All Chapters (1-15) HIST 1111 Study Set

Naturalism

"As it appears in nature." Not the same as realism.

Students attending the first medieval universities came from areas distant from the university. cloistered monasteries and convents. Islamic lands. wealthy families in the surrounding countryside.

Areas distant from the university. Students at the early medieval universities came from long distances to study.

Israelite Kingdom

Around 1,000 BCE We only have biblical sources describing this Kingdom. Many of the stories revolve around King David (E.g. David and Goliath).

Individualism

Art that is of a real person not the idea of a person or a fictional person.

Stele of Hammurabi

A Babylonian King's code of Law was given on this object. He claimed the law was given to him by one of their God's Approx. 1790 BCE Written in Cuneiform. One of the oldest surviving written documents.

themes

A military district in Byzantium. The earliest themes were created in the seventh century and served mainly defensive purposes. Byzantine rulers strengthened their army by dividing the strategiai into smaller districts called themes. Soldiers were recruited locally, and the inhabitants of each district were required to help pay for weapons and other supplies. Pg. 229

Cincinnatus

A model dictator for the Romans. He organized an army, led the Romans to victory, attended victory celebrations, and returned to his farmland all within 16 days.

How did the place of women in the Franciscan movement change over time? At first, St. Francis welcomed women into the movement, but he eventually decided that only men could be Franciscans. At first, women worked alongside their male counterparts, but they were eventually cloistered. At first, women were cloistered, but they were eventually allowed to work alongside their male counterparts. At first, St. Francis refused to let women join the movement, but he eventually relented.

At first, women worked alongside their male counterparts, but they were eventually cloistered. At first, male and female Franciscans worked together; but both Francis and the church hierarchy disapproved of their activities in the world, and soon Franciscan sisters were confined to cloisters under the rule of St. Benedict.

commercial revolution

A term for the western European development (starting around 1050) of a money economy centered in urban areas but affecting the countryside as well. Commerce was not new to the history of western Europe, but the commercial revolution of the Middle Ages spawned the institutions that would be the direct ancestors of modern businesses: widespread use of money, corporations, banks, accounting systems, and, above all, urban centers that thrived on economic vitality. Whereas ancient cities had primarily religious, social, and political functions, medieval cities were centers of production and economic activity. Wealth meant power: it allowed city dwellers to become self-governing. Pg. 259

Which Greek city-state is renowned for having established the first democracy ("rule by the people") based on voting rights and full political participation for all male citizens? a.Athens b.Thebes c.Corinth d.Sparta

Athens

Praxiteles

Ancient Greek sculptor (circa 370-330 BC), a sculptor who lived after Phidias who sculpted figures that were more lifelike and natural in form and size. He wrote a book on how to accurately depict the human form. The "praxitelean curve" (the way the statues spines were curved into a natural posture) was a major change in the realism of statues.

The Parthenon

Architects Iktinos and Kallikrates The most prominent building on Acropolis and all of Athens. Commissioned after the destruction of Athens during the Persian Wars. A temple dedicated to the goddess Athena.

Roman Forum (Forum Romanum)

Area between the holy Palatine and Capitoline hills, later drained and paved to make room for important government and religious buildings

Frederick I (Barbarossa)

King of Germany (r. 1152-1190) and emperor (crowned 1155) who tried to cement the power of the German king through conquest (for example, of northern Italy) and the bonds of vassalage. Pg. 297

Philip II

King of Spain (r. 1556-1598) and the most powerful ruler in Europe; he reigned over the western Habsburg lands and all the Spanish colonies recently settled in the New World. Pg. 391

Alfred the Great

King of Wessex (r. 871-899) and the first king to rule over most of England. He organized a successful defense against Viking invaders, had key Latin works translated into the vernacular, and wrote a law code for the whole of England. In contrast to Italy, most of England was rural. Having successfully repelled the Viking invaders, Alfred the Great, king of Wessex (r. 871-899), developed new mechanisms of royal government, instituting reforms that his successors continued. He fortified settlements throughout Wessex and divided the army into two parts, one with the duty of defending these fortifications, the other operating as a mobile unit. Alfred also started a navy. The money to pay for these military innovations came from assessments on peasants' holdings. Along with its regional fortifications, Alfred sought to strengthen his kingdom's religious integrity. He began his program of religious reform by bringing scholars to his court to translate works by church fathers such as Gregory the Great and St. Augustine into Anglo-Saxon (Old English) so that everyone would understand them. Pg. 250

The first Jewish revolt

Led by the Zealots who hated the Roman rule and they used violence to overthrow the government and were unsuccessful.

How did Hugo Grotius define natural rights? Employment, health, shelter, and autonomy Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness Faith, freedom, property, and salvation Life, body, freedom, and honor

Life, body, freedom, and honor To be in accord with natural law, Grotius argued, governments had to defend natural rights, which he defined as life, body, freedom, and honor.

Magna Carta

Literally "Great Charter"; the charter of baronial liberties that King John was forced to agree to in 1215. It implied that royal power was subject to custom and law. Pg. 295

oblation

Literally "an offering," oblation was the practice by which parents confided their son or daughter at a young age to a monastery. At the time, it was considered a worthy and pious gesture, beneficial to the souls of the parents and the child. Pg. 219

troubadours/trobairitz

Male (troubadours) and female (trobairitz) vernacular poets in southern France in the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries who sang of love, longing, and courtesy. Pg. 300

Which of these trends shaped the rural economy of the Middle Ages? Cash wages for agricultural workers gave way to barter agreements. Many aristocratic landowners faced mounting debts. Migration to cities completely depopulated many rural areas. The duties and obligations of serfdom grew more onerous.

Many aristocratic landowners faced mounting debts. In the twelfth century, when some townsmen could boast fortunes that rivaled the riches of the landed aristocracy, the economic pressures on the nobles increased as their extravagance exceeded their income. Many went into debt.

How did decades of warfare change the territories that were conquered by the Persians and then reconquered by the Byzantines in the early seventh century? a. Many inhabitants of the region came to prefer Persian rule to Byzantine rule. b. The region became the center of vibrant international trade. c. Zoroastrianism had become the dominant religion of the region. d. The region's focus shifted from the countryside to cities.

Many inhabitants of the region came to prefer Persian rule to Byzantine rule. Many inhabitants of the region came to prefer Persian rule to Byzantine rule. Syrian, Egyptian, and Palestinian cities had grown used to being under Persian rule, and Christians who did not adhere to the orthodoxy at Byzantium preferred their Persian overlords.

Which of these was among Plato's intellectual interests? a. Medicine b. Biology c. Mathematics d. Anatomy

Mathematics Plato's intellectual interests covered astronomy, mathematics, political philosophy, ethics, and metaphysics.

In what city was the home of the Ka'ba? a. Medina b. Damascus c. Baghdad d. Mecca

Mecca The Ka'ba (also spelled Kaaba or Kabah) was a shrine that contained the images of many gods. It was a sacred place within which war and violence were prohibited.

Plato v. Aristotle

Modern science is a blend of platonic and aristotelian ideas. The scientific method is a combination of Plato's ideal forms what the mind conceives of - the hypothesis - which is then tested through observation and collection of data.

Atë

Moral blindness caused by Hubris or another flaw.

What was the context in which the sixteenth-century church reforms took place? The Roman Catholic church enjoyed unquestioning loyalty from Europeans. Most people were devout believers, but detailed knowledge of Catholic doctrine was generally shallow. Religious piety was stronger in southern Europe than in northern or eastern Europe. City dwellers had largely rejected traditional religious practices, though such practices remained strong in rural areas.

Most people were devout believers, but detailed knowledge of Catholic doctrine was generally shallow. By 1500, most people in Europe believed devoutly. However, the vast majority of them had little knowledge of Catholic doctrine. More popular forms of piety — such as processions, festivals, and marvelous tales of saints' miracles — captivated ordinary believers.

Which of these groups was one of the main supporters of the Peace of God movement? Peasants Castellans Merchants Low-ranking knights

Peasants The Peace of God united bishops, counts, and peasants in an attempt to contain local violence.

Which of these was reflected in Neo-Assyrian public religion? a. The prominence of war in Assyrian culture b. The civic values of Assyrian merchants c. The importance of women in Assyrian life d. The importance of learning in Assyrian culture

Public religion reflected the prominence of war in Assyrian culture: the cult of Ishtar, the goddess of love and war, glorified warfare. The Neo-Assyrian rulers' desire to demonstrate their respect for the gods motivated them to build huge temples. These shrines' staffs of priests and slaves grew so large that the revenues from temple lands became insufficient; the kings had to supply extra funds from the spoils of conquest.

Which the following survived the Mycenaeans' fall and was employed by the Greeks in the Dark Age? a. Linear B b. Redistributive economy c. Monotheism d. Seaborne trade

Seaborne trade The Mycenaeans engaged in more trade than did Greeks in the Dark Age, but the Dark Age Greeks did continue to trade overseas.

Where did troubadour poetry begin? England Northern France Southern France Germany

Southern France From southern France, the troubadours' songs spread to Italy, northern France, England, and Germany.

