AL 460 Research in Healthcare Final
Differentiate between background and foreground questions:
1. Background (novice)-health professional students typically have more background questions. Background questions address general about disease, conditions, or process. They are the what is, why do, and how does kind of questions. 2. Foreground Questions- questions (Experts) Answer appointed questions regarding a specific patient or population. Often investigates comparisons (2) treatments or (2) diagnostic tests.
CINAHL
1. CINAHL: (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature) · You can search CINAHL through Mabee's webpage, many of you may be familiar with this database because it contains a lot of literature related to allied health professions. In addition to published journal articles, CINAHL includes other formats such as dissertations, patient education materials, and tests and evaluation instruments. · Common source for finding allied health literature.
List and discuss 5 advantages of conducting survey research.
1. Cost- cost is relatively low. However, the cost is determined by the survey and methodology. 2. Sample size- sample size can vary from small to extremely large and can be targeted. 3. Issues- can gather information on single or multiple issues or topics. 4. Format- can vary by mail, internet, interview, or telephone. 5. Impact- Can yield very influential results.
Define the following measures of variability:
1. Range- Represents the difference between the highest score and the lowest score. Used with the median to represent data that is non-symmetrical or skewed. 2. Standard deviation- Indicates how much the data varies around the mean, or how wide or tight the data is distributed around the average. Higher standard deviation= curve with wide base and mean scores are more spread out around the mean. Lower standard deviation= curve that is narrow at the base, and mean scores are fairly consistent and clustered close to the mean. 3. Standard error of the mean- describes the standard deviation that would exist if we could measure every single member of the population. Since measuring every single person id virtually impossible, the standard error of the mean represents the variability of the mean scores that are calculated from several repeated samples within the population.
Define the following scales and give an example of each:
1. Rating scales— Respondents are asked to assign a level rating to each multiple option. Respondents assign a level of rating such as preferred, acceptable, and not preferred and the same rating may be used more than once. 2. Forced ranking scales— Requires participants to rank all items in a list of options. Ranking items on a list for example rank best to worst or most to least. 3. Linear numeric scales—ask respondents to rank their agreement with a statement on a scale. For example: "very much or very little" "Very satisfied or not satisfied at all" 4. Likert scales— Classic five option response- strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree. 5. Frequency scales— assess how often participants are involved in some behavior or exposure. For example once per month, once per year, or always, often or never.
List and explain the 3 ethical principles established in the Belmont Report.
1. Respect for persons- Treat individuals as autonomous agents capable of making informed choices and acting on them. 2. Beneficence- Maximize possible benefits and minimize possible harm. 3. Justice- Fairness in the distribution of the benefits and burdens.
List and discuss 5 challenges of conducting survey research.
1. Respondent Self-report- there is no way to ensure individuals will respond to surveys or choose to participate. 2. Respondent interpretation- there is a risk that respondents will interpret survey items in a manner different from investigator intent. 3. Respondent bias- There is a risk that people who choose to respond may be different from the population being studied. 4. Extrapolation to non-responders- can the response of a few be extrapolated to the population? Can the data be generalized? 5. Item Bias- is there bias in the way an item is worded (by the investigator) or interpreted by respondents?
List 5 ways to increase participation in survey research. *Remember, these methods may increase participation, but they cannot guarantee it
1. Sending an initial request to participate, with an interesting introduction explaining the purpose of the research. 2. Making the survey brief and visually appealing. 3. Including an incentive—such as money, a gift card, or a small gift. 4. Sending a follow-up note to remind individuals to take the survey.
Qualitative purpose statements should do what 4 things?
1. State the type of qualitative study that is being conducted - Methods include naturalistic, grounded theory, ethnography - Qualitative research is NOT predictive. 2. Use action verbs that convey an emerging, exploratory design- - Qualitative methods may evolve over the course of a study, participants can influence the methods. - Action verbs include discover, portray, and explore. 3. Identify the central phenomenon being studied. - What story does the researcher want to tell? 4. Identify the research participants and setting. - Who can tell the story? - Participants are chosen on purpose for their ability to provide perspective. - It is acceptable for researcher to have a personal or professional connection to the participants and or the location.
Describe the following types of context effect:
1. Survey method— During personal survey methods such as telephone and interviews, the personality of the interviewer may influence the response given. For example, a participant feels the interviewer possess charm, that person m ay be influenced to give answers that pleases the interviewer. 2. Question order—questions that are asked early in the survey can prime a person to respond differently to a later question. For example asking people to describe a time when they were frustrated or angry prior to asking them how often they feel angry may cause them to over estimate how often they are angry. 3. Response option order— The order of response options can influence the answer that is selected. For example, options located in the beginning of the scale, particularly the first response option is perceived acceptable and most likely chosen. 4. Choice of response scale—Scale should fit the content of the question and response options should include an appropriate range of answers.
List and describe at least 3 sampling strategies mentioned in your textbook:
1. Typical case- Participants are selected because they are a representee of what is usual. 2. Theory-based- participants are selected for their ability to support the generation of theory. 3. Convenience- The sample is selected based on the accessibility. 4. Maximum variation- a wide range of individuals is selected to capture multiple perspectives. 5. Homogenous- Similar individuals are selected based on specific shared characteristics and criteria of the study. 6. Critical care- Individuals are selected based on their perceived value in addressing the research problem.
The FDA regulates research that involves the following:
1. Use of an unapproved drug or biologic 2. Use of an FDA-approved drug other than the use of marketed drug during medical practice. 3. Use of a device to evaluate safety or effectiveness of that device. 4. Submission of data from the use of a drug or device to the FDA for advertising or a change in labeling.
Quality research should always begin with what?
A literature research and review.
Describe positive correlation and negative correlation. Give an example of each:
A positive correlation occurs when an increase in one variable results in an increase in the other variable. An example of a positive correlation is the more time you spend exercising, the more calories you burn. A negative correlation occurs when one variable results in a decrease and the other variable increases. An example of a negative correlation is as the weather gets colder, the costs of cooling your house decreases.
List and define 3 types of quantitative hypotheses.
A quantitative hypothesis can be directional predicting a positive or negative correlation between the independent and dependent variables. non-directional claiming that a relationship exists but that we can't predict the nature of the relationship based on previous evidence, or it can be stated as a null hypothesis, which posits that no relationship exists between the variables.
Additional information when determined to be appropriate by the IRB
A statement that a particular treatment or procedure may involve unforeseeable risks. Anticipated circumstances under which the participants participation may be terminated by the investigator without regard to the participants consent. Any additional cost to the participant that may result from participation in the research. The consequences of a participant's decision to withdraw from the research and procedures for orderly termination of participation by the subject. A statement that significant new findings developed during the research that may relate to the participants willingness to continue participation will be provided to the subject. The approximate number of participants involved in the study.
What is a meta-analysis?
A type of quantitative review that compares results from several different studies to determine the 'average' result or response to similar interventions. Researcher can use a meta-analysis to compare values from different samples with a more accurate estimate of the true value in the entire population which increases confidence in the results of the study.
PsycINFO:
Behavioral science and mental health
Realism
Belief that reality exists whether we have discovered it yet or not. Truth is measurable and subject t the laws of cause and effect.
Describe some advantages and disadvantages of personal interview surveys.
Advantages: · Can establish a personal connection and rapport · Can observe non-verbal behaviors. Disadvantages: · Small sample sizes. · Takes a lot of time. · Potential for interviewer to influence responses.
Describe some advantages and disadvantages of web-based surveys.
Advantages: · Can have a large sample size. · Immediate access to data in a digital form. Disadvantages: · Low response rate. · Participants must have access to a computer.
Describe some advantages and disadvantages of mail surveys.
Advantages: · Reduced bias · Can have large sample size. Disadvantages: · Could be costly, depending on the number of surveys. · Low response rate.
Describe some advantages and disadvantages of telephone surveys.
Advantages: · Researcher has some personal contact with participants. Conducting the survey over the phone also gives the interviewer the chance to explain difficult questions and to clarify answers when needed. Disadvantages: · include higher cost related to securing telephone resources, training interviewers, and increased time commitment.
Elements of Informed Consent A statement that the study involves research:
An explanation of the purpose of the research. The expected duration of the participant's participation. A description of the procedures to be followed. Identification of any procedures that are experimental. Description of any reasonably foreseeable risks or discomforts.
Explain what is meant by windshield tour.
