families and social network. §Younger adults may feel "annoyed" with repetitive stories and feel disconnected with older adults §Older adults may experience "mental clutter" due to inability to inhibit irrelevant info (it is not necessary an aging problem, it's a problem with the executive functioning - a frontal lobe issue). §Elderspeak - a speech pattern directed at older adults similar to the way people talk to babies. §Communication predicament model - older adults are thought of as mentally incapacitated, leading younger adults to speak to them in a simplified manner §This stifles older adults' actual ability and causes further spiraling down of their abilities §Infantilization - loss of incentives to regain self-sufficiency in daily activities, leading to loss of independence.

adult learners

§Older adults' thinking and problem-solving may look different incertain situations. §Postformal operational level thinking incorporates the tendency of the mature individual to use logical processed in complex situations (e.g., the Trolley problem below). •Truth may vary from situation to situation •Solutions must be realistic to be reasonable •Ambiguity and contradiction are the rule (not exceptions) •Emotion and subjective factors usually play a role in thinking §Dialectical thinking involves the recognition that often the truth is not black and white, not necessarily given, and that truth may involve a give and take. §Ability to integrate diverging viewpoints. §Relying on one's own intuition, especially in moral dilemma §Given that older adults are increasingly returning to learning experiences - especially in the academic realm, educators will need to accommodate teaching styles that reflect the problem-solving styles of older adults. §Their socialization, ideology, and pedagogical preferences may vary -The Trolley Problem can be seen as a test of post-formal logic because there is no "right" answer in deciding whether to pull the switch to save the 5 and kill the one or do nothing and the 5 will be hit by the trolley. §The distribution of adult learners showing that as many as one-fifth of adult learners are ages 70 or older. §Of those taking adult education, about one-quarter are taking courses relevant to work, and 40% are involved in English as a Second Language.

breaking a big problem into its component parts

§One type of problem solving involves breaking a big problem into its component parts (top-down). §It is also possible to solve problems by managing the smaller components first and then building up to larger solutions (bottom-up).

pathways in the early phases of committed relationships as they evolve over time

§Pathways in the early phases of committed relationships as they evolve over time. §Enduring dynamics: Couple's interactions early in relationship characterizes course of relationship over time §Emergent distress: Relationship begins to develop problems over time, made worse by poor conflict resolution. §Disillusionment: Couple starts out happy and in love and develop problems over time.

cognitive perspective

§Personality, seen from cognitive perspective, views people as driven by the desire to predict and control their experiences. §Cognitive self theories study how people regard events in their lives from the standpoint of how relevant these are to their on sense of self. §Three specific theories (below) and all the three focus on thoughts about experiences as the driving force for the ways in which people respond to those experiences.

problem solving in later life

§Problem-solving in later life involves a balance between the less effective analytic strategies an older adult may use, perhaps, balanced against the better heuristics obtained through previous problem-solving experience. §A heuristic, or heuristic technique, is any approach to problem solving that uses a practical method or various shortcuts in order to produce solutions that may not be optimal but are sufficient given a limited timeframe or deadline.

the "U-shaped" curve of happiness

§Related to midlife crisis is the U-shaped curve of happiness §Economists studying happiness proposed a U-shaped dip corresponding to midlife based on large cross-national studies §Closer examination shows the "U" shape is flatter when entire score range taken into account (7.2 vs. 7.8 on a 0-10 scale) §Original studies failed to control for health, marital status, and income. §Data comparing world regions showed only effects were in high-income, English-speaking countries

relationship between work and family roles

§Relationship between work & family roles can be conceived in terms of enrichment or conflict. §The work-family conflict model (below) proposes that people have fixed amount of time and energy to spend on their life roles. §The more time and energy people invest in one area, the less they have for the other set of demands and activities (the scarcity perspective)

research on adult intelligence

§Seattle Longitudinal Study (SLS): Most comprehensive study on adult intelligence •Originated by K. Warner Schaie •Systematically investigated age, cohort, and time of testing •Original sample consisted of 500 adults divided into ten 5-year cohorts •Later testing included additional measures, including neuroimaging, personality tests, and health data. •Earliest drops in intelligence involved numeric ability §Some argue that the "decline" in intelligence, per se, may start from age 20. §However, Schaie says that cross-sectional data cannot prove or disprove age effects §Interindividual change: people vary from each other in the rate and extent of change §Intraindividual change: people vary within themselves and in their own abilities §A Scottish longitudinal study (11yrs to 77 yrs) found that individuals' reading ability at 77 reflected their IQ they scored when 11. §Thus, even as intelligence may change over the course of adulthood, it does so in a way that reflects individual differences far earlier in life. §There could be cohort effects in the study of aging and intelligence

self-determination theory

§Self-Determination Theory proposes that these three basic needs define the state of ideal, intrinsic, vocational satisfaction. §Workers attempt to fulfill their needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. -autonomy -relatedness -competence

diabetes (type 1 and type 2)

•Diabetes is a chronic disease in which people are unable to metabolize glucose, a simple sugar that is a major source of energy for he body's cells •Type 2 diabetes/Adult-onset diabetes: it develops over time, gradually reducing the individual's ability to convert dietary glucose to a form that can be used by the body's cells. •Type 1 diabetes, once known as juvenile diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes, is a chronic condition in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin. •Insulin is a hormone needed to allow sugar (glucose) to enter cells to produce energy.