Arianism

The Christian doctrine named after Arius, who argued that Jesus was "begotten" by God and did not have an identical nature with God the Father. Theological questions about the nature of the Christian Trinity — Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three seemingly separate deities nevertheless conceived by orthodox believers to be a unified, co-eternal, and identical divinity — proved the hardest to clarify. The doctrine called Arianism generated fierce controversy for centuries. Named after its founder, Arius (c. 260-336), a priest from Alexandria, it maintained that God the Father begot (created) his son Jesus from nothing and gave him his special status. Thus, Jesus was not identical with God the Father and was, in fact, dependent on him. Arianism found widespread support — the emperor Valens and his barbarian opponents were Arian Christians. Many people found Arianism appealing because it eliminated the difficulty of understanding how a son could be the equal of his father and because its subordination of son to father corresponded to the norms of family life. Arius used popular songs to make his views known, and people everywhere became engaged in the controversy. Disputes such as this led Constantine to try to determine religious truth. In 325, he convened 220 bishops at the Council of Nicaea to discuss Arianism. The majority voted to banish Arius to the Balkans and declared in the Nicene Creed that the Father and the Son were homoousion ("of one substance") and co-eternal. So difficult were the issues, however, that Constantine later changed his mind twice, first recalling Arius from exile and then soon after reproaching him yet again.

Which of these describes the doctrines of the Church of England under Henry VIII? The Church of England mirrored the practices and teachings of Lutheran churches. The Church of England was more radical in its Protestantism than Calvinist churches. The Church of England retained many aspects of Catholic worship. The Church of England was more radical in its Protestantism than Lutheran churches.

The Church of England retained many aspects of Catholic worship. Henry's break was with the Roman Catholic hierarchy, not with Catholic beliefs and religious practices.

Which of these codified Roman law? a. The Codex b. The Digest c. The Institutes d. The Secret History

The Codex The Codex was a compendium of Roman law. It was written in Latin and influenced legal scholars for centuries.

Umayyad caliphate

The caliphs (successors of Muhammad) who traced their ancestry to Umayyah, a member of Muhammad's tribe. The dynasty lasted from 661 to 750. Pg. 208

Venus of Willendorf

This artifact dates to between 24,000-22,000 B.C.E., making it one of the oldest and most famous surviving works of art. This artifact is prehistoric, and is the only "piece of history" we have from the people who made it.

Which author was part of Rome's Golden Age of literature? a. Thucydides b. Homer c. Marcus Aurelius d. Virgil

Virgil Virgil was Rome's greatest poet and wrote the Aeneid during the Golden Age of Roman literature.

Roman values

Virtus - Virtue, similar to Arete Fides - Fidelity Pietas - Dutiful respect towards gods, state, elders, and family (in that order) Mos maiorum - Moral example of the elders

Battle of Adrianople

Visigoths defeated the Roman Army in 378. Considered the start of the final collapse of the Western Roman Empire.

wisdom literature

Texts giving instructions for appropriate behavior. The formal style of Egyptian art illustrates the high value placed on order and predictability. The concern for decorum (suitable behavior) also appears in the Old Kingdom literature called wisdom literature — texts giving instructions for appropriate behavior. One text instructs a young man to seek advice from ignorant people as well as the wise and to avoid arrogant overconfidence. This kind of literature had a strong influence on later civilizations, especially the ancient Israelites.

Descartes argued which of the following? That human reason was an inadequate tool for discovering the secrets of the universe That human behavior is essentially irrational That scientific investigation should begin with observation and experiment That mathematical and mechanical principles provided the key to understanding all of nature

That mathematical and mechanical principles provided the key to understanding all of nature In his Discourse on Method (1637), Descartes argued that mathematical and mechanical principles provided the key to understanding all of nature, including the actions of people and states.

Suger, the abbot of Saint-Denis, believed which of the following? That the king was the head of the church That the king had no rights over the French nobility That the king had a religious role as the protector of the church and the poor That Louis VI was a corrupt and impious man

That the king had a religious role as the protector of the church and the poor Suger stopped short of calling the king the head of the church, but he believed that kings had an important role to play in the religious life of their kingdoms.

Who conquered the Visigothic kingdom in Spain in 711? a. The Lombards b. The Vikings c. The Arabs d. The Franks

The Arabs The Arab conquest was facilitated by the concentration of power in the hands of the Visigothic king. When the Arabs arrived in 711, they needed only to kill the king, defeat his army, and capture Toledo to take the kingdom. (pg. 223)

Peloponnesian War

(431-404 BCE) The war between Athens and Sparta that in which Sparta won, but left Greece as a whole weak and ready to fall to its neighbors to the north.

Lingua Franca

"The french tongue;" an international trade language A language mutually understood and commonly used in trade by people who have different native languages.

Res publica

"The public thing." The romans overthrew the government and decided to call their new kingless government "the public thing." There was no name for it as it had never been done before. This is where the word republic comes from.

philosophy

"love of wisdom" - Break from mythology - Pre-Socratics (before socrates) philosophers explored what caused things like earthquakes to happen, and found natural not supernatural causes.

mystery cults

(Ancient Greek) Religious worship that provided initiation into secret knowledge and divine protection, including hope for a better afterlife. Mystery cults initiated members into "secret knowledge" about the divine and human worlds. Initiates believed that they gained divine protection both while alive and after death. The Athenian mystery cult of Demeter and her daughter Persephone was internationally famous. The cult's central rite was the Mysteries, a series of initiation ceremonies. They were so popular that an international truce — as with the Olympic Games — allowed people to travel from distant places to participate. The Mysteries were open to any free Greek-speaking individuals — women and men, adults and children — if they were clear of ritual pollution (for example, if they had not committed sacrilege, been convicted of murder, or had recent contact with a corpse or blood from a birth). Some slaves who worked in the sanctuary were also eligible to participate. The main stage of initiation took more than a week. A sixth-century B.C.E. poem explained the initiation's benefits: "Richly blessed is the mortal who has seen these rites; but whoever is not an initiate and has no share in them, that one never has an equal portion after death, down in the gloomy darkness."

Henry IV

(r. 1056-1106), ruler of Germany and much of Italy, clashed with Gregory VII over leadership of the church. He opposed the pope on the issue of lay investiture, he is excommunicated and ends up begging the pope for forgiveness He was raised in the traditions of his father, Henry III. He believed that he and his bishops — who were, at the same time, his most valuable supporters and administrators — were the rightful leaders of the church. He had no intention of allowing the pope to become head of the church; he didn't see that new religious ideals were sweeping away the old traditions. Pg. 267

Kroisos from Anavysos

- c. 540-515 BCE - Marble - Pre-Classical Period - Fallen young soldier (closed eyes means no longer living) - Idealism (how a subject "should look") The statues originally were painted to look lifelike, they were not plain white marble, the paint simply did not last as long as the statues did.

The Nika Riot (Revolt)

-Took place against emperor Justinian in Constantinople over the course of a week -AD 532 -Caused by conflict over Chariot Racing -30,000 rioter killed

During the Bronze Age, the possession of metal implements a.was restricted to the warrior class. b.had little effect on agriculture. c.was limited to Mesopotamia. d.strengthened the divisions between social classes.

.strengthened the divisions between social classes. The period from about 4000 to 1000 B.C.E. is called the Bronze Age because at this time bronze was the most important metal for weapons and tools; iron was not yet commonly used. The ownership of metal objects strengthened status divisions in society between men and women and rich and poor. This technology allowed the Mesopotamian social elite to acquire new luxury goods in metal, improved tools for agriculture and construction, and bronze weapons. The desire to accumulate wealth and status symbols stimulated demand for decorated weapons and elaborate jewelry. Rich men ordered bronze swords and daggers with expensive inlays. Such weapons increased visible social differences between men and women because they marked the status of the masculine roles of hunter and warrior.

Greek Dark Age

1000-800 B.C.E., Time of poverty and depopulation, Phoenicians brought them out, and introduced them to the alphabet. It is called the dark age because life was so difficult that the Greek's gave up writing. It is also economically "dark."

Minoan Civilization

2200-1400 BCE Island of Crete Used the (still undeciphered) language Linear A

Citadel at Mycenae

1300 BCE Mycenaean walled city with fortification.

Old Market Woman

150-100 BCE • Hellenistic art included depictions of old men and women from the lowest rungs of society (they weren't suitable in earlier art) • Face is wrinkled, body bent with age, and her spirit broken by a lifetime of poverty • Social realism! • Old and ugly portrayals represent the social climate of the Hellenistic period—the highborn couldn't help but encounter the poor and foreigners (e.g. Gauls) on a daily basis

Egyptian New Kingdom

1569-1081 BCE This is when King Tut, and other Egyption "celebrities" lived. Their lives were so good that they imagined the afterlife as being pretty much identical to their actual lives. Eternal life was very important to Egyptians.

Palace of Knossos

1600-1400 BCE, Crete. The largest Minoan palace. It had no wall.

