Advanced Human Physiology Final

What is the name of the anticancer therapy that involves the administration of antibodies against certain cytokines that inhibit cytotoxic T lymphocyte function?

Immune checkpoint blockade therapy involves the administration of antibodies against certain cytokines that inhibit cytotoxic T lymphocyte function. Blocking these "checkpoint" molecules unleashes the T cell's ability to attack the tumor.

what do modern immunoassays do in order to increase their sensitivity?

In order to increase their sensitivity, modern immunoassays, such as this one for C-reactive Protein (CRP), generally use antibodies that exhibit specificity for just one antigenic determinant. The end result is visible agglutination of the polystyrene beads.

When do T cells become activated?

In the thymus! (before: preT cells

chronic inflammations effects

Inflammation, particularly when it becomes chronic, can cause severe damage to the body!

Where are lymphocytes produced?

Lymphocytes, like the other formed elements of the blood, are produced in the myeloid tissue of the bone marrow by stem cells. Some of the lymphocytes produced in the bone marrow travel through the blood and seed the lymphoid tissue of the lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen, producing self-replicating lymphocyte colonies in these organs.

Oposonization

the ability of antibodies to stimulate phagocytosis is termed Oposonization

since old people dont have a lot of the thymus...

they have pretty bad CMI (Cell-mediated immunity) from not a lot of T cells and thats why theyre bad for COVID-19

when you get HIV, what happens?

with HIV, you trash your cell-mediated immunity and you get the diseases associated with said immunity (intracellular bacteria, intracellular viruses, fungi, protozoans, helminths (worms), transplanted tissues, cancer cells.)

What type of antibodies are used in modern pregnancy tests that are highly specific for the beta subunit of hCG?

"Monoclonal antibodies" (produced by lymphocyte clones) are specific for the beta subunit of hCG and are produced by animals, such as rabbits, that are injected with hCG.

antibody proteins, AKA

("immunoglobulins" or "Ig")

local inflammatory reaction

A local inflammatory reaction reveals aspects of both innate and adaptive immune responses In this case of inflammation caused by a microbial infection, the innate nonspecific immune system becomes activated by stimulation of its toll-like pathogen recognition receptors. Macrophages and mast cells, which are resident in the tissue, release a number of cytokines and chemokines that attract phagocytic neutrophils and promote the innate immune response of phagocytosis and complement activation.

What is a noninvasive method of analyzing fetal DNA of the fetus?

A mother's blood plasma contains a mixture of her DNA and the DNA of the fetus, because some placental cells undergo apoptosis and release their DNA into the blood. Because of this, DNA analysis of the mother's blood can now be used to noninvasively test for the fetal sex (looking for DNA, including the SRY, from the Y chromosome). Scientists have even recently reported their ability to determine much of the genome of a fetus using DNA in maternal plasma!

Abt 40 hours after fertilizaton

A second cleavage, which occurs about 40 hours after fertilization, produces four cells.

ABT 50-60 hours after fertilization

A third cleavage about 50 to 60 hours after fertilization produces a ball of eight cells called a morula (= mulberry).

AIDS

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) has killed many millions of people worldwide, and millions more are infected. AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which preferentially infects and destroys helper T cells, particularly those in the gastrointestinal mucosa where up to 30% of helper T cells reside. This results in decreased immunological function and greater susceptibility to opportunistic infections and cancer.

role of activated complement in inflammation

Activated complement promotes inflammation by acting as a chemotactic attractant for phagocytes, and by triggering the release of inflammatory chemicals (such as histamine) that cause increased blood vessel permeability.

Adoptive cell transfer therapies

Adoptive cell transfer therapies for cancer involve harvesting a patient's T cells and using them to combat the patient's cancer. For example, a melanoma generates T cells that are specific for the cancer's antigens. These can be harvested from the tissues surrounding the melanoma, stimulated to proliferate in vitro by IL-2, and then put back into the tumor area. To prevent these anti-tumor T cells from being suppressed by Treg cells, the patient's immune system has previously been suppressed by radiation or chemotherapy.