psychological perspectives on long-term relationships

§Six prominent psychological perspectives on long-term relationships attempts to predict why some relationships succeed, while others fail: §Socioemotional selectivity theory: older adults become more satisfied with the long-term partners as their awareness increases of the limited time they have left together with each passing year. §Social exchange theory: Does the relationship's reward exceed the costs of alternative to that relationship? (Cost-benefit approach) §Equity theory: Do partners feel they get what they deserve? §Similarity Hypothesis: Similarity in personality and values predict initial attraction and long-term relationship satisfaction. §Need complementarity Hypothesis: People seek and are mores satisfied with marital partners who are the opposite of themselves. §Suffocation model of marriage: higher a couple attempts to move up the hierarchy of needs, the more frustrate they will become with the quality of their relationships (climbing Mount Maslow)

the psychology of wisdom

§Some researchers argued that the traditional intelligence tests focus on and measure the mechanics of intelligence - the cognitive operations such as speed, working memory, and fluid intelligence, §There may be other ways of looking at intelligence §Perhaps the most advanced form of cognition is the capacity for wisdom. §Conventional tests may not capture this. §Baltes said, "wise people are experts in the pragmatics of intelligence." §They can apply their abilities to the solution of real-life problems §Berlin Wisdom Paradigm defined wisdom as a form of expert knowledge in the pragmatics of life §Cultural factors influence the understanding and level of wisdom

stages in super's theory along with variations

§Super's life-space life-stages model of vocational development along with the variations of plateau and recycling for the period from the 20s to the 50s and beyond. §Newly added: 1) Recycling: people change their main career partway into their occupational life. 2) Career plateauing: people remain static in their vocational development. exploration: 20's establishment: 20s-30s maintenance: 30s-50s disengagement: 50s+

cohabitation effect

§Tendency for couples who live together before getting engaged to be more likely to divorce should they marry is called cohabitation effect. §40% of all cohabiting couples become married within three years, nearly a third do not get married, and about one-quarter break up. •Percent cohabiting between 1967 and 2017 has risen among adults 50-64 from 0.7 to 4.4%; small increases as well in 65+ •Older couples may enter into a "Living Apart Together" relationship: a living arrangement increasingly adopted by unmarried older adults in an intimate relationship who do not wish to share a residence

the personality-intelligence conundrum

§The Berlin Aging Study compared two hypotheses: §The environmental enrichment hypothesis: higher levels of Openness would lead older adults to better preservation of intelligence. §Berlin Aging Study supported this hypothesis §Also supported by Swedish Twin Study §Also supported by Danish Twin Study §The Openness-Fluid-Crystallized-Intelligence (OFCI) model regards personality openness as a protective factor against cognitive decline in later adulthood §The environmental success hypothesis: People with high in intelligence are able to succeed in many areas in life, allowing them to remain high on Openness to experience. §Either way, the personality factor of Openness appears to be a protective factor in preservation of intelligence.

WAIS-IV

§The WAIS-IV provides scores on four subscales that can be combined into a full-scale index. §Each subscale, or index, is assessed by sample tests The WAIS-IV is intended to measure intellectual functioning, incorporating verbal, analogical, sequential, and quantitative reasoning, as well as working memory and psychomotor processing speed.

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

§The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test is a measure of the ability to adapt to changing rules of organization. §The test-taker is shown screens with a set of 4 stimuli and must guess whether the stimulus shown below matches or not.

video games and attention

§The cognitive benefits of video games are getting established §Games help with response speed, improving attentional control, tracking of multiple inputs, making finer-grained distinctions better decisions §Most of these studies have been done on younger people. §Can older adults access these benefits too? §Some research supports this. §Video game training also seem to help with driving abilities, including improving useful field of view (UFOV) - a task that tests people's ability to respond to stimuli appearing in the periphery of their vision •Critique: Young adults show advantages, but those who choose to play may be self-selected. •Research on older adults attempting to show positive effects, but the field is fraught with difficulty: •"Best" games may not be enjoyable; Programs change •Software malfunctions; Hardware malfunctions

person environment correspondence theory

§The following six occupational reinforcement patterns determine whether an individual will be able to achieve person-environment correspondence. §You can look up the ORP's that correspond to their ideal job by searching on O*NET. -achievement -working conditions -recognition -relationships -support -independence

executive functioning

§The higher order cognitive skills needed to make decisions, plan, and allocate mental resources to a task -Executive functioning depends on/draws from: -Working memory -Selective attention -Mental flexibility -Ability to plan -Inhibit distracting information -Executive functioning in aging is of great research interests -For e.g., how does aging affects driving, given driving involves employing most of the abilities that constitute executive functioning Executive function describes a set of cognitive processes and mental skills that help an individual plan, monitor, and successfully execute their goals. The "executive functions," as they're known, include attentional control, working memory, inhibition, and problem-solving, many of which are thought to originate in the brain's prefrontal cortex. Executive function is a broad group of mental skills that enable people to complete tasks and interact with others. An executive function disorder can impair a person's ability to organize themselves and control their behavior. However, executive function disorder is not a specific, standalone diagnosis or condition. Instead, neurological, mental health, and behavioral disorders, such as depression and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), can affect a person's executive function.

communication predicament model

•In the Communication Predicament Model, when older adults who experience age-related physical changes are treated in infantilizing ways, they can experience age-related cognitive declines.

ego psychology

§The id: individuals' biological instincts, including needs for food , sex, and water. §Also, the needs to hurt, kill, exert power over others §The superego: the uber control that tries to check id's irrational instincts through conscience, social moral standards, providing an ideal image of self to aspire for. §The Ego: the part of the mind that controls the rational mind. §Balances between the needs of the id and superego's moral stipulations §Ego is central to directing behaviors. §For instance, Erikson's theory of psychosocial development posits that it's the Ego that matures throughout life as the individual faces particular biological, psychological, and social forces. §Each point (stage) in the ego's development in terms of a push and pull that leads the individual toward a favorable outcome (see next slide). §Each stage unfolds a predetermined order §Not all the stages are always linear - some of them recycle, are cyclical.

theory of defense mechanism

§The second psychodynamic approach is based on the work of Vaillant §Defense mechanisms are strategies that help people use almost automatically as protection against morally unacceptable urges and desires §intended to help protect the conscious mind from knowing about unconscious desires §Defense mechanism change over time (even after age 50) Major shift that adults experience in their adaptation to life involves transition from "immature", "intermediate", to "mature" defense mechanisms §Research on this model adds to the notion that personality changes are possible across lifespan §People do not change in reliably consistent ways on the basis of age alone