Pax Romana (Roman Peace)

200 year period of peace and prosperity in Rome. The fear of civil discord gradually receded as Augustus's innovations brought peace for two hundred years, except for a struggle between generals for rule in 69 C.E. This Pax Romana ("Roman Peace") allowed agriculture and trade to flourish in the provinces, but paying for the military eventually weakened Rome. Previously, foreign wars had won Romans huge amounts of land and money, but now the distances were too great and the enemies too strong. The army was no longer an offensive weapon for expansion that brought in new taxes but instead was a defense force that had to be paid for out of existing revenues. The financial strain drained the treasury and destabilized the government. Christianity emerged as a new religion that would slowly transform the Roman world, but it also created tension because the growing presence of Christians made other Romans worry about punishment from the gods. In the third century C.E., the always-present fear that Romans would literally battle Romans for political prominence proved accurate when generals competing to rule reignited civil war that lasted fifty years and finally precipitated political change.

The Dying Gaul

230-220 BCE, Hellenistic, by Epigonos. Bronze original, marble is from 2nd cen. AD. Gual=barbarian (anyone not Greek). looks tortured and pained, can't hide anguish like a Greek hero can. he is realistic. has a mustache, rope collar, messy hair, make him look like a barbaric animal. unkempt. physical and emotional weakness and fragility.

Egyptian Old Kingdom

2687-2190 B.C.E. Great Pyramids of Giza Pharaohs were believed to be living God's. Egyption society ran very smoothly so they wanted things to stay the same.

According to conservative estimates, what percentage of the population in the West did the fourteenth-century plague kill during its first wave? 70 to 80 percent 50 to 70 percent 10 to 20 percent 30 to 50 percent

30 to 50 percent Conservative estimates put the death toll in Europe anywhere between 30 and 50 percent of the entire population, but some historians put the mortality rate as high as 60 percent.

Augustine

354-430. Bishop in North Africa whose writings defining religious orthodoxy made him the most influential theologian in Western civilization. Women were deeply involved in the new faith. Augustine (354-430), bishop of Hippo in North Africa and perhaps the most influential theologian in Western civilization, recognized women's contribution to the strengthening of Christianity in a letter he wrote to the unbaptized husband of a baptized woman: "O you men, who fear all the burdens imposed by baptism! Your women easily best you. Chaste and devoted to the faith, it is their presence in large numbers that causes the church to grow." Women could earn respect by giving their property to their congregation or by renouncing marriage to dedicate themselves to Christ. Consecrated virgins rejecting marriage and widows refusing to remarry joined donors of large amounts of money as especially admired women. Their choices challenged the traditional social order, in which women were supposed to devote themselves to raising families. Even these sanctified women, however, were largely excluded from leadership positions as the church's hierarchy came more closely to resemble the male-dominated world of imperial rule. There were still some women leaders in the church, even in the fourth century, but they were a small minority.

The Kritios Boy

480 BCE Early Classical Period marble statue. More naturalistic style (less idealistic than Kroisos from Anavysos). More focus on natural posture than perfect ideal body.

Treaty of Verdun

843 Treaty that ended power struggle of Charlemagne's 3 sons after his death and split Franks into 3 kingdoms Finally, after Louis the Pious died in 840, the Treaty of Verdun (843) divided the empire among his three remaining sons (Pippin had died in 838). The arrangement roughly defined the future political contours of western Europe (see the inset in Map 9.3). The western third, bequeathed to Charles the Bald (r. 843-877), would eventually become France, and the eastern third, handed to Louis the German (r. 843-876), became Germany. The "Middle Kingdom," which was given to Lothar (r. 843-855), had a different fate: parts of it were absorbed by France and Germany, and the rest eventually formed what became the modern states of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, and Italy. Thus, by 843, the European-wide empire of Charlemagne had dissolved. Pg. 241

Capetian dynasty

A Frankish dynasty founded by Hugh Capet that ruled from 987 to 1328. As the Carolingian dynasty waned, the most powerful men of the kingdom — dukes, counts, and important bishops — came together to elect as king Hugh Capet (r. 987-996), a lord of great prestige yet relatively little power. This choice marked the end of Carolingian rule and the beginning of the Capetian dynasty, which would hand down the royal title from father to son until the fourteenth century. Pg. 251

Louis IX

A French king (r. 1226-1270) revered as a military leader and a judge; he was declared a saint after his death Pg. 323

Martin Luther

A German monk (1483-1546) who started the Protestant Reformation in 1517 by challenging the practices and doctrines of the Catholic church and advocating salvation through faith alone. Pg. 370

hubris

A Greek term for violent arrogance that transformed one's competitive spirit into a self-destructive force.

Shi'ite

A Muslim of the "party of Ali" and his descendants. Shi'ites are thus opposed to the Sunni Muslims, who reject the authority of Ali. Pg. 207

Lucretia

A Roman noblewoman who was raped by an Etruscan prince. Her death triggered the Romans overthrowing the Etruscan monarchs

Roman expansion in Italy was distinguished by a. The use of mercenary armies. b. Economic warfare. c. Its utter ruthlessness. d. A combination of brutality and diplomacy.

A combination of brutality and diplomacy. The Romans combined brutality with diplomacy to control conquered peoples. Sometimes they enslaved the defeated or forced them to surrender large parcels of land. Other times they offered generous peace terms to former enemies.

Plato

A follower of Socrates who became Greece's most famous philosopher. Socrates' death helped make his follower Plato (429-348 B.C.E.) hate democracy. Plato, who became Greece's most famous philosopher of all time, started out as a political consultant supporting philosopher-tyrants as the best rulers, but their misdeeds performed against his advice convinced him that politicians could never avoid violence and greed. So, he turned to talking and writing about philosophy as the guide to life, establishing a school in Athens around 386 B.C.E. Called the Academy, it was an association of apparently only men studying philosophy, mathematics, and theoretical astronomy under the leader's guidance. It attracted intellectuals to Athens for the next nine hundred years, and Plato's ideas about the nature of reality, ethics, and politics have remained central to philosophy and political science to this day. Plato's interests included astronomy, mathematics, political philosophy, ethics, and metaphysics (ideas about the ultimate nature of reality beyond the reach of the human senses). Plato wrote dialogues, to provoke readers into thoughtful reflection without prescribing definite beliefs. Nevertheless, he always maintained one essential idea based on his view of reality: ultimate moral qualities are universal, unchanging, and absolute. He emphatically rejected the relativism espoused by the Sophists. Plato's dialogues explore his theory that justice, goodness, beauty, and equality exist on their own in a higher realm. He used the word Forms (or Ideas) to describe the abstract, invariable, and ultimate nature of these ethical qualities. Moreover, he argued that the Forms are the only genuine reality. All things that humans perceive with their senses are only dim and imperfect copies of these metaphysical absolutes. Plato believed that humans possess immortal souls distinct from their bodies; this idea established the concept of dualism, a separation between soul (or mind) and body. Plato further explained that the human soul possesses preexisting knowledge put there by a god. Humans' present, impure existence is only a temporary stage in cosmic existence because, while the body does not last, the soul is immortal. Plato argued that people must seek perfect order and purity in their souls by using rational thought to control thoughtless and therefore harmful desires. People who yield to such desires fail to consider the future of their body and soul. The desire to drink too much alcohol, for example, is flawed because the binge drinker fails to consider the painful hangover that will follow. Plato presented his most famous ideas on politics and justice in his dialogue The Republic. This work, whose Greek title Politeia (pol-ee-TAY-uh) means "system of government," discusses the nature of justice and the reasons people should never commit injustice. Democracy, Plato wrote, fails to produce justice because people cannot rise above their own self-interests to knowledge of the transcendent reality of universal truth. Justice can come only under the rule of an enlightened oligarchy or monarchy. Plato's Republic describes an ideal society with a hierarchy of three classes distinguished by their ability to grasp the truth of Forms. Plato did not think humans could actually create the model society described in The Republic, but he did believe that imagining it was an important way to help people learn to live justly. The highest class in his envisioned hierarchy consists of the rulers, or "guardians," who must be educated in mathematics, astronomy, and metaphysics. Next are the "auxiliaries," who defend the community. "Producers" make up the bottom class; they grow food and make objects for the other classes. According to Plato's Republic, women can be guardians because they possess the same virtues and abilities as men, except that the average woman has less physical strength than the average man. To minimize distraction, guardians have neither private property nor nuclear families. Male and female guardians live in houses shared in common, eat in the same dining halls, and exercise in the same gymnasia. They have sex with various partners so that the best women can mate with the best men to produce the best children. The children are raised together by special caretakers, not their parents. Guardians who achieve the highest level of knowledge can rule as philosopher-kings.

metics

A foreigner granted permanent residence status in Athens in return for paying taxes and serving in the military. Women, slaves, and metics made up the majority of Athens's population, but they lacked political rights. Slaves and metics performed a variety of jobs in agriculture and commerce; some metics started their own successful businesses.