An introduction to a geographic Community or a community of identity and its context through simple observation and Community member guidance and commentary. The researcher will explore the community, guided by community members to gain an appreciation of the community's geography, size, physical characteristics, and important community venues. If the Community is less geographically defined- such as a community of elderly shut-ins, a windshield tour may include the agencies and organizations that visit and offer support to these community members. Virtual community- A windshield tour might include exploring chat rooms, mobile applications, listservs, bulletin boards, and news groups visited and used by the community and visiting sites that are advertised on pop up and pop under screens.
Social media
Great place to find information on the latest research related stories, profiles of famous researchers, short videos, and links to full topics. The National Institute of Health (NIH) has a Facebook page, as do the majority of professional organizations Consider following prominent organizations in your field on Twitter, Instagram, or other popular social media platforms
Who does the Declaration of Helsinki protect?
Groups that have an increased potential to be harmed by research such as prisoners, students, military and economically or educationally disadvantaged persons.
According to the Common Rule (Page17), when does research involve human subjects?
If the researcher either obtains information or bio-specimens through interacting or intervening with a living individual or obtains, use, analyzes, or generates private identifiable information or identifiable bio-specimens about a living individual.
Describe a secondary source and list at least 2 examples:
Sources that summarize or provide a new interpretation of the work by others. Examples: textbooks, editorials, systematic reviews.
Explain who is considered a stakeholder in CBPR.
Stakeholders include underrepresented populations, community leaders and decision makers, and those who control community resources. It is important that researchers remember and identify those who are rarely noticed or heard in community conversations. Community resources include formal and informal organizations, physical and knowledge base materials and education and support services.
Additional information when research involves bio-specimens.
Statement weather specimens may be used for commercial profit and its subjects will share in the profit. Statement weather clinically relevant research results will be disclosed two subjects and if so under what conditions. Statement weather research might include whole genome sequencing.
Define the following threats to internal validity:
Temporal (Time-based) -History- refers to effects on the dependent variable that are a result of the passage of time. -Maturation- threats that happen by changes as a result of development, such as with motor skills or growth. -Attrition-refers to skewed data that results from participants leaving the study prematurely. Measurement -Testing- -Instrumentation- The type of instrumentation used may affect the results. -Sampling- Sampling effects include the selection of subjects for a study According to some bias, whether recognized or not. If selected in a biased way, the subjects are not representative of the population. -Statistical regression to the mean- Tendency for a group of outliers to move toward the mean (the average) not necessarily because of any difference in the subject's characteristics, but because of the laws of probability.
Define test validity and experimental validity.
Test validity-: Refers to whether an instrument measures what it is intended to measure. Experimental Validity refers to the accuracy of the study design and whether or not the results are applicable beyond the scope of the research. Experimental validity includes internal and external validity.
What does it mean when a journal is refereed?
The articles have been through a peer-reviewed process.
Relativism
The belief that reality only exists through the experiences of individuals. Truth depends on context and that perceptions of truth can change over time.
Define methodology:
The broad term used to identify the design and procedures used to conduct research. It is specifically HOW we discover knowledge. Methodology concerns the exact manner in which we collect, analyze, interpret, and present data. Participant selection, data gathering methods, instruments used, and data analysis are all determined by the methodology of a study.
Which two statements are correct about confidence intervals?
The confidence interval indicates how well the measured data represents the 'true' mean value of the population. The wider the confidence interval is, the more confident we can be that the study data represents the 'true' data for the population.
Define Evidence Based Practice
The conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of the individual patient.
What is the paradigm associated with community-based participatory research?
The constructivist Paradigm in which the truth is contextual and shaped by individual experiences.
The informed consent will be appropriately documented
The investigator must have definite plans for obtaining appropriate signatures of participants or their legally authorized representative to document the informed consent process. Most IRBs provide a consent document template that provides the Essential Elements of consent. If this documentation is not possible the investigator May request a waiver of documentation of informed consent, which must be approved by the IRB. in these situations, the researcher must make a note in the research record that all of the required information about the study was presented to the participant in the participant willingly agreed to participate in the research.
Explain the process of qualitative data analysis:
The key to qualitative data analysis is Organization. The researcher should document everything—record interview or focus group sessions (with participant consent), take copious, detailed notes, and transcribe data into a program designed for qualitative data analysis. The data analysis purpose is to separate information that pertains to the research question. Analyzing data involves coding the information into common themes or categories. The themes are discussed within the results section of the report and can be used to generate new theories.
Which descriptive statistics should be used to describe asymmetric, or skewed, distributions?
The median and the range
What is the purpose of the problem statement in a research study?
The problem statement explains WHY your study should be conducted. It explains the reasoning for conducting additional research, and it emphasizes WHY the study will be of value to others. Remember, a study is only valuable if it adds new information or a new perspective to the already existing knowledge of your topic.
Describe the purpose of action-oriented community diagnosis.
The purpose of action-oriented community diagnosis is to understand the health status, the collective Dynamics, the functions of relationships within a community, and the interactions between community members, and broader structures that can impede or promote the conditions and skills required to assist community members and making decisions and taking action for social change and health status improvement. -planning and processing community interventions -needs assessment -windshield tour -field notes -community forums -partnerships -negotiations
Be sure you are familiar with how to search the Mabee Library online databases.
The short version is: Go to www.washburn.edu Click on 'Academics' in the menu bar at the top of the page and select 'Library' To run a general search of all databases, type your search criteria in the blank search bar and click 'Find it!' In the upper right-hand corner of the page, make sure you are logged in. If you are not logged in, you may not have access to full text articles for some results Your username is your WU email address Your password is your WIN, without the 'W' From the results page, you can narrow your search by clicking 'Advanced Search' under the general search bar, or you can click boxes in the 'Refine by' menu on the left-hand side of the page.
Explain what is meant by strengths-based approach.
The strength-based approach is used to identify the needs and challenges faced by communities and the assets and strengths within the community.
Positivist
There is one single reality and it can be measured. Reality is based on cause and effect relationships.
Which two statements are correct about this curve:
This is a negatively skewed curve. The mean is a lower value than the median.
What does CRAAP stand for? How is this tool used?
To determine if study data is reliable and relevant to your own research study or professional practice. · C= Currency Was the study published within the last 5 years? In some fields, information and practices change very rapidly, so 5 years may actually be too far in the past to be relevant. To your knowledge, does the source reflect current practice and beliefs about your topic? · R= Relevance Does the source pertain to your own research or area of practice? · A= Authority Review the credentials and affiliations of the study authors. Do they seem to have the credentials and experience to speak as an expert on the topic? · A= Accuracy: As far as you can tell, is the information reliable? Does it run 13 similar to other studies on the same topic, or is it an outlier? Does the writing seem professional? Or are there a lot of typos or misspellings? · P= Purpose What was the motivation for conducting the study? Was the research sponsored? Can you identify any potential bias? · You should be able to learn most of this information by reviewing the title and authors, the abstract, and the reference list
Discuss at least 5 ways to ensure credibility in qualitative research:
To ensure credibility the researcher should spend time in the field and be present in the settings to gain a insider perspective, persistent observation, paying close attention to non-verbal cues during interviews, triangulation in which the researcher verifies data from multiple sources of information and Reflexive journal: Allows the researcher to document any personal thoughts or observations during the course of the study that may have an influence on the data or results.
It is important to remember that research is important for every health care professional, not just those who are new to the field?
True
When making a statistical decision, the researcher should reject the null hypothesis if the P value is less than the significance level (a).
True
Define UPIRSO
UPIRSO- (Unanticipated Problem Involving Risks to Subjects or Others) UPIRSO is any incident, experience, or outcome that meets all of the below criteria.
Differentiate between unstructured, semi-structured, and structured interview methods.
Unstructured interviews are characterized by questions that you merge during the interview process. The research Partners may have General topic areas or categories, but the questions are asked as they are formulated in the natural course of discussion. In other words, there is no predetermined wording of questions. Semi Structured Interviews- Provide more structure for the interviewer. Topics and issues to be explored and discussed are specified in advance, often in an outline form. Requires an interview guide that leads the interview process. The interviewer often decides the order and sequence of the questions during the interview. The interviewer may probe for detail and develop questions and their wording during the interview process. Structured Interview- Well defined before the interview. The sequence and exact wording of questions are determined in advance. Interviewees are asked the same fundamental questions in the same order and manner.
What shape is used to depict qualitative research? Why?
Upright Triangle- Because at the beginning of the study very few details are known about the subject being studied. As time goes on during the study, a deeper understanding of the participants, environment and the forces that influence the situation. The researcher continues to gather as much information as possible reaching the wide base of the triangle and conclusions can be made or new theories proposed that relate to human behaviors within similar situations.