Holland's vocational development theory

§This theory explains that people express their personalities in their vocational aspirations and interests. §Holland's RIASEC model show six fundamental types/codes that capture the whole possible vocational interests, competencies, and behaviors. (see next slide) §The RIASEC is organized in a hexagonal structure. §Types that are most similar are organized closest - e.g., R & C §Types that are most dissimilar are organized farthest - e.g., C & A §Congruence/Fit occurs when one's vocational type matches one's occupational environment §RIASEC model is now available online, free.

super's life-space life-stages model of vocational development

§This theory focuses on the role of the self and proposes that people attempt to realize their inner potential through their career choices(See next slide) §People's sense of self also undergoes changes as they navigate through their career. §Holland focused on vocation preferences (you chose art work, because you prefer artistic work) §Super focused on vocation as one's "true" expression of inner self. §Expression of this true self occurs in a series of "life-spaces life-stages." §There are three life factors: environmental determinants, situational determinants, and personal determinants. §These determinants/influences intersect with various life-roles as Child, Student, Leisurite, Worker, Citizen, Homemaker, Parent. §Super further divides life course into stages from childhood through later life §Super sees career development as occurring within a larger context

health and personality traits

§Type A Behavior Pattern + hostility negatively related to heart health §Type D Personality linked to poorer recovery from heart disease §Conscientiousness, agreeableness, related to better heart health §Openness to experience, low neuroticism, and higher extraversion linked to better cognitive functioning ØPersonality factors are integral aspects of the biopsychosocial model of development in adulthood and old age.

vocational development

§Vocation is a person's choice of occupation (reflects personal preferences & interests) §Career: A profession or occupation chosen as one's life's work (it needn't be just a single career; multiple careers are not uncommon) §Career is shaped and influenced by: personal development, the specific organization the individual works for, and the profession or occupational category that describes the individual's occupation.

attachment theory applied to later life

§While attachment styles are not "carved in stone), there is research that says that previous attachment styles predict future/current attachment styles. §E.g., older adults with insecure attachment styles may experience social isolation than their securely attached counterparts. §Older adults who outlive their prior attachment figures may turn to a variety of other potential attachment figures or "safe havens"

social cognitive approaches

§While personality psychologists focus on individual differences - for e.g., - in the structure of personality, traits, defense mechanisms, social cognitive approaches to personality and aging focus on: §how people emotions and motivations change over time and how these changes affect the way they see themselves and other people §E.g., socioemotional selectively theory (SST): §People desire to maximize the positive emotions they experience in their relationships.

widowhood experience

§Widowhood refers to death of a spouse §Research on widowhood shows there are five characteristic patterns (chronic depression, chronic grief, depressed-improved, common grief, resilient) with resilient being the most common §Widowhood effect: greater probability of death in those who have become widowed, compared to those who are married

scaffolding theory of memory

•According to the scaffolding theory, older adults can recruit alternate neural circuits as needed by task demands as shown by these potential routes.

age-related macular degeneration: ARMD

•Affects about 8% of adults 40-85 years of age •Fourth most common form of blindness worldwide •Prevention through good eye health •Beta carotene - a dietary substance is recommended to reduce the risk of an older adult for developing age-related macular degeneration •Glasses that protect from blue and UV light An eye affected by age-related macular degeneration, filled with abnormal blood vessels and yellow deposits called drusen. The white spot at the right is where the optic nerve leaves the eye

research on aging and the five factor model

•Costa and McCrae found: -Over a 12-year period, 10 personality traits measured by GZTS (a temperament survey) remained stable. •Other researcher studies: -Extraversion and openness decreases with age. -Agreeableness increases with age. -Conscientious appears to peak in middle age. -Neuroticism often disappears or is much less apparent in late life. -Ursula Staudinger and colleagues found that personality takes on two forms: oPersonality Adjustment •Developmental changes in terms of their adaptive value and functionality. oPersonality Growth •Ideal end states such as increased self-transcendence, wisdom, and integrity

working memory

•After attention to stimuli/information, the next step is to register that information into consciousness. This process is called working memory, which keeps the info temporality available and active in consciousness. •Working memory is used to learn new information or bring to mind previously learned info that we are trying to recall. •"n-back task" is a common working memory test, which asks participant to repeat the nth item back in a list of items presented in a serial order. •Neuroimaging is also used to understand brain activation during working memory tasks, including the role of brain plasticity. •Relevant to working memory is a brain circuit called default network (includes hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe, and part of he cingulate cortex involved in visualization), which turns itself off while individual is involved in working memory tasks. This allows to limit thinking about one's own experiences and other "distractors." •Age-related changes my impact the deactivation of the default network, causing poorer working memory performance, as older adults may be focusing on inwardly oriented stimuli, instead of allocating cognitive resources on the information to remember •Older adults may draw on their inner resources and use previously stored information adaptively.

single-factor research design

•Age, Cohort And Time Of Measurement •Longitudinal Designs •Cross-sectional Designs

gray matter and white matter in the brain

•Aging can cause damage to support cells in the white matter, which in turn may lead to damage in the grey matter •Older adults showed a widespread reduction in GM volume in regions of the frontal, insular, and cingulate cortices compared to the young adults •WM decline prominently in the thalamic radiations and in pericentral and occipital areas

grandparents

•An estimated 65 million grandparents in the U.S. •Types of grandparents vary from formal to involved, but they may also fit along the intergenerational solidarity model

arthritis: key facts

•Arthritis is common, expensive, and a leading cause of disability. An estimated 54.4 million adults (22.7%) had doctor-diagnosed arthritis. •Approximately 24 million adults with arthritis had activity limitations attributable to arthritis. Among adults with arthritis, the percentage limited by arthritis has increased by almost 20% over time. •Approximately half of all adults with heart disease or diabetes had arthritis. Nearly one third of adults with obesity also had arthritis. Arthritis makes managing these conditions harder. •Adults with arthritis are often prescribed opioids in the United States; however, better ways to help manage arthritis often exist. For example, physical activity can reduce pain and improve physical function by approximately 40%. However, one in three adults with arthritis report no leisure time physical activity.