Council of Trent

A general council of the Catholic church that met at Trent between 1545 and 1563 to set Catholic doctrine, reform church practices, and defend the church against the Protestant challenge. Pg. 378

Christian humanism

A general intellectual trend in the sixteenth century that coupled love of classical learning, as in Renaissance humanism, with an emphasis on Christian piety. Pg. 369

Fertile Crescent

A geographical area of fertile land in the Middle East stretching in a broad semicircle from the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates. These rivers flooded annually leading to the land being made fertile by the silt in the rivers and becoming excellent for farming.

Mycenaean Civilization

A greek civilization that took off where the Minoans left off (after they conquered the Minoans), militaristic, expanded trade through sea raids, piracy, colonization - fought Troy in Trojan war, written about in Iliad (ca. 1400-1200 BC) They used Linear B (which has been deciphered).

Constantinople

A large and wealthy city that was the imperial capital of the Byzantine empire and later the Ottoman empire, now known as Istanbul. Optimal location for trade and defense.

Albrecht Durer

A leading German painter and engraver of the Renaissance (1471-1528)

Hanseatic League

A league of northern European cities formed in the fourteenth century to protect their mutual interests in trade and defense. Pg. 353

humanism

A literary and linguistic movement cultivated in particular during the Renaissance (1350-1600) and founded on reviving classical Latin and Greek texts, styles, and values. A Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential and achievements Pg. 348

Peace of God

A movement begun by bishops in the south of France around 990, first to limit the violence done to property and to the unarmed, and later, with the Truce of God, to limit fighting between warriors. The rise of the castellans meant an increase in violence. Supported by their knights, castellans were keen to maintain their new authority over the peasants in their vicinity in the face of older regional powers, like counts and dukes. Threatened from below, those higher-ranking authorities looked to the bishops for help. The bishops, themselves resentful of local castellan claims and, moreover, generally members of the same elite families as counts and dukes, were glad to oblige. To do so, they enlisted the lower classes — peasants who were tired of wars that destroyed their crops or forced them to join regional infantries. The result was the Peace of God, which united bishops, counts, and peasants in an attempt to contain local violence. The movement began in the south of France around 990 and spread over a wide region by 1050. At impassioned meetings of bishops, lords, and crowds of enthusiastic men and women, the clergy set forth the provisions of this peace. "No man in the counties or bishoprics shall seize a horse, colt, ox, cow, ass, or the burdens which it carries. ... No one shall seize a peasant, man or woman," ran the decree of one early council. Anyone who violated this peace was to be excommunicated: cut off from the community of the faithful, denied the services of the church and the hope of salvation. Pg. 249

Which of these was a long-term consequence of the recession of the early 1600s? Greater economic equality in the countryside Increased outbreaks of famine and disease An increase in economically motivated migration A new pattern of late marriages and smaller families

A new pattern of late marriages and smaller families European families reacted to economic downturn by postponing marriage and having fewer children.

Bias

A particular preference or point of view that is personal, rather than scientific.

Joan of Arc

A peasant girl (1412-1431) whose conviction that God had sent her to save France in fact helped France win the Hundred Years' War. Pg. 340

materialism

A philosophical doctrine of the Hellenistic Age that denied metaphysics and claimed instead that only things consisting of matter truly exist. Hellenistic philosophers concentrated on materialism, the doctrine that only things made of matter truly exist. This idea corresponded to Aristotle's teaching that only things identified through logic or observation exist. Hellenistic philosophy was divided into three areas: (1) logic, the process for discovering truth; (2) physics, the fundamental truth about the nature of existence; and (3) ethics, how humans should achieve happiness and well-being through logic and physics.

empire

A political state in which one or more formerly independent territories or peoples are ruled by a single sovereign power. Mesopotamian rulers fought to capture territory containing ore mines. The desire to acquire metals led the kings of Akkad to create by force the world's first empire. It began around 2350 B.C.E., when Sargon, king of Akkad, launched invasions north and south of his central Mesopotamian homeland. He conquered Sumer and the regions all the way westward to the Mediterranean Sea, creating the Akkadian Empire. The process of building an empire by force had the unintended consequence of spreading Mesopotamian literature and art and promoting cultural interaction. The Akkadians spoke a language unrelated to Sumerian, but in conquering Sumer they adopted much of that region's religion, literature, and culture. Other peoples conquered by the Akkadians were then exposed to Sumerian beliefs and traditions, which they in turn adapted to suit their own purposes.

Why did the French kings fail to stop the spread of Calvinism within their realm? Preoccupation with foreign wars A series of family tragedies Near-universal popular support for Calvinism Their indecision and apathy

A series of family tragedies King Henry II was accidentally killed during a jousting tournament in 1559, and his fifteen-year-old son, Francis, died soon after. Ten-year-old Charles IX became king, with his mother, Catherine de Médicis, as regent, or acting ruler. This situation left the crown weak and unable to control the religious violence that soon engulfed France.

cult

A set of publicly funded religious activities overseen by citizens serving as priests and priestesses. People prayed, sang hymns of praise, offered sacrifices, and presented gifts at the deity's sanctuary. In these holy places a person could honor and thank the deities for blessings and beg them for relief when misfortune struck the community or the individual. People could also offer sacrifices at home with the household gathered around; sometimes the family's slaves were allowed to participate. Priests and priestesses chosen from the citizen body performed the sacrifices of public cults; they did not use their positions to influence political or social matters. They were not guardians of correct religious thinking, because Greek polytheism had no scripture or a uniform set of beliefs and practices. It required its worshippers only to support the community's local rituals and to avoid religious pollution.

Linear A

An undeciphered writing system used in Crete in the 17th century B.C., Minoa's first written language; has not been translated.

Linear B

A set of syllabic symbols, derived from the writing system of Minoan Crete, used in the Mycenaean palaces of the Late Bronze Age to write an early form of Greek. It was used primarily for palace records, and the surviving Linear B tablets provide substantial information about the economic organization of Mycenaean society and tantalizing clues about political, social, and religious institutions.

Lepanto

A site off the Greek coast where, in 1571, the allied Catholic forces of Spain's king Philip II, Venice, and the papacy defeated the Ottoman Turks in a great sea battle; the victory gave the Christian powers control of the Mediterranean. Pg. 392

Statute in Favor of the Princes

A statute finalized by Frederick II in 1232 that gave the German princes sovereign power within their own principalities. Pg. 322

indulgences

A step beyond confession and penance, an indulgence (normally granted by popes or bishops) lifted the temporal punishment still necessary for a sin already forgiven. Normally, that punishment was said to take place in purgatory. But it could be remitted through good works (including prayers and contributing money to worthy causes). Pg. 345

redistributive economy

A system in which state officials control the production and distribution of goods. The Mesopotamian king's greatest responsibility was to please the gods and to defeat attacks from rival cities. The king collected taxes from the working population to support his family, court, palace, army, and officials. The kings, along with the priests of the large temples, regulated most of the economy in their kingdoms by controlling the exchange of food and goods between farmers and craft producers in a system known as a redistributive economy.

guild

A trade organization within a city or town that controlled product quality and cost and outlined members' responsibilities. Guilds were also social and religious associations. In the Middle Ages, most manufactured goods were produced by hand or with primitive machines and tools. Though not mechanized, most medieval industries, crafts, and trades were highly organized. The fundamental unit of organization was the guild. Originally, guilds were religious and charitable associations of people in the same line of business. In Ferrara, Italy, for example, the shoemakers' guild started as a prayer confraternity, an association whose members gathered and prayed for one another. But soon guilds became professional corporations defined by statutes and rules. They charged dues, negotiated with lords and town governments, set the standards of their trade, and controlled their membership. Within each guild was a hierarchy, starting at the bottom with the apprentices, who were learning the trade, moving up to the journeymen and journeywomen (that is, male or female day laborers — the word comes from the Middle English for "a day's work"), ending with the masters at the top. Pg. 261

"Myth"

A traditional story about gods, ancestors, or heroes, told to explain the natural world or the customs and beliefs of a society. The term does not necessarily mean that the tale is fiction (or entirely fiction).

Which of these was true of vassalage? Vassalage contributed to political centralization. A vassal promised to provide service to his lord in exchange for grants of land called fiefs. Serfs were considered the lowest-ranking vassals. Only warriors could serve as vassals.

A vassal promised to provide service to his lord in exchange for grants of land called fiefs. Thus, the vassal-lord relationship was mutually beneficial.