B cells and inflammation

After some time, "B lymphocytes" (part of the adaptive immune system) may also be stimulated during inflammation to produce antibodies specific for antigenic determinants (epitopes) on the invading bacteria. Binding of these antibodies to antigens in the bacteria greatly amplifies the previously nonspecific response. This occurs because antigen-antibody complexes activate complement, which also promotes inflammation.

Amniocentesis

Amniocentesis entails aspiration of a small amount of fluid containing fetal cells from the amniotic sac. This procedure is usually performed when a woman is about 14-20 weeks pregnant and the fetus is at risk of genetic abnormalities. Samples obtained by amniocentesis can be analyzed by microscopic observation of the chromosomes (a technique called karyotyping), and by biochemical analysis of DNA using a technology called chromosomal microarrays. These techniques allow for the detection of abnormal numbers of chromosomes, such as in Down's Syndrome (trisomy 21) and Turner's Syndrome (with a single X). Additionally, certain genetic disorders may be detected, including sickle-cell disease, Tay-Sachs disease, cystic fibrosis, and muscular dystrophy.

what do antibodies act as?

Antibodies act as opsonins so that phagocytosis occurs more effectively.

antibody binding

Antibodies can bind to isolated antigen molecules, such as toxins, or they may bind to antigen molecules on the surface of an invading foreign cells as shown above. The specific binding of antibodies to antigens serves to identify the enemy and to activate defense mechanisms that lead to the invader's destruction.

What therapy is given to patients with HIV?

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) involves drugs that inhibit reverse transcriptase. Two different reverse transcriptase inhibitors have been combined with an inhibitor of protease (an enzyme needed to assemble the viral coat) to produce a drug "cocktail" that can suppress HIV replication indefinitely. This has proven to be a very effective treatment, and even more so in people who can begin this therapy very early after infection. However, ART does NOT cure AIDS because the HIV viral DNA integrates itself into the host DNA of memory of helper T cells. When the ART drugs are stopped, the virus reappears. Moreover, only a fraction of the infected people worldwide have access to these drugs that are required to maintain their lives.

activation of lymphocytes

As a lymphocyte circulates through the body, it goes from one secondary lymphoid organ to another until it encounters the antigen that is specific for its receptors. Once it is activated (usually while in the germinal center of a secondary lymphatic organ) it will undergo many cell divisions.

Abt 30-36 hours after fertilizaton

At about 30 to 36 hours after fertilization, the zygote divides by mitosis, a process called cleavage, into two smaller cells. The rate of cleavage is thereafter accelerated.

what does B cell stimulation result in?

B cell stimulation results in antibody production (humoral immunity, also known as antibody-mediated immunity). B cells are manufactured and processed in the bone marrow. called Humoral immunity cus blood and lymph are body fluids (humors)

Most of the lymphocytes that are not T lymphocytes are called:

B lymphocytes, or B cells. They are processed in the bone marrow.

What are the primary lymphoid organs?

Because B lymphocytes are released by the bone marrow and T lymphocytes are processed by the thymus, the bone marrow and thymus are known as "primary lymphoid organs".

the specificity of antibodies allows for

Because antibodies are specific in their actions, it follows that different types of antibodies should have different structures. An antibody against smallpox, for example, does not confer immunity to poliomyelitis and therefore must have a slightly different structure than the antibody against polio.

what does CMI protect us from?

Cell-mediated immunity (CMI) - which is developed from activated T cells - protects us from: intracellular bacteria (bacteria that causes tuberculosis) , intracellular viruses, fungi, protozoans, helminths (worms), transplanted tissues, cancer cells.

What is cell-mediated immunity the result of?

Cell-mediated immunity (CMI) is the result of activation of T-cell lymphocytes

CAR therapy

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) therapy has achieved remarkable success against acute lymphoblastic leukemia in clinical trials, and has recently been approved by the FDA for this use.