Define saturation as it applies in a research context: Saturation:
When all questions are asked and all possible experiences and responses are recorded and the data collection, there is no longer advantages to collecting more information.
Define parametric and non-parametric tests.
When is each type of test appropriate? Parametric test- Statistical tests that requires interval data and the assumption of a normally distributed population. Non-parametric tests- Tests that do not directly incorporate estimates pertaining to population characteristics. Examples include: chi-squared, log linear models, and Wilcoxon matched pairs signed ranks tests.
The research plan makes adequate provision for monitoring the data collected to ensure the safety of subjects when appropriate-
When required, a plan for monitoring the safety of the study using the data collected should be developed. a formal monitoring plan is usually required for FDA-regulated clinical trials, all National Institutes of Health-funded research, and more than minimal risk research. This plan should include: 1. how often safety data are compiled and reviewed 2. by whom ( an individual or committee) 3. weather limits are needed for stopping the research procedures to ensure the safety of the participants.
Describe a 'normal' distribution:
a bell-shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population.
Elements of Informed Consent A statement that the study involves research:
Benefits that may reasonably be expected: To the participants, if applicable Alternative procedures or treatment, if any, that might be advantageous to the participant. Confidentiality of Records: The extent, if any, to which confidentiality will be maintained. Injury-related care or compensation: For research involving more than minimal risk Whether any compensation and Medical Treatments are available as an injury occur If so, what they consist of, or where future information may be obtained. Contact information: Whom to contact: For answers to pertinent questions about the research in participants' rights. In the event of a research-related injury to the participant. Participation remains voluntary:(no penalty or loss of entitled benefits) By refusing to participate. By discontinuing participation at any time. If identifiable specimens are collected, a statement on whether if subsequently de-identifiable the specimens will be used for future research or not.
Ordinal Data:
Categorical Data defined by order, but the distance between the choices or values is not defined.
Nominal Data
Categorical Data that categorizes information that have no numerical ranking. Nominal data include demographic data and individual characteristics such as gender, occupation, or county of residence.
Types of research Table page 5-6
Clinical- Description: Performed in the clinical setting where control over variables is quite difficult. Example: Drug trials, therapeutic results. Applied- Description: Designed to answer a practical question to help people do their jobs better. Example: Time use studies, evaluation of different types of interventions with the same purpose. Descriptive- Description: Describing a group, a situation, or an individual to gain knowledge that may be applied to further groups or situations in case studies or trend analyses. Example: Surveys, qualitative research, measurement of characteristics, response to phenomena. Laboratory- Description: Performed in laboratory surroundings that are controlled. Example: Basic science research.
In your own words, describe community-based participatory research.
Community based participatory research can be described as a partnership between community members, organizations, and researchers to facilitate improvement within the community and population health to create social change.
Cochrane Collaboration: http://www.cochrane.org/
Contains thousands of review articles on a wide range of subjects. Available as Cochrane Collection plus through mabee.
Interval Data:
Continuous. Data with a defined interval between the values, but with no true zero value.
Ratio Data:
Continuous. Data with an absolute zero value, where zero means there is a total absence of what is being measured.
List and define 3 non-random sampling methods.
Convenience: In which the researcher chooses participants based on ease of access, for instance asking everyone in line for a concert to take a survey. Voluntary response: In which participants include people who actively agree to participate and seek out the survey on their own. Snowball Where the researcher asks current participants to recommend people they know to also participate. This sampling method is more common in qualitative studies, however.
Epistemology
Describes HOW we come to know the nature of reality. Epistemology also determines the researcher's role in a study—how active a role the researcher plays, how the researcher is able to manipulate the data, and how it is presented.
Differentiate between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
Descriptive statistics summarize the data obtained from a study sample and inferential statistics determine if the sample data represents the population as a whole. Inferential statistics are used by researcher to make predictions about the true relations between variables, or to compare differences.
Experimental studies
Evaluate relationships between variables. Experimental studies involve manipulating the independent variable in order to determine its influence on the dependent variable. Gold Standard of experimental research. Characterized by Randomization of the subjects and control group. Randomization works on the law of probability, which suggests that when a group is selected or subjects are assigned randomly, the traits, characteristics, and conditions that may affect the outcome are distributed roughly equally among the groups thus canceling out their effect. Experimental study examples include pretest, posttest, control group; posttest-only control group, and Solomon four-group design.
Quantitative Research
Experimental and statistical. The goal is to measure, test, predict and describe using statistics. Might use experiments, surveys or questionaries' analysis of large data sets for example- US census data or structured interviews and observations. Data is numerical.
According to the Common Rule, what constitutes 'regulated research'?
FDA regulations for protection of human subjects. Require IRB approval, and informed consent for research involving drugs, devices, or biologics regardless of funding source.
Define face, construct, content, and criterion validity.
Face validity addresses the question: Does the particular measurement or method appear to be appropriate? Face validity often relies on the opinion of experts and is considered to be the weakest form of test and measurement validity. Construct Validity- assesses the degree to which the measurement is based on theory. Example (measuring body temperature, the construct that an inflammation involves heat provides modest construct validity). Content Validity- asks whether the test is broad enough to address the scope of the content. Criterion Validity- an indication of how well the test performs and whether it is useful when judged against a standard.
True or false: Survey studies do NOT need IRB approval.
False
Nominal and ordinal data are types of continuous data.
False, they are categorical.
What does the confidence interval represent?
How well the sample data represents the value for the population of interest.
Which ontology do you think applies to qualitative studies? What about quantitative studies? Why do you think that?
I think realism applies to qualitative studies because the goal of qualitative research is to richly describe people's behaviors and realities rather than to quantify or measure them. Relativism applies to quantitative studies because relativism is the belief that reality exists through experiences of others. Quantitative studies uses interviews, observations, and questionnaires'.
Which of the following is an example of ordinal data:
Likert Scales
Constructivist
Many different realities exists, they depend on personal experience and context. "Truth" is subject to change.
Which measure of central tendency is most affected by extreme scores, or 'outliers'?
Mean
Which descriptive statistics should be used to summarize data that is normally distributed?
Mean, median and mode
Which descriptive statistics should be used to summarize data that is asymmetric, or skewed?
Median and range.
Why is EBP Important?
Medical knowledge and accepted practice change rapidly. Volume of research articles is expanding exponentially. Integrating the evidence into your practice regularly makes it easier to find and apply the evidence during busy clinical schedules. Allows you to blend patients preferences with research, resulting in good patient care.
Which measure can be calculated for nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data?
Mode
Qualitative Research
Naturalistic and interpretive. Might hear terms such as ethnographic or phenomenological to describe qualitative research. The goal is to richly describe people's behaviors and realities rather than to quantify or measure them. Might use field research case studies or more open ended observations and interviews.
Are qualitative studies exempt from IRB approval? Why or why not?
No, they are not exempt from IRB approval.
Explain the difference between open-ended (unstructured) and closed-ended (structured) survey questions.
Open-ended(unstructured)- Ask questions but do not provide a list of answers to choose from without influence from the researchers pre-determined answers. Instead, respondents answer the questions in their own words. The questions may be easier to write for the researcher but difficult to interpret during data analysis secondary to the wide range of responses. Closed-ended (Structured)- Asks questions and provides a fixed list of answers to choose from. Response options can be multiple choice or a ranking scale. Takes longer to construct secondary to wording and order of options that can affect responses, but easier to analysis.
Describe a primary source and list at least 2 examples:
Original documents published by the creators. Examples: Peer-reviewed studies, case studies and dissertations.
Define ontology
Refers to the basic beliefs about reality and the nature of being. *** Sub-category of paradigm It refers to the basic beliefs about reality and the nature of being. Two main ontological perspectives include: Realism and relativism.
What does the regression coefficient tell us?
Regression coefficient tells us about cause-and-effect relationships. The regression line is the "best fit" line through data points. The regression coefficient quantifies how much an outcome changes as a result of one unit of change in another variable.
Explain the difference between regulated and nonregulated research.
Regulated Research- A FDA-regulated test article or is otherwise subject to FDA regulations and determined to be human subjects research because it meets the definition of human research subjects regulated by the FDA that is subject to IRB review. Nonregulated Research- refers to studies not covered by the HHS Regulations. Activities are non-regulated research if they do not involve a systematic approach involving a predetermined method for studying a specific topic, answering a specific question, testing a hypothesis, or developing theory.
Define reliability and validity.