diseases of the musculoskeletal system: arthritis

•Arthritis: conditions that affect the joints and surroundings tissues that can cause pain, stiffness, and swelling in joints and other connective tissues •Osteoarthritis: most common form of arthritis among older adults - affects joints in the hips, ness, neck, lower back, and small joints of the hands.

parent-adult child relationships

•As children move through the years of adulthood, many facets of their relationship with their parent change: •Filial maturity: relating to their parents as equals •Filial anxiety: fear of having to take care of an aging, infirmed parent. •Filial obligation: cultural values that adult children are expected to care for their parents, including having them liv in their homes. •Filial piety. •Intergenerational solidarity model (ISM): six independent dimensions of solidarity characterize adult family relationships (see next slide) •Structural ambivalence: society's structures do not make clear how family members should behave •Intergenerational stake hypothesis: parents are higher in affectual solidarity toward their children than children are toward their parents. •Developmental schism: the gap between the two generations in how much they value the relationship and whether they wish to be independent. •Role reversal: adult children take over in the role as parent because the parents are unable to care for themselves. •Contingency theory: parent help their adult children who need it most, especially, financially •Helicopter parents: overprotecting the overly dependent children Sandwich generation

body build

•Body's height and shape changes height decrease is due to the loss of bone material in the vertebrae. •Weakening of the vertebrae causes spine collapse and shortening. •Body's shape changes particularly due to the reduction in body' fat-free/lean tissue

mobility - bones

•Bone is a living tissue and constantly reconstructs itself through bone remodeling, where old cells are destroyed and replaced by new cells. •Bone mass peaks in early adulthood for men and women, declining more abruptly for women due to changes associated with the menopause. •Generally, adulthood involves more bone destruction than bone renewal and has greater porosity of the calcium matrix, causing loss of bone mineral content. •Loss of height that often occurs in later adulthood is due primarily to loss of bone mineral content •Sex hormones - estrogen and testosterone also play a role in bone development/destruction. •decrease in sex hormones accelerates loss of bone mineral content

proposed causes of Alzheimer's disease

•Both genetic and environmental causes •Genetic causes: •Early-onset familial AD •Late-onset familial AD •Apoliprotein E (ApoE; located in chromosome 19) •ApoE is a protein that carries cholesterol throughout the body but it also binds to beta-amyloid, and appears to play a role in AD •Other genetic contributions are still emerging

dispositional traits across adulthood

•Current consensus of change in the Big Five with increasing age -Absence of neuroticism -Presence of agreeableness and conscientiousness •Studies also show decrease in openness to new experiences with increasing age. •Adjustment aspect with increasing age could be normative. •Personality changes are tied to cohort differences. •Personality traits tend to be stable when data are averaged over large groups of people. •But, looking at specific aspects of personality in specific kinds of people, there may be less stability and more change. -Wrzus and Roberts TESSERA model oLong-term personality development is the product of repeated short-term, situational processes. oThese short-term processes differ across people. oSome people show changes in personality traits and others do not.

causes of neurocognitive disorders

•Brain Injury Caused By Trauma: E.g., Bleeding into the brain (intracerebral hemorrhage), Bleeding into the space around the brain (subarachnoid hemorrhage), Blood clot inside the skull causing pressure on brain (subdural or epidural hematoma), Concussion •Breathing Conditions: E.g., Low oxygen in the body (hypoxia), High carbon dioxide level in the body (hypercapnia) •Cardiovascular Disorders: E.g., Dementia due to many strokes (multi-infarct dementia), Heart infections (endocarditis, myocarditis), Stroke, Transient ischemic attack (TIA) •Degenerative Disorders: E.g., Alzheimer disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Diffuse Lewy body disease, Huntington disease, Multiple sclerosis, Normal pressure hydrocephalus, Parkinson disease, Pick disease, •Dementia Due To Metabolic Causes: E.g., Kidney disease, Liver disease, Thyroid disease (hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism), Vitamin deficiency (B1, B12, or folate) •Drug And Alcohol-related Conditions: E.g., Alcohol withdrawal stateIntoxication from drug or alcohol use Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (a long-term effect of deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1)), Withdrawal from drugs (such as sedative-hypnotics and corticosteroids). •Infections: E.g., Any sudden onset (acute) or long-term (chronic) infection, Blood poisoning (septicemia), Brain infection (encephalitis), Meningitis (infection of the lining of the brain and spinal cord), Prion infections, such as mad cow disease, Late-stage syphilis - Complications of cancer and cancer treatment with chemotherapy can also lead to neurocognitive disorder. - Other conditions that may mimic organic brain syndrome include: Depression, Neurosis, Psychosis

diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease

•Brain scans: A CT scan or MRI can help your physician determine if a specific brain condition is causing your symptoms, such as a stroke, a tumor or hydrocephalus (a buildup of too much cerebrospinal fluid). A PET scan can show patterns of brain activity and identify if an amyloid protein found in Alzheimer's disease is present. •Cognitive and neuropsychological tests: These tests measure skills such as memory, orientation, reasoning and judgment, language and attention. •Lab tests: Blood tests can detect health issues that can affect brain function, such as a vitamin B-12 deficiency or an underactive thyroid. Spinal fluid may also be examined for signs of infection, inflammation or markers of some degenerative diseases. •Neurological evaluation: Your physician will evaluate your memory, language skills, visual perception, attention, problem-solving, movement, senses, balance, reflexes and more. •Physical examination: A physician will perform a physical exam and ask questions about your health to determine if your symptoms could be linked to an underlying physical health problem or medication side effect. •Psychiatric evaluation: A behavioral health physician can determine whether depression or another mental health condition is contributing to your symptoms.