Which of these describes the thirteenth-century Franciscan Berthold? A fierce inquisitor who found and punished many heretics A wandering preacher who gave public sermons A pious monk who inspired people through the example he set in his personal life A tireless advocate of Innocent III's policies in royal courts

A wandering preacher who gave public sermons Berthold traveled the length and breadth of Germany giving sermons.

civilization

A way of life based on agriculture and trade, with cities containing large buildings for religion and government; technology to produce metals, textiles, pottery, and other manufactured objects; and knowledge of writing. Archaeological research indicates that those conditions first developed in Mesopotamia.

hetaira

A witty and attractive woman who charged fees to entertain at a symposium. Some women escaped traditional restrictions by working as a hetaira ("companion"). Hetairas, usually foreigners, were unmarried, physically attractive, witty in speech, and skilled in music and poetry. Men hired them to entertain at a symposium (a drinking party to which wives were not invited). Their skill at clever teasing and joking with men gave hetairas a freedom of speech that "proper" women did not exercise in public. Hetairas nevertheless lacked the social status and respectability that married women possessed. Sometimes hetairas sold sex for high prices; they could control their own sexuality by choosing their clients. Athenian men (but not women) could buy sex as they pleased without legal hindrance. Men (but not women) could also have sex freely with female or male slaves, who could not refuse their masters. The most skilled hetairas earned enough to live in luxury on their own. The most famous hetaira in Athens was Aspasia from Miletus, who became Pericles' lover and bore him a son. She dazzled men with her brilliant talk and wide knowledge of society and politics. Pericles fell so deeply in love with her that he wanted to marry her, despite his own law of 451 B.C.E. restricting citizenship to the children of two Athenian parents. Great riches freed a woman from traditional restrictions. The most outspoken rich Athenian woman was Elpinike. She once criticized Pericles to his face by sarcastically remarking in front of a group of women who were praising him for an attack on a rebellious Delian League ally, "This really is wonderful, Pericles. ... You have caused the loss of many good citizens, not in battle against Phoenicians or Persians ... but in suppressing an allied city of fellow Greeks."

Peter

A.D. 5-67 One of the 12 apostles of Jesus; Roman Catholics consider him to be the first pope, bishop of Rome

Christopher Columbus

An Italian sailor (1451-1506) who opened up the New World by sailing west across the Atlantic in search of a route to Asia. Pg. 364

Bodin's ideas helped lay the foundation for which of these? Constitutionalism Federalism Republicanism Absolutism

Absolutism Bodin's ideas helped lay the foundation for absolutism — the idea that the monarch should be the sole and uncontested source of power.

Iliad characters

Achilles - Greatest Greek Hero Hector - Greatest Trojan Hero Priam - Trojan King, Hector's Father Agamemnon - Greek (Mycenaean) King Briseis - Widowed slave concubine of Achilles Patroclus - Achilles's best friend, 2nd fiddle Odysseus - Greatest Greek liar....er....sailer (character fleshed out in the sequel) expert of deception (e.g. the Trojan horse).

Genesis: The Hebrew Creation Myth

Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. If you follow the rules; good things will happen. If you break the rules; bad things will happen.

As a result of the Fourth Lateran Council's edicts, Jews almost everywhere in Europe eventually had to do which of the following? Live in ghettos Advertise their religion by some outward sign Work in certain occupations Convert to Christianity

Advertise their religion by some outward sign In southern France and in a few places in Spain, they wore round badges. In England, Oxford required a rectangle, while Salisbury demanded that Jews wear special clothing. In Vienna and Germany, Jews were told to put on pointed hats.

Which of these characterized the Catholic church in the Americas and Africa? After an initial period of relatively little racial discrimination, it adopted strict rules based on color. It avoided all efforts at conversion that suggested force or coercion. After the initial missionary effort, a majority of priests were recruited from the indigenous populations. It focused from the very beginning on the conversion of ordinary people.

After an initial period of relatively little racial discrimination, it adopted strict rules based on color. For example, the first Mexican Ecclesiastical Provincial Council in 1555 declared that holy orders were not to be conferred on Indians, mestizos (people of mixed European-Indian parentage), or mulattoes (people of mixed European-African heritage).

Which of these helps explain the weakness of the Merovingian agricultural economy? a. There were not enough people available to cultivate the available farmland. b. Agricultural work was not equitably or efficiently allocated and managed. c. Most people preferred to work as artisans or shopkeepers than to toil in the fields. d. From the fifth to the mid-eighth century, the climate grew gradually warmer.

Agricultural work was not equitably or efficiently allocated and managed. A leisure class of landowning warriors and churchmen lived off the work of peasant men, who tilled the fields, and peasant women, who wove cloth, gardened, brewed, and baked.

helot

All Spartan citizens were expected to put service to their city-state before personal concerns because their state's survival was continually threatened by its own economic foundation: the great mass of Greek slaves, called helots, who did almost all the work for Spartan citizens. A helot was a slave owned by the Spartan city-state. Helots were Greeks captured in neighboring parts of Greece that the Spartans defeated in war. Most helots lived in Messenia, to the west, which Sparta had conquered by around 700 B.C.E. The helots outnumbered Sparta's free citizens. Harshly treated by their Spartan masters, helots constantly looked for chances to revolt.

Which of these was true of institutions of higher learning during the Islamic renaissance? Most schools were supported by municipal taxes. Schools were always avowedly secular. All students were male. Islamic schools copied the model established by European universities.

All students were male. Islamic institutions of higher learning did not offer classes to women.

Allegory of the Cave (Plato)

Allegory (extended metaphor) of the Cave written in "The Republic"- there is a cave in which many people sit facing the back of the cave. Behind them is a fire and actors and they see the shadows of them and think that that is life and is the truth. They then turn around and see the actors and the fire and that is one step of truth (light = truth) and then go back that would be denying the truth. The next step to discover truth would be to exit the tunnel and look at the sun (ultimate truth). The sun may be too bright because you are used to the dark, so you look at the reflection of the sun in the lake to make it less bright (the truth is too much so you look at something less bright which is less truthful.

Socrates

Almost all we know about him is through his student plato. Socratic method - creating a dialogue where two people discuss a question. The goal is critically analysing beliefs in order to find what is true. - Dialectics - Critical self-examination

Francis Petrarch

An Italian poet (1304-1374) who revived the styles of classical authors; he is considered the first Renaissance humanist. Pg. 348

ostracism

An annual procedure in Athenian radical democracy by which a man could be voted out of the city-state for ten years; its purpose was to prevent tyranny. In Athenian radical democracy, the majority could overrule legal protections for individuals. In ostracism, all male citizens could cast a ballot on which they scratched the name of one man they thought should be exiled for ten years. If at least six thousand ballots were cast, the man whose name appeared on the greatest number was expelled from Athens. He suffered no other penalty; his family and property remained undisturbed. Usually a man was ostracized because a majority feared he would overthrow the democracy to rule as a tyrant. There was, however, no guarantee of motives in an ostracism.

Romanesque

An architectural style that flourished in Europe between about 1000 and 1150. It is characterized by solid, heavy forms and semicircular arches and vaults. Romanesque buildings were often decorated with fanciful sculpture and wall paintings. Pg. 290

baroque

An artistic style of the seventeenth century that featured curves, exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism. Pg. 410

Which of these was key to the consolidation of Ferdinand and Isabella's monarchical power and authority? A single language shared by all inhabitants of the Iberian peninsula An extensive bureaucracy and judicial system A long history of governmental centralization in the Iberian peninsula An alliance with the remaining Muslim states

An extensive bureaucracy and judicial system Ferdinand and Isabella had an extensive bureaucracy for financial matters and a well-staffed writing office. They sent their own officials to rule over towns that had previously been self-governing, and they established regional courts of law.

chivalry

An ideal of knightly comportment that included military prowess, bravery, fair play, piety, and courtesy. The word derives from the French word cheval ("horse"); the fact that the knight was a horseman marked him as a warrior of the most prestigious sort. Pg. 303

primogeniture

An inheritance practice that left all property to the oldest son. French nobles (in particular) changed both their conception of their family and the way property passed to the next generation. Recognizing the overriding claims of one son, often the eldest, they handed down their entire inheritance to him. (The system of inheritance in which the heir is the eldest son is called primogeniture.) The heir, in turn, traced his lineage only through the male line, backward through his father and forward through his own eldest son. Pg. 249

Where did the decisive engagement that ended Persian king Xerxes I's invasion of Greece occur? Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button. Answer choicesAt seaIn Spartan territoryIn Athenian territoryIn Ionia

At sea Only a month or so after the naval battle at Artemisium, the Greek fleet met the Persian armada at Salamis, an island across from Athens. Though outnumbered, the Greek navy won an overwhelming victory by outmaneuvering the Persians. The remnants of the Persian fleet retired, and in 479 B.C.E., the Greeks overwhelmed the Persian army at Plataea. The Greek victory at Salamis was the turning point in the war.

Pericles

Athenian leader noted for advancing democracy in Athens and for ordering the construction of the Parthenon. In the late 460s B.C.E., the trireme rowers decided that in their own interest they should make Athens's court system as democratic as its legislative assembly, in which all free adult male citizens participated. They wanted to prevent the elite from rendering unfair verdicts in legal cases. Members of the elite pushed this judicial reform, to win popular support for election to high office; the measure passed in 461 B.C.E. Pericles (c. 495-429 B.C.E.), from one of Athens's most distinguished families, became Golden Age Athens's dominant politician by spearheading reforms to democratize its judicial system and provide pay for most public offices.