Reliability focuses on the consistency with which a measurement is taken. Validity indicates the usefulness or appropriateness of the data being gathered.
Briefly describe reliability and validity.
Reliability- How consistent are the methods? Are procedures uniform throughout the data collected? Validity- How accurate are the results? What is the value of the data collected? Trustworthiness- Used to assess the credibility of qualitative studies, which cannot be judged by the same scientific standards as quantitative studies.
Explain the difference between significant and statistically significant.
Remember, if a sample size is small, the results may not be statistically significant. However, that does not mean the results are not clinically significant. Statistically significant results- are a function of the study sample and the significance value (alpha) chosen for the study, as well as the calculated P-value. Statistically significant results show that the outcomes were not likely a result of chance. Clinically significant refers to results that are meaningful in a clinical or treatment context. Clinically significant results may not be statistically significant due to small or nonrandom samples, but they may be representing a significant medical breakthrough, nonetheless.
Is it ever okay to replicate a study that has already been conducted? Explain.
Replicating a study that has already been conducted is okay where replication is indicated, valuable and needed. Studies that replicate the work of others can determine if the results apply in a new context, among a different population, or even if significant results can be duplicated. For example, extension of generalizations of findings, establishing credibility, reducing errors, and providing support for developing theories.
Transformative
Research can be a catalyst for reform or change.
What is grey literature? List 2 examples.
Research that is either unpublished or has been published in non-commercial form. Examples include government reports. policy statements and issues papers. conference proceedings.
The primary or principle investigator
Responsible for obtaining IRB approval, for communicating regularly with the IRB throughout the study, and for letting the IRB know when a study has reached its conclusion. (Other responsibilities outlined on page 24-25)
Descriptive statistics summarize data from the _____, while inferential statistics indicate how well the data represents the _____.
Sample/Population
List the P values for significant, highly significant, and very highly significant study results.
Significant P value = 0.05 Highly significant P value = 0.01 Very highly significant P value= 0.001
List and define 3 random sampling methods.
Simple random sampling (SRS): This method is similar to 'drawing names from a hat,' in which everyone in a single group has an equal chance of being chosen to participate. SRS can be done through random digit sampling—when each person in a group is assigned a number and then numbers are selected at random. Stratified random sampling In this method, the entire population is divided into groups, such as hospital departments or work shifts, and an even number of participants is randomly selected from each group. Cluster Cluster sampling is similar to stratified sampling, but instead of selecting individuals from each group, the entire group (or 'cluster') is included.
Define axiology:
refers to the ethical considerations when conducting research. It involves defining, evaluating, and understanding the concepts of right and wrong behavior as it relates to your research, the participants, the data, how you present your results, and who you present them to.
Descriptive
research problems are often believed to lean more toward qualitative methods, and understanding the experiences and perspectives of a small group of participants. Descriptive research problems ask the question 'What is...?' to better understand an issue. In quantitative research, this would be a descriptive methodology, most likely survey-based, that depicts the current conditions or opinions of a given population.
Difference
research problems as the question 'Is there a difference between two or more groups or treatments?' The general belief is that different research problems are inherently quantitative, evaluating the difference between two treatment groups. However, while it is true that in a qualitative study the researcher does not set out to compare two different groups, it is entirely possible that during the research two different themes or perspectives may emerge relative to the same phenomenon. The difference should then be evaluated in the research discussion.
Relational
research problems evaluate the relationships between variables, examining characteristics that may be connected in some way. Again, depending on your methods and what you want to learn, relational research problems can also be qualitative or quantitative in nature.
Casuist-
research problems relate to the determination of right and wrong in questions of conduct or analyzing moral dilemmas in the context of a given situation. For instance, the general belief is that lying is morally wrong. However, depending on the situation this may or may not be entirely true. What if lying saves a life?
Define Paradigm
theory is the basic belief system that is used to describe the context in which research has previously been done on a topic and it determines how a researcher will approach conducting a study.
Qualitative research fits within the interpretivism or constructivist paradigm, which holds that:
there are many different versions of reality, and that 'truth' is a function of individual life experiences and perspective.
Why are paradigms important?
they influence what should be studied, how it should be studied and how the results of the study will be interpreted and presented.
What are some of the journals that professionals in your practice or interest area use to find current research reports or reviews?
· American Journal of Occupational Therapy · AOTA: American Occupational Therapy Association · AUPHA: Journal of Health Administration Education · ACHE: American College of Health Executives · HCAA: Healthcare Administrators Association
CBPR Research Process
· Engage the community and understand their priorities. · Describe the community and define the population. · Identify stakeholders and assess resources. · Data collection Share results Develop & implement a plan. · Evaluation.
List five major characteristics of quantitative research:
· Involves using mathematics/statistics to count or measure characteristics. · Goal to describe, compare, predict relationships. · Data is gathered through instruments. · Researchers remain distant to avoid bias. · Reports are numerical and scientific in nature.
What is the major consideration when determining if a study is eligible for expedited IRB review?
· Minimal risk to participants and fall entirely within one or more specific expedited categories. It is necessary to understand the concept of risk when determining if a study is eligible for expedited review. Risk is a measure of harm. it refers to both the likelihood or probability that harm may occur and the magnitude of possible harm.
What are some sources of research inspiration?
· Personal experiences/observations · Debatable subjects: professional or political · Process to improvement or clinical needs · The desire to understand · Questions of ethics · Deficiency in existing literature a 'gap'
Quantitative and Qualitative methods
· Quantitative methods may be used to collect basic demographic information and characteristics about a community, or to identify areas of importance that need more in-depth attention. Qualitative methods are necessary to learn opinions and allow community members to share their experiences regarding the issue being researched. Qualitative methods may include focus groups, interviews, and the use of audio-visual media to share a story.
List five major characteristics of qualitative research:
· Seeks to learn the meaning of experiences, conditions, or cultural influences and how they can affect an individual's perspective. · Data is gathered through personal interviews, focus groups, observation and through evaluating artifacts such as photos, videos or diaries. · Researcher plays active role in qualitative research and data collection. May develop relationships with participants over the course of study. · Research presented in a narrative format like telling a story. · No comparison of groups or an agenda to prove something is true or better than something else.
Describe the type of sources and/or information that can be found using PubMed/Medline
· The most widely used site. includes millions of citations in all disciplines. MEDLINE is sponsored by the National Library of Medicine, and all material on PubMed can be accessed free of charge, even for patients and their families. · PubMed references published information using a standard database of terms, which allows you to retrieve studies that relate to your topic but may be listed under a different heading. The terms are called MeSH terms, which stands for Medical Subject Headings. · You can access MEDLINE at https://www.nlm.nih.gov/ · You can access PubMed at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ · There are also PubMed apps available for mobile devices, such as PubMed4HandHelds, which allow you to search PubMed databases from your phone or tablet.
Briefly describe what type of information is included in each of the following sections of a research report:
·-Results- state the facts regarding the measured outcomes and any relationships or differences that were observed. All results relating to the research questions or hypothesis should be reported—the authors cannot pick and choose which facts to share, otherwise a skewed version of the 'truth' is presented. The Results section should include detailed information describing the study sample. The results of statistical analyses should also be provided, if they were applied. The authors should explain why each specific test was chosen, and how it was used to assess the data. -Statistically significant results- are a function of the study sample and the significance value (alpha) chosen for the study, as well as the calculated P-value. Statistically significant results show that the outcomes were not likely a result of chance. -Clinically significant refers to results that are meaningful in a clinical or treatment context. Clinically significant results may not be statistically significant due to small or nonrandom samples, but they may be representing a significant medical breakthrough, nonetheless. -Description-Researchers share their opinions, views and future implications of the study. Researchers present major research findings, discuss any limitations of the study, and explain how the current findings support, enhance, or contradict prior research results. Subheadings include: Implications, limitations, discussion, bias, recommendations, and conclusions. -Implications- exploration of the meaning of the results. This is where authors can think critically about the results, draw conclusions, and make inferences. Authors can explain the relevance of the study to current/future practice. Implications should be supported by data and the results of any statistical analyses should be presented and explained. Describes the meaning and relevance of the study. -Limitations-(utmost importance) Addresses weaknesses or limits of the study. Limitation explanations may allow those limitations to be avoided should the study be replicated. Possible limitations include sampling errors, intervening variables, and methodology. -Sampling errors- If participants are not truly randomized or they do not represent the population adequately as a whole or if the sample size is too small, there will be limitations of how the results can be generalized to a larger group. -Intervening variables- Factors other than the treatment or exposure being investigated that may influence study results. Researchers should indicate variables or situations that could impact study findings or that may weaken the relationship between treatment and outcomes. -Methodology- discussion of any limitations of data collection or analysis. Could include any factors that affect the reliability, validity, or consistency of data collection tools, or the credibility of qualitative procedures. Openly discussing limitations strengthens the study conclusions. -Discussion- Combines the research report, interpretation of the results, the implications, and the study's limitations into an objective presentation. Gives the author an opportunity to give their view of the impact and importance of the research outcomes. Places the study in an ongoing conversation and context of the current literature. -Bias- researchers identify any factors that might have influenced the study methodology or results such as affiliations with sponsoring organizations, compensation, or personal relationships with study participants or the location. Bias section encourages researchers to openly discuss any circumstances that could impact credibility of the research findings. -Recommendations- Author should share their ideas regarding future research on the topic. Recommendations should be limited to a few ideas such as variations on participant selection or location, changes to the data collection techniques, or building upon the current study findings to further investigate a subject. -Conclusions- begins with a brief restatement of the aim(s) of the study and the major research questions or hypotheses. Major findings should be stated in a format that is easy to follow. Briefly describe the implications which helps to build evidence-based practice and improve patient care. Contrasts and comparisons of the relevant underlying literature. This section also provides the author with the opportunity to share personal experiences and opinions that emphasize the impact of the research.
