AGRI 1315 Final Krueger

raise soil pH by adding _____

*lime* - ground limestone or calcitic limestone - dolomitic limestone provides magnesium - 3-6 months for pH change b/c lime dissolves slow

Phloem

*multi-directional*

radiation frost

*occurs when air is cool and calm, skies are clear*

microbiota

microscopic organisms living in soil - decomposition of OM & pesticides resulting in humus - fungi normally include a threadlike system of mycelia for exploration of soil & nutrient absorption

Imperfect Flower

*lacks either pistil or stamen (may or may NOT have sepal or petal)*

Incomplete Flower

*lacks one or more of the floral parts*

Pre-Incas of Peru

*- Considered first to grow maize (modern-day corn)* *- Aboriginal American peoples cultivated: potatoes, sweet potatoes, peppers, avocados, beans, tomatoes, cocoa* *- Figured out how to farm on uneven land, small plot* *- Utilizing terracing*

Winter Solstice

*- Dec 21 or 22* *- direct rays on capricorn* *- longer nights*

Liberty Hyde Bailey

*- Father of Horticulture (1858-1954)* *- Wrote "Cyclopedia of Horticulture"* *- 1 of 3 founding fathers for book, "American Society for Horticulture Science"*

Roman Empire

*- Flourished from "borrowing" ideas from other cultures* *- Development of greenhouse structures* *- Dwellings reflected signs of social status through plants*

Maturity

*- Flower Induction: first indication of maturity* *- Flower Initiation: second phase of flowering* *- Flower Development: length of time from induction to bloom may vary from several weeks to 6 or 8 months* *- temperature & night-time* *- night-time duration triggers the response* *- light intensity*

Summer Solstice

*- June 21 or 22* *- direct rays on cancer* *- longer days*

Spring Equinox

*- Mar. 20 or 21* *- direct rays at equator*

Greece

*- Noted for writings in Botany, Horticulture, Forestry, and Taxonomy (grouping like-species together)* *- Developed studies in Toxicology* *- Cultivated herbs for medicinal purposes* *- Poor soil, poor conservation practice, prolific (trouble feeding)*

Theophrastus

*- One of the 1st scientific horticulturists* *- Student of Plato & Aristotle who theorized plant classification and origin* *- Wrote books like "The History of Plants"*

Renaissance Era

*- Revisiting Taxonomy, Morphology & Anatomy* *- Developments in landscape gardens & irrigation systems* *- Fancy dwelling*

Fall Equinox

*- Sep. 22 or 23* *- direct rays at equator*

Linnaeus

*- Swedish botanist (1707-1778) developed the binomial system of classification* *- Classified plants based on flowering or sexual characteristics*

Egyptians

*- Water manipulation; systematic irrigation through hydraulic engineering* *- Cultivated many ornamental (death), medicinal, and orchard species* *- Land preparation, formal gardens, irrigation and pruning were all practiced* *- Developed spices & perfumes* *- Vegetables crops were: lettuce, melons, cucumber, garlic*

Fibrous Roots

*- a netlike mass* *- monocots are more indicative*

Juvenility

*- after germination *- the plant will grow rapidly but not begin reproduction* *- leaf form: different from that found on the mature plant* *- growth form: variation in form also distinguishes juvenile from mature plants* *- thorns* *- leaf retention: tendency for juvenile parts of a tree to hold leaves throughout the winter*

Stamens

*- anther: top part, which produces pollen (sperm)* *- filament: supporting stalk*

Cultivar (cv.)

*- asexually cloned or by controlled sexual crossing of breeding lines* *- sub-grouping of species assigned to cultivated plants which display rather unique difference and, when reproduced by seeds or cuttings, retains its distinguishing characteristics* *- man-made*

hoar (black) frost

*- caused by a cold air mass moving into an area* *- leave ice crystals*

Pistil (carpel)

*- central female structure* *- stigma: top part* *- style: thin vertical shaft* *- ovary: bulblike base*

Temperature in climate

*- cold hardiness/tolerance: threshold usually just above or below freezing (28F)* *- frost-hardy: plants that can survive below freezing* *- chilling injury: happens at temps less than 50F* *- chilling requirement: essential for normal growth and fruit production (reproductive buds)* *- growing degree-day: opposite of chilling requirement*

Biennial Cycle

*- completes its life cycle in 2 years* *- will grow vegetatively the first year and flower the second*

Buds

*- contain immature plant parts* *- stimulates new growth*

Veins

*- dicots usually have pinnate venation: a mid-vein w/ many branch veins* *- palmate: some have leaves shaped like the palm of the hand w/ multiple veins of equal size* *- monocots have parallel veins*

Modified Roots

*- fashioned for storing large quantities of carbs (i.e. sweet potatoes and beets, idaho)*

frost heaving

*- freezing of the soil causing the water contained to expand* *- leaves cracks over the root area*