occupation as calling

•Calling is an individual's consuming passion for particular career domain •Fulfills identity and potential •Need not be altruistic in nature •Provides personal meaning and purpose.

cancer

•Cancer is a generic term that includes a group of more than 100 diseases -Each type of cancer has its own symptoms, characteristics, treatment options, and over all effect on a person's health •CDC provides basic information and statistics about some of the most common cancers in the United States. •Bladder Cancer: Bladder cancer risk factors include smoking, genetic mutations, and exposure to certain chemicals. •Breast Cancer: Getting mammograms regularly can lower the risk of dying from breast cancer. Talk to your doctor about when to start and how often to get a screening mammogram. •Cervical Cancer: Screening tests and the HPV vaccine can help prevent cervical cancer. •Colorectal Cancer: If you are 50 years old or older, get screened. Screening tests can help prevent colorectal cancer or find it early, when treatment works best. •Gynecologic Cancers: Five main types of cancer affect a woman's reproductive organs: cervical, ovarian, uterine, vaginal, and vulvar. As a group, they are referred to as gynecologic cancers. •Head and Neck Cancers: Cancers of the head and neck include cancers that start in several places in the head and throat, not including brain cancers or cancers of the eye. •Kidney Cancer: Smoking is the most important risk factor for kidney and renal pelvis cancers. To lower your risk, don't smoke, or quit if you do. •Liver Cancer: To lower your risk for liver cancer, get vaccinated against Hepatitis B, get tested for Hepatitis C, and avoid drinking too much alcohol. •Lung Cancer: Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in the United States. The most important thing you can do to lower your lung cancer risk is to quit smoking and avoid secondhand smoke. •Lymphoma: Lymphoma is a general term for cancers that start in the lymph system. The two main kinds of lymphoma are Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. •Myeloma: Myeloma is a cancer of the plasma cells. In myeloma, the cells grow too much, forming a mass or tumor in the bone marrow. •Ovarian Cancer: Ovarian cancer causes more deaths than any other cancer of the female reproductive system. But when ovarian cancer is found early, treatment works best. •Prostate Cancer: Most prostate cancers grow slowly and don't cause any health problems in men who have them. Learn more and talk to your doctor before you decide to get tested or treated for prostate cancer. •Skin Cancer: Skin cancer is the most common cancer in the United States. To lower your skin cancer risk, protect your skin from the sun and avoid indoor tanning. •Thyroid Cancer: To lower the risk of thyroid cancer, avoid unnecessary exposure to radiation, including radiation from medical imaging procedures, especially in young children and around the head and neck. •Uterine Cancer: Uterine cancer is the most common cancer of the female reproductive system. •Vaginal and Vulvar Cancers: Vaginal and vulvar cancers are rare, but all women are at risk for these cancers.

cancer prevention

•Cancer is a term used for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control and can invade other tissues. •Cancer cells can spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems. Cancer is not just one disease, but many diseases. Screening Tests: Getting screening tests regularly may find breast, cervical, and colorectal (colon) cancers early, when treatment is likely to work best. Lung cancer screening is recommended for some people who are at high risk. Vaccines (Shots): Vaccines (shots) also help lower cancer risk. The human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine helps prevent most cervical cancers and several other kinds of cancer. The hepatitis B vaccine can help lower liver cancer risk. Healthy Choices: You can reduce your risk of getting cancer by making healthy choices like keeping a healthy weight, avoiding tobacco, limiting the amount of alcohol you drink, and protecting your skin.

vital bodily functions - cardiovascular system

•Cardiovascular system includes heart, arteries that circulate blood à and veins that bring the blood back to heart ß •Aging affects heart muscles & arteries. Walls of the left ventricles loses robust contractions and efficient blood distributions •Plaques in the arterial walls accommodate less blood •Between age 20 and age 70, there is about 5% reduction per decade in cardiovascular efficiency. •Cardiovascular efficiency is indexed by aerobic capacity: the maximum amount of oxygen that can be delivered through the blood and cardiac output, the amount of blood that the heart pumps per minute. •Normal changes in the cardiovascular system with age in adulthood are reflected in a lowering of aerobic capacity

Circadian rhythm/sleep-wake cycle disturbances

•Changes in circadian rhythms occur due to alterations in the hormone melatonin, released by the pineal gland. Note that these changes contribute to alterations in sleep cycles.

respiratory diseases

•Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): a group of diseases that involve obstruction of the airflow into the respiratory system. •A main form of respiratory disease affecting older adults. •It includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis. •COPD makes breathing difficult for the 16 million Americans who have this disease. •Millions more people suffer from COPD, but have not been diagnosed and are not being treated. •Although there is no cure for COPD, it can be treated.

vital bodily functions - digestive system

•Digestive system helps extracting nutrients out of food and eliminates the undigested products as solid waste. •Begins with secretion of saliva by salivary glands •Aging affects production of saliva •Changes in jaw, making it more difficult to chew •Esophagus less effective •Fewer gastric juices in stomach •These changes in the gastrointestinal tract together cause malnourishment among older adults •Life-style factors also affect digestive system - mobility, exercises, ability to cook, ability to drive (to shop and seek healthcare) •Fecal incontinence affect 4% of those above 65

global burden of heart disease

•Eastern Europe has the highest prevalence of deaths from heart disease (adjusted for age) followed by Central Asia and Central Europe. •The lowest rates of heart disease are in Central Sub-Saharan Africa, with similar low rates in southern Latin America and the high income countries in the Asia Pacific region