Solon

Athenian political reformer whose changes promoted early democracy. By 600 B.C.E., economic conditions had become so terrible that poor farmers had to borrow constantly from richer neighbors and deeply mortgage their land. As the crisis grew worse, impoverished citizens were sold into slavery to pay off debts. Desperate, Athenians appointed another emergency official in 594 B.C.E., a war hero named Solon. To head off violence, Solon gave both rich and poor something of what they wanted, a compromise called the "shaking off of obligations." He canceled private debts, which helped the poor but displeased the rich; he decided not to redistribute land, which pleased the wealthy but disappointed the poor. He banned selling citizens into slavery to settle debts and liberated citizens who had become slaves in this way. His elimination of debt slavery was a significant recognition of citizen rights. Solon balanced political power between rich and poor by reordering Athens's traditional ranking of citizens into four groups based on annual income. This change eliminated inherited aristocracy at Athens. The groupings did not affect a man's treatment at law, only his eligibility for government office. The higher a man's ranking, the higher the post to which he could be elected, but higher also was the contribution he was expected to make to the community with his service and his money. Men at the poorest level, called laborers, were not eligible for any office. Solon did, however, confirm the laborers' right to vote in the legislative assembly. His classification scheme was consistent with democratic principles because it allowed for upward social mobility; a man who increased his income could move up the scale of eligibility for office.

Themistocles

Athens's leader during the great Persian invasion of Greece. A Greek military leader who convinced the Athenians to build a navy. This helped Athens win a major battle against Persia, the Battle of Salamis. He was ostracized around 471 BCE.

At its height, the Assyrian Empire stretched from: a. the Tigris River to the eastern Mediterranean. b. central Asia to western Africa. c. central Asia to western Africa. d. Babylon to central Egypt. e. Babylon to central Egypt. f. modern Russia to modern Ethiopia.

Babylon to central Egypt. Centuries of almost constant warfare resulted in a mighty empire.

What do scientists believe caused the bubonic plague of the fourteenth century? Bacteria spread by poorly cooked food Bacteria spread by fleas A rapidly mutating virus A mold that spread in damp conditions

Bacteria spread by fleas The bubonic plague was caused by bacteria spread through flea bites.

Why did the rich have much better access to government services and legal protections than did the poor? a. Because all government services had a fee attached b. Because all government officials were aristocrats c. Because the poor were forbidden from using the court system d. Because the government created and enforced a caste system

Because all government services had a fee attached Officials received fees for activities from granting commercial permits to reviewing legal grievances. People with money and status certainly found this situation useful: they relied on their social connections and wealth to get what they wanted. The poor had trouble affording the payments that government officials expected.

Why were all students at cathedral schools considered clerics? Because in the past such schools had been training grounds for clergymen Because all scholars were required to become priests Because the church saw students as a boon to its reputation Because the mere association with a cathedral made one a church official

Because in the past such schools had been training grounds for clergymen Because schools hitherto had been the training grounds for clergymen, all students were considered clerics, whether or not they had been ordained.

Why did bishops have so much power in early church and Roman affairs? a. Because they protected the weak b. Because they had both spiritual and political power c. Because they gained great experience by working their way up in office d. Because of their education

Because they had both spiritual and political power Over time, the bishops replaced the curials as the emperors' partners in local rule, taking control of the distribution of imperial subsidies to the people. Regional councils of bishops appointed new bishops and addressed doctrinal disputes. Bishops in the largest cities became the most powerful leaders in the church.

Which of these was an important difference between witchcraft beliefs and accusations before 1400 and beliefs and accusations during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries? Before 1400, witchcraft accusations were concentrated in central Europe. Before 1400, witchcraft accusations were much more common. Before 1400, nearly half of the accused were men. Before 1400, people of all social groups believed in witchcraft.

Before 1400, nearly half of the accused were men. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 80 percent of accused witches were women. In sharp contrast, before 1400 nearly half of the accused were men.

common law

Begun by Henry II (r. 1154-1189), the English royal law carried out by the king's justices in eyre (traveling justices). It applied to the entire kingdom and thus was "common" to all. Pg. 293

Gregory of Tours

Bishop of Tours (in Gaul) from 573 to 594, the chief source for the history and culture of the Merovingian kingdoms. Pg. 216

Which of these brought the conflict between Philip IV of France and Pope Boniface VIII to an end? The issuing of the papal bull Unam Sanctam Boniface's threat to excommunicate Philip Boniface's death Boniface's concession that kings could tax clergy in emergencies

Boniface's death The conflict between pope and king continued right up to Boniface's death.

How did the Great Schism affect the religious sensibilities of Europeans? The Great Schism had no lasting effects on religious sensibilities. Both clergy and laity became more interested in the religious education of young people. Most Europeans experienced a renewed confidence in the church. The Great Schism led many Europeans to turn away from religion.

Both clergy and laity became more interested in the religious education of young people. Both clergy and laity became more interested than ever in the education of young people as a way to deepen their faith and spiritual life. The Brethren of the Common Life, for example, set up a model school at Deventer.

Which of these provides a connection between the work of St. Thomas Aquinas and Dante Alighieri? Both had links to classical scholarship. Both were Florentines. Both sought to reach ordinary people with their work. Both wrote exclusively in Latin.

Both had links to classical scholarship. Just as Aquinas employed Aristotle's logic to reach important truths, so Dante used the pagan poet Virgil as his guide through hell and purgatory.

apprentices

Boys (and occasionally girls) placed under the tutelage of a master craftsman in the Middle Ages. Normally unpaid, they were expected to be servants of their masters, with whom they lived, at the same time as they were learning their trade. Pg. 262

St. Francis can be credited with which of the following? Bringing new energy to hermetic monasticism Undermining papal authority in Italy Bringing religious devotion out of the monastery and into the streets Creating the first opportunities for women to participate in religious reform

Bringing religious devotion out of the monastery and into the streets St. Francis and his followers lived among laypeople, spending their time preaching, ministering to the sick, and doing manual labor.

Which of these was an important difference between the duchy of Burgundy, on the one hand, and Spain, France, and England, on the other? Burgundy's geography made it a natural political unit. Burgundy's coherence depended entirely on the skillful exercise of statecraft. Burgundy's identity came from centuries of warfare against Islam. Burgundy's borders were forged in the national experience of repelling English invaders.

Burgundy's coherence depended entirely on the skillful exercise of statecraft. Unlike the other three states, Burgundy was an artificial creation whose coherence depended entirely on the skillful exercise of statecraft.

How did the church seek to differentiate the clergy from the laity in the eleventh and twelfth centuries? By excluding all but aristocrats from the priesthood By creating a separate sacrament for clerical marriages By adopting simple but striking attire for priests By enforcing the celibacy of priests

By enforcing the celibacy of priests The demand for a celibate clergy had far-reaching significance for the history of the church. It distanced western clerics even further from their eastern Orthodox counterparts (who did not practice celibacy). It also broke with local practices in places where clerical marriage was customary.

How did Tiberius Gracchus propose to alleviate the plight of peasant farmers and the urban poor? a. By providing every poor Roman citizen with a yearly stipend b. By spending money bequeathed to Rome by the Attalid king on improving small farms c. By establishing new colonies for the Roman poor in distant lands d. By investing in roads, arenas, and public baths

By spending money bequeathed to Rome by the Attalid king on improving small farms When Tiberius became tribune in 133 B.C.E., he took the radical step of blocking the Senate's will by having the Plebeian Assembly vote to redistribute public land to landless Romans and to spend the Attalid king's gift of his kingdom to equip new farms on the land.

Gaius Octavius (Octavian)

Caesar's heir and member of 2nd triumvirate His title was Caesar Augustus. Caesar was his family and Augustus was the title given to him by the senate. In future generations, Caesar came to mean something like emperor.

Which of these was true of law and society in the Golden Age? a. Capital punishment was common in cases involving accused persons who were not elite. b. The "better people" made up a majority of the population. c. Anyone could be tortured during the course of a criminal investigation. d. Legal distinctions between elites and the rest of the population were eliminated.

Capital punishment was common in cases involving accused persons who were not elite. "Humbler people" convicted of serious crimes were regularly executed by being crucified or torn apart by wild animals before a crowd of spectators. "Better people" rarely received the death penalty.

Palatine Chapel at Aachen

Carolingian Empire -Built by Charlemagne -Used porphyry (purple Marble) columns -Resembles the San Vitale chapel -Very Geometric -Charlemagne had a statue of himself and a throne -Very Tall

Charles Martel

Carolingian monarch of Franks; responsible for defeating Muslims in battle of Tours in 732; ended Muslim threat to western Europe.

What was the most popular spectator sport in sixth-century Constantinople? a. Wrestling b. Archery c. Long-distance running d. Chariot racing

Chariot racing Constantinople's residents divided themselves into competitive factions called Blues and Greens after the racing colors of their favorite charioteers.

Why were Philip II's forces victorious at the 1571 Battle of Lepanto? The Muslim forces had poor luck with the weather and were separated in a massive gale. Spanish forces effectively used fire ships against the Turkish forces. Christian forces employed six heavily armed Venetian ships that rode high in the water. Spain and its Dutch allies effectively trapped the Muslim forces on the Spanish coast.

Christian forces employed six heavily armed Venetian ships that rode high in the water. The Christian allies had the advantage of six big Venetian vessels that rode too high in the water to be boarded and carried many artillery pieces.