What is the name of the other testing procedure that can be performed as early as 10-12 weeks of pregnancy?

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS), which provides larger numbers of fetal cells than amniocentesis, can be performed as early as 10 to 12 weeks of pregnancy.

Why was her first test negative, while her second test was positive?

Considering, that sperm may survive in a woman's reproductive tract for 3-5 days, a pregnancy test may be falsely negative for more than two weeks following intercourse. However, the standard home pregnancy test is very reliable when performed a week after a missed menstrual period.

hapten-acting drugs

Drugs, such as penicillin or other drugs, can act as a hapten and bind to platelets to create a new antigen. Drug-induced thrombocytopenia purpura may follow.

5 subclasses of antibodies

IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE ***you've got to bring your all to DE GAME***

Endotoxin

Endotoxin, more properly termed bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), is a component of certain bacteria (called gram-negative bacteria) and is the most powerful instigator of sepsis. In localized infections, LPS triggers innate immunity (through toll-like receptors) that helps to clear the infection. However, when massive amounts of LPS enter the circulation, it stimulates widespread release of inflammatory cytokines. Scientists are attempting to develop drugs to block these effects of LPS and other molecules from gram-positive bacterial that play similar roles.

Glucocorticoid drugs

Glucocorticoid drugs, including hydrocortisone, cortisone, prednisone, prednisolone, and dexamethasone, are used to suppress the immune system for the treatment of various inflammatory conditions, autoimmune diseases, and allergy. Although they are broadly immunosuppressive, inhibiting lymphocytes and phagocytic cells, they have been found to enhance the cytokines secreted from TH2 cells compared to cytokines secreted from TH1 cells, thereby promoting a shift from cell-mediated to humoral immunity.

What type of virus is HIV?

HIV is classified as a retrovirus because its genetic code is carried in its RNA. The enzyme reverse transcriptase is needed to transcribe this viral RNA into complementary DNA for viral replication.

where are histamines stored and how are they released?

Histamine and heparin, together with protease enzymes important for inflammation, are stored in granules within mast cells. Either an allergic reaction or as a normal physiological response to pathogens, mast cells are stimulated to degranulate. This term refers to the exocytosis of the granules, which quickly release histamine into the extracellular fluid and more slowly release the protease enzymes. With a time delay, pathogens stimulate mast cells to produce prostaglandins and leukotrienes as well as other pro-inflammatory cytokines. These include tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which acts as a chemokine to recruit neutrophils to the infected site.

Histamine

Histamine binds to its H1 histamine receptors in the smooth muscle of the bronchioles to stimulate bronchiolar constriction (in asthma), but produces relaxation of the smooth muscle in blood vessels (causing vasodilation). In addition, histamine, serotonin, and other chemicals released by mast cells and others during inflammation cause the endothelial cells of capillaries and postcapillary venules to contract away from each other, creating gaps in the endothelium. This increases the permeability of the capillaries to allow the escape of more fluid and plasma proteins into the extracellular space, producing localized edema. Gaps formed in the endothelium of postcapillary venules also allow for the extravasation of leukocytes into the inflamed area.

When should such home pregnancy tests be performed if pregnancy is suspected and why do such kits usually come with two separate testing devices?

Home pregnancy tests usually come with two testing devices so that if the first test is negative, the second device can be used 7 days later. False negative results occur when the test is performed too early, because hCG does not reach detectable levels until implantation, which may not occur until as late as day 12. Considering that sperm may survive in a woman's reproductive tract for up to 5 days, a pregnancy test may be falsely negative for more than two weeks following intercourse. Home pregnancy tests, using monoclonal antibodies that react with hCG in urine, are generally accurate in the week following the first missed menstrual period. Home pregnancy tests use monoclonal antibodies that react with hCG in urine.

What additional activities have given persons hope in the battle against HIV?