Adventitious Roots

*- grow from any tissue other than root tissues* *- help prop up the plant*

Dicot

*- grow to a large size* *- leaves have a branching vein pattern* *- flower petals multiples of 4's or 5's* *- most trees, shrubs, fruits, garden veggies* *- internal structure are like spokes on a wheel* *- xylem and phloem arrange in concentric rings inside the stem*

Dormancy

*- growth slows or stops, affecting all life stages from seed to maturity* *- occurs during periods not suitable for growth* *- scarification: cutting, scraping, or injuring the seed coat enough to let water in and germinate*

Perennial Cycle

*- live for MORE than 2 growing seasons* *- trees, shrubs, herbaceous flowers and grasses*

Monocarp Cycle

*- live for many years but will flower ONLY once in its lifetime and die afterward* - bromeliads and century plant

angiosperm

*- make the majority of cultivated plants* *- all flowering plants & nearly all food plants*

Stomata

*- minute opening, and the cells that surround it* *- found primarily on the underside of leaves* *- stomata pores: primary site of water loss & where O and CO2 is exchanged* *- 99% of water is lost through the pores* *- less than 1% of water is absorbed through leaves*

Monocot

*- non-woody plants with short stems and overlapping leaves arranged in a whorl, a form called a rosette* *- flower petals multiples of 3's* *- fibrous & fleshy root system* *- leaves are long & narrow, with PARALLEL veins* *- xylem & phloem together in vascular bundles*

Margin

*- outside edge of a leaf* *- way to identify plants* *- entire (smooth), toothed, barbed, lobed, etc.*

Stipules

*- protective appendage found at the base of the petiole* *- not all plants have it* *- prehistoric times, protection for the leaf bud or emerging leaf*

Snow

*- protects low-growing plants low-temp due to chill factor due to sublimation (solid to gas) of the frozen water from the plants* *- sublimation is like the process of freeze drying in food preservation*

Annual Cycle

*- reproduces itself by seed, grows to maturity, flowers, produces seeds, and dies during ONE growing season* *- dormancy only as a seed*

Variety (var. or v.)

*- species with inheritable differences from the straight species* *- sub-grouping of species assigned to individuals displaying unique differences in natural populations* *- naturally breed true from seed* *- found in nature*

Germination

*- starts when seed absorbs water* *- in dicot seeds, carbs for germination are stored in 2 cotyledons* *- hypocotyl: stem of young plant forming a loop*

Leaves

*- the blade: wide section (mid-vein)* *- the petiole: leaf stem* *- primary function is photosynthesis* *- leaf axil: angle formed between stem and petiole which there will be a bud*

Hormones

*1) Auxins: stimulates adventitious root formation* - IBA (most commonly used), NAA (frequently used), 2,4-D (less used) *2) Cytokinin: stimulates adventitious shoot formation - kinetin (commonly used), benzyladenine (BA) (commonly used), zeatin (seldom used), pyranylbenzyladenine (BPA) (used in research) *3) Gibberellins: stem elongation, breaking dormancy, increase size of flower, leaf, fruit size* *4) Abscisic acid (ABA): growth retardant that may induce abscission and does induce dormancy and inhibit seed germination* - most commercially available *5) Ethylene

Important Dates

*1493 - Columbus brought back plants & animals* *1607 - Virginia Colony (Jamestown), Tobacco* *1620 - "Three Sisters": corn bean squash* - Introduced wheat, barley, rye, and oat - Foundation for trade - Used wheat & barley crates to balance ship, then used for trade *1701 - First ag machine - Seed Drill by Jethro Tull* *1793 - Invention of cotton gin* *1797 - 1st cast iron plow patented* *1843 - Sir John Lawes - invents commercial fertilizer* *1847 - Utah established 1st irrigation* *1862 - Homestead Act: gave land for ag use for 5 years, then land was theirs (Westward Expansion)* - Morrill Act: gave land to start ag colleges (Land-Grant Act) - USDA established *1869 - Transcontinental railroad complete* *1910 - Disease resistant plants developed* *1935 - Soil Conservation Service created* - Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) *1972 - Berg makes it possible to transfer genes* - DDT (pesticide) banned due to toxic, chemicals *1980 - First American patent on bacteria used to clean oil spills* - Patenting bacteria (living organism) opened up a floodgate for many other ag patents

hardpan

*a layer of compacted soil that slows or stops movement of water & air and the growth of roots into lower roots*

light intensity

*affects photosynthesis b/c the brighter the light* *- moderate to bright intensities are best* *- blue promotes vegetative growth* *- red promotes flowering*

Horticulture is an _______ science.