List 3-5 areas of professional or personal interest that could form the basis for your own research.
·Does Sensory rooms in schools help children regulate behavior? · ADHD treatment: medications or complementary treatments or combination of both? ·Does the implementation of support groups for individuals with Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS) facilitate a decrease in depression and anxiety?
What does the purpose statement define in a research study?
The purpose statement is the WHAT statement—it tells the audience what, specifically, you hope to learn. You should be able to state your research purpose in one or two brief sentences, and the problem should be stated in terms that agree with your research methods. For instance, if you are proposing a qualitative study, use words such as 'explore,' 'understand,' and 'describe.' If you are proposing a quantitative study, use words such as 'evaluate,' 'test,' and 'examine.
Discuss the significance level. What does a significance level of .05 mean?
The researcher is comfortable being wrong 5% of the time (right 95% of the time).
Define inferential statistics.
allows us to infer, or make an educated guess, about whether or not data from a sample is representative of the population as a whole, and what is truly happening.
If a researcher is testing a hypothesis, and the calculated P value is less than the significance level (a), what should the researcher do? What does this mean?
If the P value is less than the significance level (a) is means, there is a significant relationship and the null hypothesis should be rejected.
What are the ontologies?
Realism and Relativism
A correlation coefficient of -0.76 indicates the variables are:
not correlated
Parametric tests should only be used on data that is:
Normally distributed
Data Collection
-Primary- collected by investigator for their own purposes. -Secondary- data collected by someone else that is relevant to the issue currently being studied. Can include Census data, health and wellness data, crime reports, and vital statistics (birth, death, marriage).
List 4 purposes of field notes.
-Provide the opportunity to document First Impressions about a community. -Assist the researcher to remember experiences encountered in the field. -Record names of individuals and places that may prove key in the execution of the AOCD process. -Document unusual characteristics within a community.
Types of paradigms
1. Positivist 2. Post-positivist 3. Constructivist 4. Transformative
Research comes in many forms. All of the following would be considered 'research':
1. Students completing a class project on different infectious diseases. 2. Examining the dosage effects of a new medication. 3. A physician reading the latest article on cardio-bypass surgery.
list the 3 criteria that must be met in order for an event to qualify as an UPIRSO.
1.Unexpected (regarding nature, severity or frequency) 2. Related or possibly related to participation in the research 3. Suggests that the research places participants (or others) at a higher risk of harm (including physical, psychological, economic or social harm) that was previously known or recognized.
For a normally distributed curve, what percentage of scores fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean?
95%
Explain the Common Rule. (Page 16)
A comprehensive regulatory framework that formally governs all human subjects research conducted by the federal government or in facilitates receiving federal funds. Applies to most research conducted by healthcare professionals. Although the common rule is technically only applicable to federally funded or supported research, most institutions apply it to all human subjects, regardless of the funding source. The common rule requires IRB approval of all "human-subjects research" Two questions help identify activities as human- subjects research: · Is this regulated research? · Are human subjects involved?
Describe what is meant by linear relationship.
A linear relationship between two variables means that they are correlated meaning that an increase in one variable results in either an increase or decrease in the other variable.
If you are stuck...what should you do?
Ask a librarian!
Non-experimental studies
Evaluate trends, attitudes or opinions about a specific phenomenon, or evaluate for associations between pre-existing variables or groups. There are no interventions or manipulations applied in non-experimental research, and the data produced is mostly descriptive. Types of non-experimental studies include descriptive, cohort, case-control, and correlational studies.
Standard deviation is the difference between the highest and lowest scores in the data set.
False
What does evidence based practice mean?
Integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research.
Discuss some of the criticisms of qualitative research:
Lack of reproducibility, lack of generalizability and a strong potential for researcher bias. Additionally, difficulty with replication and an increase likelihood of ethical issues secondary to the strong focus of human experiences and behavior.
The PI is responsible for reporting instances of non-compliance to the IRB. What constitutes noncompliance during a research study?
Noncompliance is an action by the investigator or member of the research team that disregards or violates federal regulations.
Define the following types of error:
Random: Occur strictly by chance. - Noise in the system. - Greater effect when the sample is small. Systematic: are a series of consistent biases affecting a measurement. - A result of poor technique or inappropriate methodology.
Quasi-experimental studies
Research designs that have the characteristics of experimental design but lack randomization.do not meet the random sampling and/or control group requirements of a true experimental study, so they can only demonstrate an association between variables, but no definite cause and effect relationship. If participants are not randomly assigned, there is no way to minimize the effect of extraneous variables—group characteristics may be unevenly distributed. Quasi-experimental studies include non-equivalent control group, separate sample pretest-posttest, and time series design studies
Define the P value. What does it represent?
The P value is the probability value and it indicates the likelihood that the results happened by chance, alone, and not as a result of the independent variable.
Which measure of central tendency is most affected by outliers?
The mean
Write an example of a qualitative purpose statement:
The purpose of this historical study is to understand the conditions that prompted the CEO of a local hospital to initiate a social media policy for all staff.
1. Web of Science / SCOPUS:
Web of Science and Scopus are not as intuitive as PubMed or CINAHL, so you may have a more difficult time finding sources directly related to your topic. However, the sites have additional tools that can be useful for researchers, including tracking the history of the literature through citations.
Which of the following is an example of a ratio measurement?
Weight
Rigor-
how we describe the quality of research methods and the resulting data.
Review the values for correlation coefficients.
r = 0-0.2 (Very low correlation) r = 0.2-0.4 (a low correlation that might warrant further investigation) r = 0.4-0.6 (a reasonable correlation) r = 0.6-0.8 (a high correlation) r = 0.8-1.0 (a very high correlation, possible too high!)
Hierarchy of Evidence pyramid
(From the top) 1. Meta-analysis. 2. Systematic Review. 3. Randomized controlled clinical trials. 4. Cohort studies. 5. Case-controlled studies. 6. Case series and case reports. 7. animal studies/laboratory studies.
·Mixed methods
- Quantitative: · Demographic data and characteristics · Summarize events or opinions. - Qualitative · The 'How' and 'WHY' data · Necessary to learn opinions or experiences.
Pre-experimental studies
- one or more groups are observed following the administration of a 'treatment' or intervention to determine if there is a change in the outcome. In pre-experimental designs, the independent variable is manipulated by the researcher, but participants are not randomly assigned to groups, and there may be no control group used for comparison, making it impossible to determine if the independent variable was the actual cause of any observed change. Types of studies include: One-shot case study, One group pretest-posttest and static group comparison.
What is the range of values for a correlation coefficient?
-1 (perfect negative correlation) to a +1 (perfect positive correlation) An r value of 0 indicates no relationship between variables.
Discuss advantages of community-based participatory research. Refer to Table 9.1, page 127 of your textbook.