Hope has been raised because: (1) early and continual treatment of an infected person with currently available drugs can so lower HIV levels that the risk of infecting a partner may be reduced by 96%; (2) vaginal gels with antiretroviral drugs reduce transmission of HIV to women; (3) male circumcision significantly reduces the risk that a man will be infected with HIV; (4) methods to stimulate passive immunity have shown some promise, either by injecting broadly neutralizing antibodies or by injecting genes for these antibodies with a virus vector that in injected into a skeletal muscle; and (5) possible vaccines for stimulating active immunity against HIV are in development. Developing vaccines for active immunity against HIV has been exceedingly difficult because many crucial epitopes (antigenic determinants) are hidden by the virus, and because there is a high mutation rate of the HIV antigens. However, newly developed designed antigens, containing many different epitopes, offer hope that an effective vaccine may be possible.

morning after pill

However, Mifepristone can be used by itself in low doses as an emergency contraceptive (probably by preventing ovulation) after unprotected sex. Because of this it has also been called the morning after pill.

mast cells are best known for

However, mast cells are best known for their production of histamine, a molecule that produces many of the symptoms of allergy.

HMA

Humanized monoclonal antibodies for cancer treatments are antibodies against particular tumor antigens that are bioengineered chimeric (composed of genetically different parts) mouse/human hybrids. These chimeric antibodies are grown in mice, but the portion that binds to the antigen is grafted onto a human antibody. Examples include rituximab (for the treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and others); trastuzumab (for the treatment of HER2/neu receptor-positive breast cancers); and bevacizumab (for the treatment of colorectal, lung, and other cancers).

what does humoral immunity protect us from?

Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity protects us from: extracellular bacteria, extracellular viruses (when the travel from cell to cell), bacterial toxins (such as diptheria toxin), other protein toxins (like snake venom)

What is it called if the infection spreads and stimulates a systemic inflammation, and what are the dangers of this?

If Timmy's infection spreads and stimulates a systemic inflammation he can develop sepsis, which, if not dealt with quickly, can cause organ dysfunction and can be potentially fatal. It may lead to septic shock.

how to cells agglutinate in the immune system?

If the antibodies are attached to the surface of cells, or to artificial particles such as small polystyrene beads (in commercial tests), the antigen-antibody reaction becomes visible because the cells or particles agglutinate (clump). The agglutination is caused by antigen-antibody bonds, which create bridges between cells or particles. These agglutinated particles can be used to assay a variety of antigens, and tests that utilize this procedure are called immunoassays. Blood typing and modern pregnancy tests are examples of such immunoassays.

endogenous pyrogen in infection

If the infection continues, the release of endogenous pyrogen (inerleukin-1) from leukocytes and macrophages may also produce a fever.

how do leukocytes withing vessels get to the neded place

Leukocytes within vessels in the inflamed area stick to the endothelial cells of the vessels through interactions between adhesion molecules on the two surfaces. The leukocytes can then roll along the wall of the vessel toward particular chemicals. As mentioned earlier, this movement, called chemotaxis, is produced by molecules called chemokines. Complement proteins and bacterial products may serve as chemokines, drawing the leukocytes toward the site of infection.

What did the pregnancy test detect in her urine?

Linda's pregnancy test detected the beta subunit of Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) that is produced by the trophoblast embryonic cells.

T cells and their involvement with the thymus

Lymphocytes from the fetal liver and spleen, and from the bone marrow postnatally, seed the thymus and become transformed into T cells. These lymphocytes, in turn, enter the blood and seed lymph nodes and other organs where they divide to produce new T cells when stimulated by antigens.

movement of lymphocytes

Lymphocytes migrate from the primary to secondary lymphoid organs, and through he blood and lymph from one organ to another. This ceaseless travel increases the likelihood that a given lymphocyte specific for a particular antigen will be able to encounter that antigen.