*applied*

herbaceous biennials

*bluebonnet, ragwort, parsnip, carrots, foxglove*

Sterile Flower

*both stamen and pistil are absent, or non-functional*

Cool Season annuals

*broccoli, cauliflower, dianthus, pansy*

CEC (cation-exchange capacity)

*capacity of a soil to attract & hold nutrients (cations) on the surface of the soil particles* - adsorption - important in fertilizers - nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium - N & P leach readily in soils w/ low CEC - fertilization can be reduced in high CEC soils by using fertilizers w/ N in an ammonia form (urea or ammonium nitrate)

mineral soils (<20% OM)

*classified primarily by size and quantity of mineral properties in the soil* - clay particles, silt, sand - silt is usually less present out of the 3

herbaceous annuals

*coleus, geranium, begonia, impatiens, petunias, vince, verbena*

organic soils (>20% OM)

*contain predominately decaying organic matter* - muck and peat - smaller amounts of mineral components

Complete Flower

*contains all floral parts (sepal, petal, stamen, pistil)*

Perfect Flower

*contains both pistil and stamen (may or may NOT have sepal or petal)*

Pistillate (female) Flower

*contains only pistil (may or may NOT have sepal or petal)*

Staminate (male) Flower

*contains only stamen (may or may NOT have sepal or petal)*

Warm Season annuals

*cucumber, okra, marigold*

Taproots

*does NOT substantially branch and remains the primary site of anchorage & absorption* - carrot

landscape horticulture

*ext. & int. design, construction and maintenance of landscapes*

floristry

*floral design and retail floristry operation*

floriculture

*flowering & foliage plant culture and production*

pomology

*fruit & nut culture & production*

turf grass

*grasses for lawns, landscapes, sport facilities, and golf courses*

Botany is _____ science.

*hard*

cuticle

*invisible wax layer which prevents water loss from the leaf surface*

Wind in climate

*ocean wind* limits the number of plants that can be grown near shoreline - salt spray browns plants - intensity of wind *hot desert winds* increase the rate of moisture loss from soil & plant leaves, intensifying drought conditions *subzero winds* in cold northern areas damage evergreens by removing moisture from foliage, freeze drying it

herbaceous perennials

*peony, hosta, mint, ferns, grasses*

ornamental horticulture

*plants grown for aesthetic uses, improvement of quality of life and our environment, and functional uses (energy conservation)*

matric potential

*potential energy of water in its attraction to soil*

Xylem

*single direction; roots, up*

arboriculture (urban forestry)

*the growing and study of trees*

agronomy

*the science and technology of culturing, utilizing and improving field crops (i.e. grain, fiber, & forage crops)*

forestry

*the science and technology of culturing, utilizing, and improving forest trees and their products (i.e. pulp, resins, oils, etc.)*

agriculture

*the science and technology of growing and raising plants and animals*

horticulture

*the science, technology and art of culturing, utilizing, and improving fruit, vegetables, flowering and ornamental plants*

viticulture

*the study of growing grapes & vines*

silviculture

*the study of trees in forestry*

nursery production

*trees, shrubs and vines culture and production*

bulbs

*underground stem w/ modified leaf*

olericulture

*vegetable culture & production*

loam

*when the percentage of sand increases to nearly equal the percentage of clay*

sandy soil

- does not retain moisture well - cation-exchange capacity is low - round and irregular shape - lack plastic properties

organic matter in soil

- is the result of vegetative matter like leaves, roots, manure - plants can be grown in pure organic matter w/o any inclusion of sand or clay - present in small amounts, greatly influences soil properties - responsible for CEC (cation-exchange capacity) - in sandy soils, OM increases water-and-nutrient-holding capacity - in clay soils, it improves drainage and air movement and decreases compaction and plasticity - *aggregation*: when OM decomposes, resulting *humic acid* act as a glue, causing clay particles to clump loosely - decreased tendency of soils to crust

soil pH

- neutral at 7 - optimal at 6.5-7.0

loam soil

- possess quality of both clay & sand soil - ideal for most plants - absorb a large amount of water and not require frequent irrigation, yet still be dry enough to be workable faster than clay - holds more nutrients than sandy soil, yet not as prone to becoming cloddy or compacted like clay soil

clay soil

- referred to as *heavy soils*, composed primarily of platelike clay particles - flat - water movement considered slow-draining - hold water for long periods of time, can be detrimental to plant growth - *plasticity*: sticky and moldable when wet; hard & cloddy when dry - great capacity to attract and hold nutrients (*cation-exchange capacity*) - expand and contract

4 natural factors modifying climate are

1) Distance from the equator 2) Elevation 3) Terrain 4) Nearby presence of large bodies of water

Guidelines for Classifying crops in Horticulture, Agronomy, or Forestry

1) Intensity of Production - strawberries vs cotton 2) Purpose Crop is Grown - oak or pecan trees in forest vs landscape 3) Tradition or Custom - sweet vs field corn

5 elements of climate?

1. Temperature 2. Precipitation 3. Humidity 4. Light 5. Wind

Soil Layers

A. Topsoil - high levels of organic matter - higher fertility - plow pan - most roots B. Subsoil - clay or hard pan - low in organic matter - lighter in color than topsoil - roots may extend into B horizon, but except for large woody plants, rarely extend into C horizon C. Parent Material D. Bedrock