Which of these was an important consequence of the destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem in 70 C.E.? a. Christians rose to positions of authority within most Jewish communities. b. Rome became the new center of Mediterranean Judaism. c. Most Jews converted to Christianity. d. Christianity began to separate more clearly from Judaism.

Christianity began to separate more clearly from Judaism. The destruction of the temple in Jerusalem caused Christianity to begin to separate from Judaism and ultimately led to a crisis in Judaism.

Christoffa Corombo

Christopher Columbus' real name

Church of England

Church created in England as a result of a political dispute between Henry VIII and the Pope, Pope would not let Henry divorce his wife.

What were the centers of power in northern and central Italy? Castles Palaces Cities Manors

Cities In northern and central Italy, cities were the centers of power, still reflecting, if feebly, the political organization of ancient Rome. Italian lords tended to live within cities, and from there they controlled the land and people in the surrounding countryside.

Which of these is an important change that took place in the Byzantine Empire after 600? a. Classical learning underwent a revival. b. The Byzantines abandoned their claim to a Roman identity. c. Cities decayed and became much less important. d. The empire added territory and, with it, population.

Cities decayed and became much less important. As cities decayed, the countryside became the focus of government and military administration.

Which of these was true of government under Augustus? a. Citizens elected consuls. b. The army was disbanded. c. The state was referred to as the empire. d. The Senate was eliminated.

Citizens elected consuls. Augustus was careful to maintain the appearance of representative government.

Where and when did the first Western civilizations emerge? a. Anatolia (4000-3000 B.C.E.), Egypt (3050 B.C.E.), and Mesopotamia (2000 B.C.E.) b. Mesopotamia (4000-3000 B.C.E.), Egypt (3050 B.C.E.), and Anatolia (2000 B.C.E.) c. Egypt (4000-3000 B.C.E.), Mesopotamia (3050 B.C.E.), and Anatolia (2000 B.C.E.) d. Greece (4000-3000 B.C.E.), Anatolia (3050 B.C.E.), and Egypt (2000 B.C.E.)

Civilization first emerged around 4000-3000 B.C.E. in cities in Mesopotamia (the region between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers, today Iraq). Egyptian civilization, which began about 3100-3000 B.C.E., built enormous temples and pyramids. Civilizations emerged starting about 2500 B.C.E. in India, China, and the Americas. By 2000 B.C.E., civilizations appeared in Anatolia (today Turkey), on islands in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, and in Greece.

How did the emerging values of the Italian Renaissance elite influence the themes of art? Women were more frequently the subject of art.Classical themes became much more prominent. Standardized images of ancient gods spread and were more widely used. Merchants and the sale of goods became a common theme.

Classical themes became much more prominent. Renaissance artists, particularly during the late Renaissance, often gravitated toward the depiction of classical scenes.

Which of these was essential to the survival of the Hellenistic dynasties that emerged in the wake of Alexander's death? a. Close ties to urban elites b. Generous treatment of local populations c. The slave trade d. Marriage ties with elite Macedonian families

Close ties to urban elites The survival of these dynasties depended on their ability to create strong armies, effective administrations, and close ties to urban elites.

Which of these developments shaped commercial patterns in the eleventh and twelfth centuries? A canal-building craze created new waterways to connect commercial centers. Paper money replaced silver coinage. Commercial centers grew fastest and most densely in regions along key waterways. Urban decay created opportunities for rural growth.

Commercial centers grew fastest and most densely in regions along key waterways. During the eleventh century, Europe's most important waterways became part of a single interdependent economy.

Sophists

Competitive intellectuals and teachers in ancient Greece who offered expensive courses in persuasive public speaking and new ways of philosophic and religious thinking beginning around 450 B.C.E.

Persian Wars

Conflicts between Greek city-states and the Persian Empire, ranging from the Ionian Revolt (499-494 B.C.E.) through Darius's punitive expedition that failed at Marathon.

Neo-Babylonians

Conquered the Assyrians. Second wave of Babylonian rule. They were led by Nebuchadnezzar II, who diffused culture, causing a golden age.

Which of these was an important difference between sixth-century Rome and sixth-century Constantinople? a. Rome was a Christian city. b. Rome was better defended from outside attack. c. Constantinople was only one of many large and bustling cities in the eastern empire. d. Constantinople had few large or impressive buildings.

Constantinople was only one of many large and bustling cities in the eastern empire. While the eastern empire continued to support a vital urban civilization, the cities of the western empire were in decline or had disappeared altogether. Challenge

Who were the highest officials of the Roman Republic? a. Praetors b. Quaestors c. Consuls d. Tribunes

Consuls Consuls commanded the army in battle, administered state business, presided over the Senate and assemblies, and supervised financial affairs.

In what Greek city did the most famous early tyranny arise? a. Corinth b. Thebes c. Athens d. Sparta

Corinth The family of Cypselus rebelled against Corinth's harsh oligarchic leadership and established a tyranny.

ruler cults

Cults that involved worship of a Hellenistic ruler as a savior god. The most revolutionary approach in seeking protection from Tychê's unpredictable tricks was to pray for salvation from deified kings, who expressed their divine power in ruler cults. Various populations established these cults in recognition of great benefactions. The Athenians, for example, deified the Macedonian Antigonus and his son Demetrius as savior gods in 307 B.C.E., when they liberated the city from an oppressive tyranny and donated magnificent gifts. Like most ruler cults, this one expressed the population's spontaneous gratitude to the rulers for their physical salvation, in hopes of preserving the rulers' goodwill toward them by addressing the kings' own wishes to have their power respected. Many cities in the Ptolemaic and Seleucid kingdoms set up ruler cults for their kings and queens. The Hellenistic monarchs' tremendous power and wealth gave them the status of gods to the ordinary people who depended on their generosity and protection. The idea that a human being could be a god, present on earth to save people from evils, was now firmly established and would prove influential later in Roman imperial religion and Christianity.

Where were the Christian armies of the Second Crusade defeated and forced to abandon their campaign? Antioch Baghdad Damascus Jerusalem

Damascus After five days of fighting outside Damascus, the crusaders abandoned their attack and began a devastating retreat.

Upon conquering foreign regions, neo-Assyrian kings: a. established colonies in the newly acquired territories to ease overpopulation back home. b. treated the conquered peoples with a remarkable degree of benevolence. c. exterminated the indigenous populations to make it easier for them to rule. d. deported many of the conquered peoples to Assyria to work as slaves on building projects.

Deported many of the conquered peoples to Assyria to work as slaves on building projects. Neo-Assyrian kings treated conquered peoples brutally. Those allowed to stay in their homelands had to make annual payments to the Assyrians. The kings also deported many defeated people to Assyria for work on huge building projects. One unexpected consequence of this policy was pressure on the kings' native language; so many Aramaeans, for example, were deported from Canaan to Assyria that Aramaic had largely replaced Assyrian as the land's everyday language by the eighth century B.C.E.

Israelites

Descendants of Abraham who left Mesopotamia and settled in Canaan. The only primary source describing their history from before their babylonian captivity is the Hebrew bible (Old Testament).

Cynic Philosophy

Diogenes of Sinope Reject all societal rules as reasons to be unhappy. Reject: - Societal rules - Possessions - Philosophy - Religion - Bathing - Etc.

In the seventeenth century, Galileo provided further evidence for the Copernican hypothesis by doing which of the following? Developing the law of inertia Experimenting with centripetal force and acceleration Writing at length on cosmic harmonies and elliptical motion Discovering the first four moons of Jupiter

Discovering the first four moons of Jupiter The existence of moons around Jupiter clearly suggested that Jupiter could not be embedded in an impenetrable crystal sphere.

patriarchy

Dominance by men in political, social, and economic life. This dominance already existed in Mesopotamian city-states, probably as an inheritance from the development of hierarchy in Paleolithic times.

Skeptic Philosophy

Doubt of arriving at ANY truth. Use of reason to critique other philosophy.

Desiderius Erasmus

Dutch humanist and theologian who was the leading Renaissance scholar of northern Europe although his criticisms of the Church led to the Reformation, he opposed violence and condemned Martin Luther. he wrote The Praise of Folly, worked for Frobein and translated the New Testament from Greek to Latin (1466-1536).

Acquarossa

Early etruscan urban center.

Which of these was true of patterns of agricultural labor in seventeenth-century Europe? Serfdom remained strong in western Europe. Slavery replaced serfdom in much of Europe. In general, eastern European peasants had more freedom than western European peasants. Eastern European nobles reinforced their dominance over peasants.

Eastern European nobles reinforced their dominance over peasants. In eastern Europe, nobles reinforced their dominance over peasants, and the burden of serfdom increased. Although serfdom produced short-term profits for landlords, in the long run it retarded economic development in eastern Europe.

Which of these characterizes educated fifteenth-century Europeans' knowledge of global geography? Educated Europeans were divided about the shape of the earth and the number of large landmasses. Educated Europeans believed the world was flat and that it was made up of two large landmasses. Educated Europeans knew the world was round and were knowledgeable about the geography of Europe, Africa, and Asia. Educated Europeans knew the world was round but had limited knowledge of geography beyond Europe, the coast of Africa, and the Middle East.