what do macrophages ingest

Macrophages ingest microorganisms and fragments from the extracellular matrix by phagocytosis; they also release nitric oxide, which aids in the destruction of bacteria. ***Remember, NO can lead to septic shock*** To prevent organ damage, the neutrophils must be cleared from the infected site after the pathogens have been destroyed. This occurs through "reverse" migration away from the site and apoptosis of the neutrophils, with their remains removed through phagocytosis by macrophages. This phagocytosis of apoptotic neutrophils causes the macrophages to release growth factors and other agents to help end the inflammation and promote repair.

mast cells

Mast cells are found in most tissues, but are especially concentrated in the skin, bronchioles (airways of the lungs), and intestinal mucosa. They are identified by their content of heparin, a molecule that is medically important because if its anticoagulant ability.

What is the other name for RU 486 and what is it used for?

Mifepristone (Mifeprex or RU 486) is a synthetic steroid that works as a progesterone receptor antagonist to block progesterone action. Through this effect, it promotes abortion in early pregnancy, and so has been called the "abortion pill." First developed in France and called RU-486, it has been approved for use in many countries, including the United States, for pregnancies of 49 days or less.

What other drug is often used in combination with Mifepristone and why?

Mifepristone is used together with a prostaglandin (it induces uterine contractions and effacement of the cervix) such as Misoprostol (Cytotech) to cause abortion.

Secondary lymphoid organs

Secondary lymphoid organs capture and concentrate pathogens, present them to macrophages and other cells, and serve as sites where circulating lymphocytes can come into contact with the foreign antigens. The spleen filters blood while the lymph nodes filter lymph.

lymphocytes turned plasma cells

Others are transformed into plasma cells, which are protein factories that produce about 2,000 antibody proteins per second! The antibody produced can bind to only one specific antigen

What is pus, and how is it produced?

Pus was produced by the neutrophil release of proteases that liquefy tissues and by dead neutrophils.

activation of resident macrophages

Resident macrophages and mast cells in the infected tissue are activated by the binding of their pathogen recognition receptors to the PAMPS of the invading bacteria. These resident macrophages and mast cells release chemicals that attract neutrophils to the site of infection; the neutrophils then release molecules that recruit the circulating monocytes, lymphocytes, and other immune cells to the infected area.

How is sepsis produced, and what are its symptoms?

Sepsis if usually triggered by a bacterial infection. Gram-negative bacteria are the cause of many of these infections and they release endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide, or LPS), which is a powerful instigator of sepsis. The symptoms of sepsis are a high fever, a rapid pulse and respiratory rate, hypotension, hypoxemia, oliguria and acidosis.

Sepsis

Sepsis is a complication of infection involving whole-body inflammation, multi-organ failure, and shock; it is involved in about a third of all hospital deaths! Symptoms can include a high fever, a rapid pulse and respiratory rate, hypotension (low blood pressure), hypoxemia (low oxygen), oliguria (low urine output) and acidosis due to lactic acid. Sepsis is usually triggered by a bacterial infection, and is treated with antibiotics, intravenous fluids, and more aggressive measures when required.

What is the name of the condition that occurs in persons with sepsis when the blood pressure falls so low that organs are not adequately perfused?

Septic shock can occur in persons with sepsis when the blood pressure falls so low that the organs are not adequately perfused.

repopulation of T lymphocytes

Small T lymphocytes that have not been simulated by antigens have very long life spans, months or perhaps years. Still, new T cells must be continuously produced to provide efficient cell-mediated immunity [keeping up the T cell population during HIV infection (in AIDS) is often impossible]. The thymus can replenish the T lymphocyte population through late childhood. Repopulation of T lymphocytes occurs more slowly in adulthood, and appears to be accomplished mostly by production of T lymphocytes in the secondary lymphoid organs rather than the thymus. This is because the thymus of adults becomes more of a fatty organ with less activity.

lymphocytes turned Memory cells

Some of the progeny become memory cells; these are visually indistinguishable from the original cell and are important in active immunity.

what is specific immunity the result of?

Specific (acquired) immunity is the result humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity.

where does the naming for B cells come from?