cardiac conditions: behavioral risk factors/ lifestyle factors

•Eating a diet high in saturated fats, trans fat, and cholesterol has been linked to heart disease and related conditions, such as atherosclerosis. Also, too much salt (sodium) in the diet can raise blood pressure. •Not getting enough physical activity can lead to heart disease. It can also increase the chances of having other medical conditions that are risk factors, including obesity, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and diabetes. Regular physical activity can lower your risk for heart disease. •Drinking too much alcohol can raise blood pressure levels and the risk for heart disease. It also increases levels of triglycerides, a fatty substance in the blood which can increase the risk for heart disease. -Women should have no more than 1 drink a day. -Men should have no more than 2 drinks a day. •Tobacco use increases the risk for heart disease and heart attack: •Cigarette smoking can damage the heart and blood vessels, which increases your risk for heart conditions such as atherosclerosis and heart attack. •Nicotine raises blood pressure. •Carbon monoxide from cigarette smoke reduces the amount of oxygen that your blood can carry. •Exposure to secondhand smoke can also increase the risk for heart disease, even for nonsmokers.

steps older drivers can take to improve their driving

•Exercise to increase strength and flexibility •Avoid drug-drug interactions •Vision tests •Drive during daylight and good weather •Find safest routes (well-lit streets, arrows at lights, easy parking) •Plan route before driving •Leave enough room in front •Avoid distractions (including food, pets) •Consider alternatives to driving

research based on the five factor model and development (ages 15 to 75)

•Extraversion (social vitality component)- is low and remains low •Extraversion (social dominance component)- increases and remains high •Agreeableness continues to increase •Conscientiousness continues to increase •Emotional stability increases and remains high •Openness to experience increases, peaks at 55, and dips slightly afterwards

brain plasticity

•Factors that promote decline can be offset by those that can promote plasticity across the adult years PASA- front-back compensation HAROLD- hemisphere compensation CRUNCH- general compensation

memory training studies

•Gerontological optimists •Even simple memory tasks/practice can produce significant improvements in memory , offsetting the negative effects of mental inactivity. •Benefits even those with MCI - mild cognitive impairment. •This also helps with memory self-efficacy. •Helping at encoding through "deep processing" - thinking about the meaning of the information (and not only repeating the information) •The ACTIVE study (Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly) of 2,800 adults 65 to 94, with training in various cognitive skills: memory, reasoning, and processing speed - showed that participants who received training improved their cognitive abilities, which were retained at 2 years later and 10 years later. •Different memory-enhancing techniques: e.g., Method of Loci •The use of method of loci as a way to improve long-term memory (also called "Memory Palace")

hair

•Graying and thinning of the hair are a common feature of physical aging in middle and later adulthood. •Matter of fact the (existing) hair do not turn gray, but the number of pigmented/colored hair (thanks to melanin) diminishes over time and the ones that are not pigmented increases. •Hair loss too occurs due to the destruction of the germination centers that produce the hair in the hair follicles. •Androgenetic alopecia - patterned baldness - occurs more frequently in men •Treatments - chemical, herbal, and surgical implantation

health

•Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being. •Each factor influences the other •These are broad factors - has several subsidiary elements •Criticisms of WHO's definition: •Too broad •Health is not only a "state" but health is a dynamic concept - it changes, we are constantly adjusting to changing demands of living •Meaning of health itself is changing

heart disease

•Heart disease is the leading cause of death for men, women, and people of most racial and ethnic groups in the United States. •One person dies every 36 seconds in the United States from cardiovascular disease. •About 655,000 Americans die from heart disease each year—that's 1 in every 4 deaths. •Heart disease costs the United States about $219 billion each year from 2014 to 2015. - This includes the cost of health care services, medicines, and lost productivity due to death.

stroop task

•If stimuli are presented in two modalities, such as auditory and visual, older adults are capable of showing levels of inhibition comparable to those of young adults. •In the Stroop test, interference is measured by comparing the length of time it takes a participant to read an incongruent stimulus (the word "green" in blue) compared to congruent ("blue" in blue).

immune system

•Immune system refers to body's ability to fight off stress, infection, and other threats to wellbeing and health. •Aging is associated with declines in immune system functioning, referred to as immune senescence. •Aging is not the only factors affecting immune system - diet, exercise, stress

monolingual vs. bilingual aging brain

•In monolinguals, aging is associated with an increased reliance on the frontal regions, according to the PASA hypothesis. •In bilinguals, the aging brain shows preservation of the posterior regions (including temporal and parietal cortex), as well as increased connectivity between frontal and posterior areas, leading to cognitive reserve.

Estrogen replacement therapy

•Initial studies showed support •2002- warnings of increased risk of blood clots and cancer •2015- UK issued report documenting risks and benefits •Locally applied estrogen can offset dryness and pain associated with sexual activity •Alternatives include exercise, quitting smoking, lowering cholesterol and having one alcoholic drink per day (preferably wine)

effects of aging on long-term memory

•Long Term Memory/LTM: the repository of information that is held for a period of time : several minutes to a lifetime. •The process of LTM includes encoding, storage, and retrieval. • • • •Episodic memory: it's a LTM for evens (episodes). •Older adults may experience impairment in episodic memory both in encoding and retrieving •Age-related damage to the white matter may be associated with episodic memory, especially in certain regions such as frontal cortex, temporal and parietal lobes, and areas of subcortex and thalamus. •Scaffolding theory, however, says the structural changes in the above-said areas may be compensated by heightened activation of alternate neuronal circuits as needed by task demands to make up for the losses suffered elsewhere in the brain. •Other factors such as education, stress, exposure to toxins, health and physical activity may affect working and episodic memories. •Remote memory: involves recall of information from the distant past. •Generally, info stored and NOT accessed from remote memory becomes increasingly difficult to retrieve with passing years. •Autobiographical memory: involves recall of information from one's own past. •Generally intact, as it's central to one's identity, but irrelevant personal info fades over time. Flashbulb memory: recall of important and distinctive events that stand out from other memories of past events. E.g., 2000 presidential election; 9/11 Semantic memory: the ability to recall word meanings and the factual information Procedural memory: the ability to recall the actions involved in particular tasks. E.g., sewing, driving. Implicit memory: it is the long-term memory for info that people acquire without intending to do so. Source memory: recall of where or how an individual acquired the information. E.g., remembering where you heard something that is important. Prospective memory: recall of events to be performed in the future. E.g., calling a friend. Retrieval-induced forgetting: the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon - inability to remember info that one new at one time (eventually it might come back - after just drawing a blank) Retrieval failure depends on the frequency with which the info is typically drawn. Education also may play in retrieval failure/success