-Enhances data relevance, usefulness, and use. -Improves the quality and validity of the research by blending local knowledge and local theory based on the lived experiences of community members, expertise from organization representatives, and scientific perspectives. -Recognizes the limitations of the concept of value-free science and encourages reflexive and critical thinking among all partners. -Recognizes that knowledge is power, and thus knowledge gained can be used by all Partners to direct resources and influence policies that will benefit the community. -Reduces the separation of the individual from her or his culture and context. -Aims to increase the health and well-being of the communities involved, both directly through examining and addressing identified needs and indirectly through increasing power, control, and skills. -Joins partners with diverse skills, knowledge, expertise, and perspectives to address health. -Strengthens the research, program, and problem-solving capacity of all partners. Creates Theory grounded in social experience and creates better informed and more effective actions guided by such theories. -Increases the possibility of overcoming the understandable distrust of research by communities. -Has the potential to bridge cultural gaps. -Involves communities that have been marginalized on the basis of, for example, race, ethnicity, class, gender, and or sexual orientation in examining the impact of marginalization in attempting to reduce or eliminate it.
Explain what type of regulated human research may be exempt from IRB approval and list (4) examples.
-Research involving normal educational practices such as comparing different instructional curricula or techniques not likely to adversely affect the student or educator. - Surveys (not involving children) that collect information that would not likely pose a risk to those completing the survey if their answers were released (either because the information is not sensitive in nature or because it cannot be traced back to the individual), or the IRB has conducted limited review and determined if identifiable information is recorded there are adequate protections to ensure confidentiality of the data. - Chart reviews of health information that is either not traceable back to the individual or when identifiable health information is collected it is regulated by HIPAA. - Research involving benign behavioral interventions (not involving children)
What are the 5 steps to the EBP Process?
1. Assess the patient and your knowledge gaps. 2. Ask a well-built clinical question derived from the case. 3. Acquire the evidence by selecting the appropriate resource and conducting a search. 4. Appraise the evidence for its validity and its applicability. 5. Apply what you have learned, talk to the patient, and integrate the evidence with your clinical expertise and patient preferences. When the process is complete it is important to self-evaluate your performance with the patient.
Review Table 17.3 on page 246 in the textbook. What type of sources are found at each evidence level?
1. A— High quality evidence that considers all important outcomes: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) Well-done systematic reviews of RCTs, meta-analysis, systematic reviews using comprehensive search strategies. 2. B— Well-designed, nonrandomized clinical trials: systematic reviews of studies other than RCTs with appropriate search strategies and well=substantiated conclusions, lower quality RCTs, cohort studies, case-control studies with nonbiased subject selection and consistent findings, quality retrospective studies, certain uncontrolled studies, well-designed epidemiologic studies with compelling findings. 3. C— Consensus or expert opinion.
Review and remember Table 13.5: Guidelines for the Construction of Tables, printed on page 192 in your textbook.
1. Choose a clear and specific table title so there is no confusion about the contents. 2. Number tables consecutively using Arabic numbers from the beginning of the report and label them accordingly. 3. Use subheadings for the columns and rows. Format cells so the data are clear and easy to read, often alignment of decimals is preferred. ' 4. Limit your information to include only material to your descriptive title. Do not mix sample demographics with inferential statistics. 5. Do not explain your table in text; it should speak for itself; however, the table must be identified in the text. 6. Use table formats that are consistent in that conform to the Publisher's guidelines. Check with the publisher in advance or consult the instructions to authors to determine whether tables and figures should be submitted separately or Incorporated within the text. 7. Avoid excessive lines. Vertical lines for columns are not needed, but there should be sufficient Space Between. The Columns so the table is easy to read. Also, tables should be limited to one page. 8. Be sure to include appropriate units of measure (e.g., mg/dL).
The Nuremberg Code of 1947 was enacted in response to Nazi experiments conducted on humans during WWII. Summarize the ten human research standards outlined in the code.
1. Consent should be informed, voluntary, and non-coercive. 2. Experiments should be useful and necessary. 3. Human experiments should be based on animal research. 4. Physical and mental suffering should be avoided. 5. Death and disability should not be expected. 6. Risk should not exceed the humanitarian importance. 7. Human subjects should be protected from remote harms. 8. Only qualified scientists should conduct research. 9. Subjects should be free to end an experiment. 10. Scientists should prepare to end an experiment.
Define the impact factor for journals. Why is the impact factor important?
It is a measure of the frequency with which the average article in a journal has been cited in a particular year. It is one tool you can use to compare journals in a subject category.
List and describe the 4 aspects of qualitative trustworthiness:
1. Credibility- demonstrates that the study methods are sound, and that the findings of the study reflect the experiences and perceptions of the participants involved. To ensure credibility the researcher should spend time in the field and be present in the settings to gain a insider perspective, persistent observation, paying close attention to non-verbal cues during interviews, triangulation in which the researcher verifies data from multiple sources of information. 2. Transferability- In which researchers do not make statements that generalize the results to others outside of the study. However, professionals should recognize the relevance and applicability of study findings to individuals in similar contexts. Transferability is best achieved through thick descriptions which help the audience understand all the details of the setting, participants, the phenomenon, and the social, cultural, and physical context of the study. 3. Dependability- Shows that the data collection and analysis methods are consistent and reliable
List at least 3 strategies for conducting a successful interview:
1. Ethically sensitive: is sensitive to the ethical dimension of interviewing, ensuring the interviewee appreciates what the research is about, its purposes, and that his or her answers will be treated confidentially. 2. Sensitive: listens attentively to what is said and how it is said; is empathetic in dealing with the interviewee. 3. Structuring: gives purpose for interview; rounds it off; asks whether interviewee has questions.
These 3 principles led to the development of which 3 requirements:
1. Informed consent. 2. Assessment of risks and benefits. 3. Equitable selection of subjects.
List and describe three types of review sources:
1. Integrative reviews- Compare and contrast several published studies to provide a framework for the current knowledge of a topic. 2. Metasynthesis- Summarizes the findings of several different qualitative studies. 3. Systematic reviews- Uses the results of many different quantitative studies to answer a specific research question. Meta-analysis uses statistics to determine the overall impact of an intervention or treatment.
Describe at least 3 methods of data collection used in qualitative studies:
1. Interviewing- During the interview, researchers should listen carefully and attentively and avoid asking questions too rapidly or too often. Participants should be allowed to answer freely and completely, without interruption or leading questions. During the interview session, data can be captured with audiotapes, digital recordings, handwritten notes, or a combination of methods. The researcher should verify that the participant is comfortable with the data recording methods and should review the consent agreement prior to beginning. 2. Focus Groups- a handful of participants sit together and respond to interview questions. Group members are invited to talk amongst themselves, telling stories or recalling experiences. The group dynamic often yields richer data, as participants encourage one another to discuss events, emotions, or outcomes related to the research questions. Focus groups also provide a wealth of non-verbal data, evident in facial expressions, tone of voice, or body language when participants respond to others' lines of conversation. 3. Field Observation- Observing participants behaviors in their natural settings. 4. Evaluation of documents- Letters, journals, photographs, videos, and memorabilia.
Define the following measures of central tendency:
1. Mean- is the average of the measured scores. To calculate you divide the sum of all the scores by the total number of scores that are collected. The mean can only be calculated for continuous data (interval and ration) The mean is best to describe normally distributed data because it can be significantly affected by one extreme score. 2. Median- Represents the midpoint of all scores and can be calculated for ordinal, interval, and ration data types. Is not typically affected by outliers or extreme scores therefore, the median is better than the mean to represent non-symmetrical distributions. 3. Mode- Represents the most frequent score reported in the data and can be calculated for all data types (nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio) The mode does is not significantly affected by extreme scores. Bi-modal is a term for data that has two common scores within a study.
List and describe at least 5 qualitative research approaches:
1. Phenomenology- meaning of people's experiences concerning some phenomenon. Topics best suited for this approach include Fundamental human life experiences (surviving a terrorist attack or death of a spouse. 2. Narrative or naturalistic- tells a story from the perspective of the participant. 3. Ethnography- focuses on the lifestyle and experiences of a particular cultural or social group., to understand their patterns of behavior. (Example: culture can be a hospital department, a family, or neighborhood and does not need to be a specific race or ethnicity. 4. Case study- explores an issue within a certain setting or context. Can be one participant or fewer than ten. 5. Grounded Theory- Research examines basic social processes such as providing patient education or emotional support to caregivers with the intent to discover patterns or themes. 6.Participatory Action- an attempt to call attention to social injustice and to propose a solution to the identified problem. There is usually a close collaboration between the researcher and the participants, and a firm belief in the need for change. 7. Historical research looks for patterns and trends in past events and evaluates their relevance to the present.