The B derives from immunological research performed on chickens. Chickens have an organ called the bursa of Fabricius that processes B lymphocytes. Since mammals do not have a bursa, the B is often translated as the bursa equivalent for humans and other mammals. It is currently believed that the B lymphocytes in mammals are processed in the bone marrow.

What hormone is tested for in the urine or blood by all commonly used pregnancy tests and where is this hormone produced? What subunit of this hormone is detected by modern pregnancy tests?

The beta subunit of Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) is the preferred target for testing in blood or urine. It is produced by the trophoblast embryonic cells. The test should normally be negative if the woman is not pregnant, unless she took exogenous hCG to treat infertility.

all the effects of inflammation

The end result of all of these activities are the characteristic symptoms of local inflammation: redness and warmth (due to histamine-stimulated vasodilation), swelling (local edema) pus, and pain. These symptoms were first described by Celsius around 40 A.D. as "rubor, calor, dolor, and tumor" (redness, heat, pain, and swelling, respectively.

First cells to arrive at site of inflammation

The first to arrive are the neutrophils, followed by monocytes (which can change into macrophages) and T lymphocytes. Most of the phagocytic leukocytes (neutrophils and monocytes) die in the course of the infection, but lymphocytes can travel through the lymphatic system and reenter the circulation.

five major classes of plasma proteins

The five major classes of plasma proteins are albumin, alpha-1 globulin, alpha-2 globulin, beta globulin, and gamma globulin. The gamma globulin class of proteins contains the antibodies.

immunosuppressive effects of glucocorticoids

The immunosuppressive effects of glucocorticoids, which are naturally produced by the adrenal cortex, result from their ability to suppress pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1 and other interleukins, gamma interferon, and TNFα. These cytokines, released by microglia in the brain, activate the pituitary-adrenal axis: they stimulate the hypothalamus to secrete CRH, which the stimulates the anterior pituitary to produce ACTH and thereby stimulate the adrenals to secrete cortisol (the glucocorticoid hormone). Because a rise in glucocorticoids suppresses the pro-inflammatory cytokines, a negative feedback loop is completed! The nervous, endocrine, and immune systems thereby interact with each other to maintain homeostasis.

squeezing through endothelial cells and the leukocytes

The leukocytes squeeze between adjacent endothelial cells (the process of extravasation, or diapedesis, usually in post-capillary venules) and enter the subendothelial connective tissue. There, particular molecules on the leukocyte membrane interact with surrounding molecules that guide the leukocytes to the infection.

what do neutrophils release that are recognized by monocytes?

The neutrophils also release granule proteins that are recognized by monocytes rolling along the endothelium of capillaries. These and other various cytokines promote the recruitment of monocytes to the infection site, where they can adhere to extracellular matrix proteins and transform into macrophages.

what is pain threshold lowered by?

The pain threshold is lowered by prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), released as a cytokine during inflammation. PGE2 and pain from inflammation is reduced by aspirin and other NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), which inhibit cyclooxygenase enzymes (COX-1 and COX-2) that produce prostaglandins.

what is involved in the detection of foreign antigens?

The process of detecting foreign antigens and presenting them to the appropriate immune cells, particularly T lymphocytes, is done by other cells known as antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Antigen-presenting cells, chiefly dendritic cells, migrate from lymph node to lymph node, increasing the likelihood of an encounter with an immune lymphocytes specific for that antigen.

What is the name for a related approach t TIL that involves changing the receptors on the patient's own T cells to better target tumor antigens?

The related approach is called chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) therapy and it involves chimeric T cell receptors (similar to the chimeric antibodies discussed previously) with specificity for tumor antigens that are given to the patient's T cells in vitro.

thymus location and aging

The thymus extends from below the thyroid in the neck into the thoracic cavity. This organ grows during childhood, but gradually regresses after puberty.