memory

•Loss of memory is one of the things a lot of people are afraid of while/about getting older. •Research shows that aging and memory decline are associated •However, memory loss is not inevitable to aging •There are several types/areas of memory: •Working Memory •Effects Of Aging On Long-term Memory In Adulthood •Psychosocial Influences On Memory •Memory And Health-related Behaviors •Memory Training Studies

master athletes

•Maintain high physical functioning throughout life •However, they are a self-selected group •Hence difficulties in interpreting the findings of research on aerobic capacity in master athletes

psychosocial influences on memory

•Memory self-efficacy: a form of self-efficacy that refers to the confidence one has in one's memory. •The degree to which one feels that tone can successfully complete a memory task. •Negative beliefs about one's memory can affect one's memory self-efficacy and feelings of depression. •Stereotype threat: people perform in ways consistent with negative stereotypes of the group to which they see themselves as belonging. •Memory controllability: It refers to beliefs about the effects of the aging process on memory. E.g., memory decline is inevitable to aging vs. not. •Generally stress and depression are major risk factors for poor memory.

work stress

•Multiple factors •Emotional labor: it is the requirement of service-oriented jobs in which workers must smile and maintain a friendly attitude regardless of their own personal feelings or emotions. •Lack of job fairness

neurofibrillary tangle formation in Alzheimer's disease

•Neurofibrillary tangles are formed when tau disintegrates leading microtubules to become twisted and tangled.

non-communicable disease burden

•Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) kill 41 million people each year, equivalent to 71% of all deaths globally. •Each year, 15 million people die from a NCD between the ages of 30 and 69 years; over 85% of these "premature" deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries. •Cardiovascular diseases account for most NCD deaths, or 17.9 million people annually, followed by cancers (9.0 million), respiratory diseases (3.9million), and diabetes (1.6 million). •These 4 groups of diseases account for over 80% of all premature NCD deaths. •Tobacco use, physical inactivity, the harmful use of alcohol and unhealthy diets all increase the risk of dying from a NCD. •Detection, screening and treatment of NCDs, as well as palliative care, are key components of the response to NCDs. -Over 85% of those deaths occur in low and middle-income countries where they affect <70 yrs old

plaque formation in Alzheimer's disease

•Normal cleavage of APP occurs when it is snipped by α-secretase, releasing a neuroprotective fragment along with the snipped APP. •In the formation of a plaque, the snipping by β-secretase and ϒ-secretase results in abnormal cleavage and the production of plaques.

reversible neurocognitive disorders

•Normal pressure hydrocephalus •Subdural hematoma •Delirium •Polypharmacy •Wernicke's disease (can progress to Korsakoff syndrome) •Pseudodementia

pilots and age

•Older pilots have better safety records •More vulnerable to fatigue due to jet lag

mobility - muscles

•On average, all the structures that support movements - bones, muscles, tendons, and ligaments - undergo age-related changes. •Sarcopenia - a progressive age-related loss of muscle mass and resulting loss of strength. Sarcopenia occurs gradually throughout adulthood

diseases of the musculoskeletal system: osteoporosis

•Osteoporosis: a musculoskeletal condition that occurs when the bone mineral density and strength decline. •when the body loses too much bone, makes too little bone, or both. As a result, bones become weak and may break from a fall or, in serious cases, from sneezing or minor bumps.

families

•Parenthood: •Number of births in the U.S. in 2018 was 3.9 million, 11.8/1000 in the population •2% drop from 2017 •Decline only applied to women ages 15 to 34 •Women ages 35 to 49 and older actually have shown increased birth rate •Transition to parenthood (TtP): adjustment when a child is born •Doing gender: tendency of women and men to behave in steoptypcally gendered ways following the birth of a child •The Empty Nest: •A period in couple's life that occurs when their children permanently depart from home. •Can be positive for relationship •Potential in some for "empty nest syndrome" especially in Indo/East Asian ethnicity

transition to parenthood

•Period of adjustment when first child is born. •Involves biological changes in the mother. •Not necessarily associated with drop in relationship satisfaction, as was once thought. •Division of labor becomes important consideration in adjustment ("doing" and "undoing" gender) •Same sex couples with children have more choices than previously and more support from other same sex parents •First-time fathers also undergo changes and may even "catch" depression

sensation and perception: vision

•Presbyopia: loss of ability of the lens to focus on objects that are close to the viewer •Presbyopia is caused by changes in the proteins within the lens leading to the thickening and hardening of the lens (focusing mechanism) •It affects older adults' visual acuity •Cataract causes clouding or opacity on the lens

prevention and treatment of diabetes

•Prevention: Control of glucose intake, blood pressure, and blood lipids, exercise and weight control •Treatment: involves insulin, dietary changes, exercise, and avoidance of interactions with over-the-counter medications

bone health: nutrition

•Protein (e.g. eggs, quinoa, cottage cheese, tuna, oat) •Calcium (e.g. almonds, kale, broccoli, cheese, tofu, sesame seed) •Vitamin D (milk) •Magnesium (bananas) •Certain types of nuts (walnuts, Brazil nuts) •Potatoes •Carotenoids (carrots, squash, and apricots) •Research shows that foods high in Magnesium can help minimize bone loss in later adulthood.