Discuss the following threats to external validity:
1. Population-related- The population used in the study. 2. Environmental threats- Where the study takes place. Hawthorne effect- A term coined in reference to a series of productivity studies at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago. The researchers discovered that their presence affected the behavior of the workers being studied. The term now refers to any impact of research on the subject of study. Rosenthal effect- Refers to result caused by the involvement of the investigator in a study. the personal attributes, Charisma, and abilities of the researcher can affect the results.
What are the 5 steps of the scientific method?
1. Problem: a precise statement of what knowledge was sought and why it was sought. 2. Question: a single sentence that asks a question related to the problem. 3. Method: the plan of how the research was done and how the knowledge was gained. 4. Results: Unequivocal statements of the knowledge that was gained. 5. Interpretation: application of the knowledge gained.
What are 4 important reasons for conducting a literature review prior to beginning research?
1. Provide an overview of previous research that has been conducted on a topic. 2. Develop a framework for understanding the topic in relation to similar subjects. 3. Identify gaps or areas that need further investigation. 4. Identify areas of consensus or debate.
Integrity in research
It is the researcher's responsibility to be honest about any personal bias or conflicts of interest that could be perceived as a threat to integrity of the research methods or results.
Consider the following research question: Why does working with terminal patients harm the mental health of hospice workers? What issues can you identify with this question? How can you rewrite this question to fit a qualitative methodology?
According to this week's learning materials a research question should not ask "why" as it implies that there is a cause-and-effect relationship which represents quantitative research instead "how" questions should be asked. For example, how does working with terminal patients harm the mental health of hospice workers?
What does it mean when two variables are correlated?
Correlated variables means that there is an association between the variables.
Be familiar with the criteria for IRB approval shown in Figure 2.2 and discussed on pages 20-23 in your textbook.
Criteria for IRB Approval: - The rest are reasonable in relation to benefits- i.e., risk-benefit ratio. The IRB will approve only research where the probability of a benefit outweighs the risk of participating in the research. -Selection of subjects is equitable- considering whether the selected population fairly distributes the burdens and benefits of the research. The IRB considers whether the study targets individuals who will likely benefit from the outcome of the research. For example, the board may ask whether there are participants who may benefit more from the study. -Informed consent will be sought from each prospective subject or the subject's legally authorized representative- (Page 22). Because informed consent is one of the three basic protections provided by the common rule, the IRB will require it in most cases. The human protection regulations Define the basic information that must be provided while obtaining informed consent. In some cases, a request may be made that some or all of the elements of consent be waived by the IRB. -For example, a waiver of all elements of consent may be appropriate for a study using existing health information that was collected for clinical—purposes where it is not feasible to obtain consent from the individual patients. · Alteration of informed consent example- (Omitting some elements) would include a study where some of the required information is not appropriate for the research. In this case, the investigator can request an alteration in consent if the study meets the criteria for the alteration of consent.
Define the following data collection methods:
Cross-sectional: Data is collected at a single point in time. Longitudinal: Data is collected at several points over a period of time. Prospective: Data collection is planned in advance. Retrospective: Data is collected from information that already exists, such as patient charts or artifacts.
Non-experimental studies
Descriptive studies the purpose of descriptive studies is to statistically analyze data as it exists at a single moment in time. The data collection instruments for descriptive studies are often surveys or questionnaires with a predetermined set of answers. Quantitative surveys may include a few open-ended questions, similar to qualitative studies. However, the overall intent is still to quantify data numerically, making it a quantitative research instrument. Cohort studies compare two or more groups to determine if a condition develops or exists based on known exposure or risk factors. Prospective cohort studies follow people over time, to evaluate if a condition develops. Retrospective cohort studies evaluate trends based on past documentation, such as reviewing existing medical records. In cohort studies, participant groups are determined based on their risk factors. Case-control studies involve comparing participants with similar characteristics who have a condition (case) with those who do not (control) to retrospectively determine what variables might have led to the development of the condition. In case-control studies, participant groups are determined based on the presence or absence of a condition. Correlational studies involve observing two or more variables over time to establish whether or not a relationship exists.
Describe the following types of research studies:
Descriptive: Studies generate data that explains the way things are at a given point in time - Data may be narrative or numerical - Intent is to demonstrate reality as it is currently understood. Analytic: studies test for differences between groups or relationships between variables. - Data must be numerical in some form, to allow for statistical analysis. Studies can be: -Pre-experimental -Experimental -Quasi-experimental
What is the purpose of a pilot test?
During a pilot test, a small number of subjects are asked to complete the questionnaire and provide feedback on the survey design, to identify any areas that are confusing or unclear, and to share any suggestions for improvement.
Define emic and etic perspectives.
Emic perspective- Insider perspective on how people live and the issues facing the community. An Insider's perspective is privileged knowledge that only members of a particular Community have. Etic perspective- Outside perspective. Outsiders consist of representatives from CBOs and other service providers such as those from the local public health department and may include health professionals such as clinicians, counselors, Health Educators, pharmacists, providers of medical and mental health services, and other researchers. Outsiders provide perspectives on the health and well-being of communities, their access to resources, and Community strength, as well as support for subsequent action or intervention.
Explain the type of research studies that are best suited for a qualitative approach. What is the goal of the research?
Interpretive studies with a naturalistic approach are best for the qualitative approach. The goal of qualitative research is to discover the meaning of a social or human issue within a particular environment.
Describe how focus groups are conducted.
Focus groups usually are composed of 6 to 10 participants who are guided through a set of General predetermined open-ended questions outlined in a focus group moderators guide. The guide must be agreed upon but the selection of focus groups as a methodology and the line of inquiry outlined within the guide should reflect the most meaningful approach and language as agreed upon by the research partners. Focus groups consist of an introduction to the focus group process as well as informed consent to participate, outlining ground rules, speaking one at a time, repeating various opinions, and maintaining confidentiality. the participants set in a circle and respond to open ended questions. The participants are encouraged to talk to one another, asking questions, exchanging anecdotes, and commenting on one another's experiences and perspectives. Cannoli the group most often involves at least one note taker who documents participant speaking order, body language, and facial expressions that cannot be captured by audio recording.
Explain the 68—95—99.7 rule for standard deviation.
For a given data set, 68% of all scores will fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean, 95% of all scores will fall within 2 standard deviations, and 99.7% of the scores will fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean.
There are adequate provisions to protect the privacy of subjects and to maintain the confidentiality of data (when appropriate)-
For example, assigning study codes to participants rather than using names and scoring the key to decipher the codes in a separate, secure location accessible only to the investigators is a way of demonstrating this type of protection.
Google Scholar: http://www.scholar.google.com/
Great place to begin a general search, if you aren't sure what literature already exists on your topic. If you want to learn the broad history of what has been published, or if you need a jumping off point for narrowing your search, Google Scholar is a more refined way to run an initial web inquiry.
Describe a general source (tertiary) and list at least 2 examples:
Great source for background information and current opinion. Examples: websites and popular news sources.
Define interrater, intrarater, and instrument reliability.
Interrater reliability- Indicates the consistency and measurements among individuals taking the measurements. I ntrarater reliability- Indicates the consistency with which an individual takes measurement. Instrument Reliability- Indicates the consistency of measurements by a particular instrument.
What does it mean if a curve is skewed to the right? To the left?
If the tail reaches to the right, it shows that the mean -the average value of all scores is higher than the median, the curve is positively skewed. If the tail reaches to the left, the mean is lower than the median and the curve is negatively skewed.
Explain the role of research questions and hypotheses in a research study.
In order to learn WHAT you want to during your research, you have to define a handful of specific, observable, or measurable questions that can be answered through your study. Research questions further define the purpose statement into questions that will be answered as a result of conducting a study, or that make predictions about what will be learned. In order to claim that research has been successful, the research questions must be adequately answered. Depending on whether a study is qualitative or quantitative, the format for research questions will be different hypotheses.
What is trustworthiness in qualitative research?
In qualitative research trustworthiness covers all areas that ultimately determines integrity. For example, truth value, plausibility, rigorousness of the design and the method as well as the credibility of the data and researcher.
Compare and contrast qualitative and quantitative epistemology:
In quantitative research, the researcher takes specific steps to ensure that his/her beliefs do not influence the data collection or analysis; the researcher remains distant. In qualitative research, the researcher is an integral part of the data collection process. The researcher immerses him or herself in the field, with the participants, and may reflect on his or her own personal experiences in the course of the research.
Define independent, dependent, and extraneous variables.