Thymus

The thymus is located in the chest behind the breast bone (sternum). The lymphocytes that seed the thymus become T lymphocytes, or T cells (the letter T stands for thymus-dependent). The thymus, in turn, seeds other organs; about 65% to 85% of the lymphocytes in blood and most of the lymphocytes in the germinal centers of the lymph nodes and spleen are T lymphocytes! T lymphocytes, therefore, either come from or had an ancestor that came from the thymus.

What is the specific name for this type of therapy that prevents anti-tumor T cells from bing suppressed by treg cells?

This is called tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) therapy and it has been proven successful for the treatment of melanoma, but so far not for the treatment of other cancers.

proteases and infections

Through the action of proteases (protein-digesting enzymes), the neutrophils liquefy the surrounding tissues. This produces a viscous, protein-rich fluid that, together with the dead neutrophils, forms pus. Pus can be beneficial because it produces pressure that closes the lymphatic and blood capillaries, blocking the spread of bacteria away from the site of battle.

How does a vaccination offer protection against a disease?

Timmy received a booster vaccine for tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis. This shot contained inactivated bacterial toxins that stimulate active immunity, so that Timmy developed clones of lymphocytes able to combat a possible virulent infection.

Timmy's wound hurt and got red and swollen, and it oozed some pus before it healed. What process made the wound red, swollen, and painful?

Timmy's cut provoked local inflammation, where the release of histamine and other pro-inflammatory cytokines caused blood vessels to dilate, making the area red, and fluid to leak from capillaries, making it swollen. The pain could have been exacerbated by the cytokine prostaglandin E2.

What disease did Timmy's booster shot protect him from when he cut himself?

When Timmy was cut by an old can in the road, it might have given him tetanus if hadn't received his immunization. [We learned earlier this semester that tetanus toxin acts as a protease in inhibitory synapses and digests synaptobrevin-2. Through this action tetanus toxin causes muscle rigidity, lockjaw, and spastic paralysis].

assayed

When molecules act as antigens and can bind to antibodies, the antigens can be assayed (detected and measured) by means of antigen-antibody reaction.

STEPS IN INJUREY AND INFECTION RECOVERY

When there is injury and infection, neutrophils arrive early and release chemical signals that recruit monocytes, lymphocytes, and other immune cells to the site of infection. Neutrophils kill microorganisms through phagocytosis and the release of enzymes and a variety of antimicrobial peptides. They also release neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) composed of extracellular fibers that trap invading pathogens. The NETs immobilize the bacteria, facilitate their phagocytosis, and may also kill them directly by means of antimicrobial enzymes. (*recall that NETs can also activate clotting factor XII at the start of the intrinsic pathway!)

distinguish B and T lymphocytes

You cannot distinguish B and T lymphocytes one from the other without special techniques.

AIDS

acquired immune deficiency syndrome

Electrophoresis

albumin goes to positive

how do you treat abscess?

cant just be done with antibiotics alone. FIRST YOU NEED TO DRAIN IT

why do you turn red with inflammation?

hemoglobin in erythrocytes has greater presence if more blood flow. warm because blood is hot. occurs cuz histamine-stimulated vasodialation

HIV mean

human immunodeficiency virus

IgA

immunoglobulin A IgA can exist as a monomer in the plasma or as a dimer in body secretions (saliva and milk) and on mucous membranes. It does not fix complement and does not enter the tissues.

IgE

immunoglobulin E IgE is important in allergic (immediate hypersensitivity) reactions

IgG

immunoglobulin G IgG accounts for about 80% of all antibody in the plasma, actively binds complement, and easily leaves the blood vessels to enter the tissues or cross the placenta.

Secondary lymphoid organs include

lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and peyer's pathces under the mucosa of the intestine

once activated, lymphocytes become:

memory cells and plasma cells

What are other medical uses for Mifepristone?

mifepristone has anti-glucocorticoid and well as anti-progesterone actions, and its anti-glucocorticoid effect may be used in the treatment of Cushing syndrome.

viruses are

obligate intracellular parasites