types of research methods

•Qualitative Studies •Archival Research •Surveys •Epidemiological Studies •Case Reports •Focus Groups •Daily Diaries •Observational Methods •Meta-analysis

vital bodily functions - respiratory system

•Raspatory system brings in oxygen to the body & expels carbon dioxide •Exchange of gases takes place within tiny air sacs: alveoli Aging affects all the structures of the respiratory system - lungs, diaphragm, and the muscles of the chest wall •Respiratory problems are accelerated by smoking and the lack of exercises.

processing speed and attention: reaction time

•Reaction Time: is the basic measure processing speed. •E.g., pushing a computer key when a specific image is shown on the screen (and not pushing it when a distractor image is shown) •This is also called simple reaction time tasks •If a specific image requires pushing a key and another image requires another key (e.g., L for Red, S for Blue), this is called choice reaction time. Reasons why people vary in reaction time: •General slowing hypothesis: general decline of information processing speed within nervous system of the aging individual Age-complexity hypothesis: through the slowing of central processes in the nervous system, older adults perform progressively more poorly as the task become more complex and their processing resources are stretched more and more to their limit

diseases of cardiovascular system

•Refers to chronic diseases that affect cardiac and cerebrovascular health •Atherosclerosis: abnormally high fat deposits in arteries, which limit blood circulation •Arteriosclerosis: thickening and hardening of arteries •Coronary/ischemic heart disease: when atherosclerosis lead to buildup of plaque in arteries that feed the heart muscles •Myocardial infarction: acute condition in which the blood supply to part of the heart muscle is severely reduced or blocked. •Hypertension: elevated blood pressure (systolic: pressure exerted by the blood as it is pushed out of heart during contraction; diastolic: pressure when the blood is relaxed between contractions). •Congestive heart failure: condition in which the heart5 is unable to pump enough blood to meet the needs o the body's other organs •Cerebrovascular accident/Stroke: acute condition in which an artery leading to the brain bursts or is clogged by a blood clot or other particle. •Transient ischemic attack/mini-stroke: same us above, but the blockage of artery is temporary. The blood-deprived tissues may recover but usually TIA repeats.

age and vocational satisfaction

•Regarding whether job satisfaction increases, decreases, or stays the same over adulthood is not easy to answer. •In addition to age, other factors contribute to satisfaction for older workers •Job tenure needs to be separated from age •Salary is tied to increased vocational satisfaction for older workers who regard higher pay as a token of their worth •Age discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA), 1967: it is illegal to fire or not employ workers on the basis of their age. •Ageism still exists. •According to social cognitive career theory, older workers who feel that their contributions are not valued, or who experience ageism on their job, will have lower vocational satisfaction as their core self-evaluations erode in the ace of an unsupportive work environment

white matter hyperintensities

•Related to the extent of brain atrophy and some measures of cognitive functioning •Exact roles in normal aging and disease are as yet unclear.

sandwich gneration

•Sandwich generation strains may be less than thought, though there are risks With their own children, parents tend to help children most in need, reducing problems of "helicopter parenting

siblings

•Sibling relationships are longest in life •They continue to support themselves in adulthood •Old rivalries may persist

sensation and perception: smell and taste

•Smell and taste (chemosensation) are affected by aging •Possible causes include smoking, disease, and nutritional deficiencies. smell: -Some form of dysfunction: 13%- 60-69 year 39%- 80+ -Trouble detecting Smoke- 20% Natural gas- 31% taste: -Poorest taste for: Sour, Bitter -Most enjoyment of: Sweet, Salty

social security (FDR: social security act)

•Social Security Act passed in 1935 •46.4 million 65+ receiving benefits in 2019 •Average monthly benefit is $1461 •"Pay-as-you-go" system (i.e. not pre-funded) •Trust Fund is meant to be reserve •Rather than rely on Social Security, most workers who can afford to are now investing in 401Ks, or private retirement investment accounts •Many younger workers wonder whether Social Security will be able to provide them with their benefits when they retire.

endocrine system

•The endocrine system includes a large and diverse set of glands that regulate the actions of the body's organ systems •includes a complex set of structures that produce hormones via feedback loops involving the body's organs.

vocational satisfaction

•The extent to which people find their work to be enjoyable. •Equivalent to job satisfaction. •Intrinsic factors in vocational satisfaction refer to the tasks required to perform the work itself. •Extrinsic factors in vocational satisfaction refer to the features that accompany the job but are not central to its performance. The Two-factor motivational theory posits that the intrinsic factors are job "motivators" and extrinsic factors are the "hygiene" conditions present in the work place.

friendships

•Theoretical Perspectives •Friendship types range from peripheral to close •Socioemotional selectivity theory explains why people prefer their old friends •Patterns Of Friendships

mobility - joints

•Typically from 40s people feel that their joints get "creaky" but developmentally, starting in 20s some aspects of the joints starts to degenerate - e.g., articular cartilage (see the diagram below) •Catch-22: unlike muscles, joints do not benefit from constant use - in fact, constant use causes wear and tear. •Strengthening muscles that support joints is better than constant use of the joints per se (e.g., stretching to prevent damage to the joints) •Obesity has a negative effect on joint health

vital bodily functions - urinary system

•Urinary system is made up of the kidneys, bladder, ureters, and urethra •Changes in the kidneys occur due to the effects of aging on the nephron, the basic unit of structure and function. •Aging leads to lowered rate of waste filtering through the nephrons •Aging also affects the elastic tissue of the bladder, affecting efficiently retaining or expelling urine. •Around 30% of adults age 65 or older experience urge incontinence - sudden urge to urinate or even leak urine •Physical exertions can cause stress incontinence. •Overactive bladder causes need to frequent urination as well as urge incontinence

other forms of neurocognitive disorder

•Vascular neurocognitive disorder (multi-infarct dementia) •Frontotemporal neurocognitive disorder •Parkinson's disease •Neurocognitive disorder with Lewy bodies •Pick's disease