Independent- A phenomenon that is manipulated by the researcher and is predicted to have an effect on another phenomenon. A variable whose values are not problematic in analysis but are taken simply as given. Presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable. Dependent- A phenomenon that is affected by the researcher's manipulation of an independent variable. Extraneous- variables are additional factors, outside of the research design, that may influence the results of the study. Extraneous variables include characteristics such as age, gender, frequency of exercise, use of additional support services, or the education level of the participants.
Define internal and external validity.
Internal Validity- Concerned with limiting or controlling factors and events other than the independent variable, which may cause change in the outcome- dependent variable. Internal validity demonstrates cause and effect in experimental studies—that the independent variable caused or influenced the dependent variable. External Validity- Concerned with factors that may affect the generalizability of the conclusions drawn from the study.
3 types of quasi-experimental studies
Non-equivalent control group design is similar to pretest-posttest-control group experimental design, except that participants are not randomly assigned to treatment or control groups. This type of study is often based on convenience or cluster sampling, such as selecting all employees in a hospital department or all patients at a clinic. Time series design studies, two or more non-random groups are compared to each other, and measurements are taken at several points over the course of the study. When participants are tested multiple times, the validity of the results is somewhat diluted, because changes may occur as a result of being tested, and not due to the intervention. Separate sample pretest, posttest design is used when researchers think a pretest will affect the participants' performance on the posttest. In this type of study, participants are assigned either to a pretest group or a posttest group. Participants may not be randomly assigned to groups, but the researcher makes the assumption that group characteristics are similar enough to compare the pretest results to the posttest results to determine if there is a relationship between the intervention and the outcome.
Define the following types of data:
Non-numerical: Data that has no numeric value. - Nominal: Includes descriptive characteristics such as gender, diagnosis group, or profession. - Ordinal: Includes characteristics that can be compared, such as height heights, weight, or pain. Numerical: Data represented in numbers - Interval: data that has a numerical value between two points, but never a true zero. Examples include temperature or blood glucose levels. - Ratio: Data that is represented as a percent of a whole and may be zero, such as blood alcohol percent or pack-years smoking history. Descriptive: Non-numerical data presented in narrative form.
Define context effect
Occurs when responses are influenced by something other than the content of the survey.
Post-positivist
One single reality exists, but it can never be fully measured or understood, only approximated.
Pre-experimental studies
One-shot case study In this design, a treatment is given or participants are exposed to some intervention and a measurement is made. In a one-shot case study, participants can also be selected based on having a predetermined quality or experience, such as surveying pregnant women to determine patient satisfaction with ultrasound services. One group pretest-posttest In this type of research, participants are tested before and after an intervention, treatment, or exposure. This design is familiar to most health care clinicians—it represents classic clinical practice, in which a patient is evaluated and diagnosed, given a 'treatment,' and then re-evaluated to see how well the treatment worked. Static group comparison In this design, a group that has been exposed to a certain intervention or treatment is compared to a similar group that has not. It is unethical to knowingly manipulate an environment to purposely expose participants to dangerous conditions, but static group comparisons can be used to 23 evaluate outcomes in conditions that already exist.
Under what circumstance can changes be made to the study without IRB approval? Hint: There is only one circumstance!
Only when the modification is necessary to eliminate an immediate hazard to the participants.
Differentiate between closed-ended and open-ended interview questions and list some advantages and disadvantages of each.
Open-ended interview questions tend to provide more exploratory, Developmental, and contextual data. Data tends to be more descriptive. One advantage to open-ended interview questions is that they provide descriptive and elaborate answers, providing not only ideas about how to meet Healthcare needs in the short-term and long-term, but also further information about what health care needs existed in the community and a root cause explanation and insight into the sociopolitical to context about health. Closed-ended questions are characterized by response options that are fixed in which participants choose among a list of fixed responses. Close ended response options simplify data collection and analysis because many questions can be asked in a shorter period and responses can be easily aggregated and compared. The disadvantage to this is that participants Best fit their experiences and feelings into predetermined categories. This may distort the true experiences and feelings of the participants by limiting the response choices. Additionally closed-ended questions may also reduce participants ability to express y in the context of the phenomenon of Interest. An advantage of closed-ended interviews is that they may provide local data and a baseline for evaluation of intervention efforts.
Which P value indicates study results that are 'highly significant'?
P= .01
What do the letters of PICO stand for?
P= Patient or population I= Intervention or exposure C= Comparison O= Outcome
Explain how participants are selected for qualitative research studies.
Participants are purposively chosen because these participants most likely have the experience or characteristics that will provide accurate and complete information regarding the phenomenon being studied.
Describe how Photovoice can be used to collect data for CBPR.
Photovoice improves the quality and validity of research by drawing on local knowledge, developing local Theory, and progressing toward action. Photovoice has been found to be a flexible method both regarding the issue it explores and the relation to the geographic and cultural device groups. The photo discussion data are analyzed like other qualitative data, through exploring, formulating and interpreting scenes. Furthermore, This qualitative method enables participants to record and reflect on their personal and Community strengths and concerns. Promotes critical dialogue and knowledge about personal and Community issues through group discussions and photographs. Provides a forum for presentation of the lived experiences of participants through images, language, and context defined by participants themselves
What is the paradigm associated with quantitative research? What is ontology? Why?
Post Positivist paradigm, where it is believed that everything adheres to a cause-and-effect relationship. The ontology of quantitative research is realism, the belief that there is one true reality, and it can be measured to some extent.
3 types of experimental studies
Pretest, posttest, control group design is the most rigorous experimental design. In this type of study, participants are randomly assigned to a group, pretested to establish baseline measurements, one group is exposed to a treatment or intervention while one is not, and then both groups are tested again to evaluate any changes. This design is typically used in clinical research studies to determine the outcome of a new treatment or using a new medical device. If participants and the investigators are unaware of group assignments, and whether or not someone is receiving the treatment, the study is called a 'double-blind' study. Posttest-only control group design is used when it is not possible or appropriate for participants to be pretested. In this design, participants are randomly assigned to groups, one group is exposed to a treatment or intervention while one is not, and then both groups are evaluated to measure the outcome. Because there is no baseline measurement (pretest), it is more difficult to determine if the intervention actually caused a measured outcome, but the effect of the intervention on the outcome can still be compared between the two groups. Solomon four-group design This type of study essentially combines the previous two. In this design, four groups are compared—two are pretested, two are not; one of the pretested groups and one of the no-pretest groups receive the intervention, and then all groups are post-tested to measure the outcome. This design increases the validity of a study by showing whether or not pre-testing has an effect on the outcome. In some cases, pre-tests may clue participants in to the outcome being measured, and they perform better on post-tests simply due to having prior experience with the testing.
What is the primary function of the Institutional Review Board (IRB)?
Protect the rights and welfare of human subjects involved in research activities being conducted under its authority.
What is the 2-P rule of interrater reliability?
Protocol and practice apply when two or more individuals are taking measurements. Measurement should be taken using a standard protocol that has been practiced. Data collectors should also compare their measurements periodically; they may even wish to determine their consistency by performing one of the tests that assess interrater reliability, such as the Kappa statistical test.
Types of research Table page 5-6
Pure- Description: Abstract and general, concerned with generating new theory and gaining new knowledge for knowledge sake. Example: Theory development. Experimental- Description: Manipulation of one variable to see its effects on another variable, while controlling for as many other variables as possible and randomly assigning subjects to groups. Quantitative in nature. Considered the gold standard of scientific research. Example: Double-blind random assignment control groups, response to an intervention.
In your own words, define qualitative research.
Qualitative research is research that involves collecting and analyzing data to understand experiences and situations in natural conditions.
Discuss the difference between qualitative and quantitative research questions or hypotheses.
Qualitative studies focus on one main research question, called the 'central phenomenon.' From this main question, several sub-questions can be included which relate back to the main research question. Qualitative research questions usually include words like 'discover,' 'report,' or 'explore,' or begin with phrases such as 'What is the experience of...' or 'How would [participants] to describe....' The focus is on gaining a better understanding of the central phenomenon, and not on developing new theories or 'proving' existing ones. Quantitative studies use either research questions, which inquire whether there is a relationship between variables, or a hypothesis, which makes predictions about the relationship between variables. Typically, quantitative studies are based on either a research question OR a hypothesis, but not both.
Differentiate between random and systematic error.
Random errors consist of those errors that occur strictly because of chance; these errors are often thought of as noise in the system. small sample sizes tend to be more vulnerable to random error. Systematic error can be thought of as a series of consistent biases affecting a measurement. Typical research errors may be related to poor technique, such a sloppiness, or to appropriate research designs, an appropriate measure, or incorrect statistical applications.