Educated Europeans knew the world was round but had limited knowledge of geography beyond Europe, the coast of Africa, and the Middle East. Educated Europeans knew the world was round and had some knowledge of the regions bordering Europe

The advisers of what English monarch welcomed Calvinist refugees into England? Henry VIII Elizabeth I Edward VI Mary I

Edward VI Edward VI came to the crown as a boy and was guided by Protestant advisers.

In the wake of Alexander the Great's death, the general Ptolemy was given authority over what region? a. Macedonia b. The Indus Valley c. Asia Minor d. Egypt

Egypt Ptolemy took the title of pharaoh and founded a dynasty that lasted nearly three hundred years. Alexander's successors divided his conquests among themselves. Antigonus (c. 382-301 B.C.E.) took over Anatolia, the Near East, Macedonia, and Greece; Seleucus (c. 358-281 B.C.E.) seized Babylonia and the East as far as India; and Ptolemy (c. 367-282 B.C.E.) took over Egypt. These successors had to create their own form of monarchy based on military power and personal prestige because they were self-proclaimed rulers with no connection to Alexander's royal line.

Ma'at

Egyptians regarded their king as a helpful divinity in human form, identified with the hawk-headed god Horus. They saw the king's rule as divine because he helped generate maat ("what is right"), the supernatural force that brought order and harmony to human beings if they maintained a stable hierarchy. The goddess Maat — the embodiment of the divine force of justice — therefore oversaw a society that the Egyptians believed would fall apart violently if the king ruled unjustly. The king therefore had the duties of pleasing the gods, making law, and waging war on enemies. Maat was an idea of cosmic harmony that embraced truth, justice, and moral integrity. Maat gave the king the right, authority, and duty to govern.

Which of these is an example of the way manuscript illumination was influenced by Gothic cathedrals? Illuminations included few human figures, opting instead for geometrical designs. Elements of Gothic architecture were incorporated into backgrounds. Manuscripts featured increasingly elongated initial letters. Illuminations featured grays, browns, and blacks, mirroring the stone used to build cathedrals.

Elements of Gothic architecture were incorporated into backgrounds. Manuscript illuminations feature the pointed shapes of Gothic cathedral windows and vaults as common background themes.

Constantine

Emperor of Rome who adopted the Christian faith and stopped the persecution of Christians (280-337)

Atathualpa

Emperor of the Inca Empire; fought his brother Huascar for control of empire; killed brother (or had him killed after he defeated Huascar; captured by Pizzarro.

Which of these captures the style and self-presentation of Byzantine emperors in the ninth and tenth centuries? Emperors presented themselves as ordinary soldiers with simple tastes. Emperors created a lavish and elaborate court culture and etiquette. Emperors held little real power but presented themselves as demigods. Emperors were all powerful but took pains to present themselves as ordinary citizens.

Emperors created a lavish and elaborate court culture and etiquette. From their powerful position, the emperors negotiated with other rulers, exchanging ambassadors and receiving and entertaining diplomats with elaborate ceremonies to express the serious, sacred, concentrated power of imperial majesty.

In 1250, what country had the most institutionalized government in Europe? France Germany Sweden England

England In the mid-twelfth century, the government of England was by far the most institutionalized in Europe. The king hardly needed to be present: royal government functioned smoothly without him because officials handled all the administrative matters and record keeping.

Which of these explains the defeat of the Spanish Armada? French intervention on the English side The superior size and quality of the English fleet Poor planning by the Spanish English fire ships and bad weather

English fire ships and bad weather The English scattered the Spanish Armada by sending blazing fire ships into its midst. A great gale then forced the Spanish to flee around Scotland.

Elizabeth I

English queen (r. 1558-1603) who oversaw the return of the Protestant Church of England and, in 1588, the successful defense of the realm against the Spanish Armada. Pg. 393

chansons de geste

Epic poems of the twelfth century about knightly and heroic deeds. Pg. 302

Which of these is a major contributing factor to the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War? A contested succession Peasant uprisings Ethnic competition Inflation and other economic problems

Ethnic competition The fighting that devastated central Europe from 1618 to 1648 had its origins in a combination of religious disputes, ethnic competition, and political weakness.

Velzna

Etruscan city

Apollo of Veii

Etruscan, terracotta statue of Apollo, archaic style, decorated a temple pediment, 510-500 BCE. Evidence of greek influence.

Togatus Barberini

Example of individualism. Sculpture made to look like an actual living human being.

Hubris

Excessive pride or arrogance that results in the downfall of the protagonist of a tragedy.

heresy

False doctrine; specifically, the beliefs banned for Christians by councils of bishops. The bishops tried to suppress the disagreements that arose in the new religion. They used their authority to define orthodoxy (true doctrine) and heresy (false doctrine). The meetings of the bishops of different cities constituted the church's organization in this period. Today this loose organization is referred to as the early Catholic (Greek for "universal") church. Since the bishops often disagreed about doctrine and about which bishops should have greater authority than others, unity remained impossible to achieve.

Which of these was true of seventeenth-century marriage and childbirth patterns? Family sizes shrank. The average family had eight children. The number of births out of wedlock reached 20 percent. The average age of marriage fell from the late twenties to the early twenties.

Family sizes shrank.

What did the defeat of the insurrection at Münster in the 1530s suggest about the religious radicalism of the early Reformation? Religious radicalism was much more feared by Protestants than by Catholics. Fear of religious radicalism was capable of uniting Catholics and Protestants. Religious radicalism was a small and relatively unimportant threat to public order. Religious radicalism was likely to overcome all forms of authority.

Fear of religious radicalism was capable of uniting Catholics and Protestants. Catholics and Protestants worked together to drive the Anabaptists out of Münster.

Thomas More

He was a English humanist that contributed to the world today by revealing the complexities of man. He wrote Utopia, a book that represented a revolutionary view of society.

What did the peoples who crossed into the empire in large numbers beginning in the late fourth century have in common? a. Political affiliation b. Language c. Ethnic identity d. Fear of the Huns

Fear of the Huns Hordes of men, women, and children crossed into the empire as refugees fleeing the Huns. They came with no political or military unity and no clear plan. They shared only their terror of the Huns.

Which of the following was true of the religion of the Rus? Few Rus were Christians prior to the end of the tenth century. The Rus converted to Roman Catholicism in the tenth century. The Rus were Arian Christians until the end of the tenth century. Most Rus were Muslims prior to the late tenth century.

Few Rus were Christians prior to the end of the tenth century. Few Rus were Christians, but that changed at the end of the tenth century, when good relations between the Rus and the Byzantines were sealed by the conversion of the Rus ruler Vladimir.

The Thirty Tyrants

Following Athens's surrender, the Spartans installed a regime of anti-democratic Athenians who collaborated with the victors. The collaborators were members of the social elite; some, including the violent leader Critias, infamous for his criticism of religion, had been well-known pupils of the Sophists. Brutally suppressing democratic opposition, these oligarchs embarked on an eight-month period of murder and plunder in 404-403 B.C.E.

Why was Louis IX of France revered? For his successful defense of the realm against English aggression For the territory he added to France For his military accomplishments For his skills as an administrator and judge

For his skills as an administrator and judge Through his administrators, Louis vigorously imposed his laws and justice over much of France.

Which of the following was true of the dynatoi? They were a unified group with a single set of objectives. Their wealth was largely the result of trade. For the most part, they exercised their power locally. They were subject to special taxes because of their ethnic status.

For the most part, they exercised their power locally. For the most part, the dynatoi exercised their power locally, but they also sometimes occupied the imperial throne.

Stoic Philosophy

Founded by Zeno of Citium. Widely prevalent philosophy of the ancient world. Universalism - Humanity was one community - Natural law, law of reason. Plutarch: life of Alexander is an example of this philosophy. An appeal to the rational mind to maintain reserve and not give over to displays of emotion

Cyrus

Founded the Persian Empire in 557 B.C.E. in what is today Iran through his skills as a general and a diplomat who saw respect for others' religious practices as advantageous imperial policy. He conquered Babylon in 539 B.C.E. He won support by proclaiming himself the restorer of traditional religion.

What Spanish commander led the conquest of the Peruvian highlands? Bartolomé de Las Casas Hernán Cortés Ferdinand Magellan Francisco Pizarro

Francisco Pizarro Pizarro conquered the Peruvian highlands in 1532-1533. His conquests cleared the way for Spanish domination in much of South America.

raison d'état

French for "reason of state," the political doctrine, first proposed by Cardinal Richelieu of France, which held that the state's interests should prevail over those of religion. Pg. 398

John Calvin

French-born Christian humanist (1509-1564) and founder of Calvinism, one of the major branches of the Protestant Reformation; he led the reform movement in Geneva, Switzerland, from 1541 to 1564. Pg. 372

Which of these was a teaching of Paul of Tarsus? a. Christians could and should bring about the fall of the Roman Empire. b. Jesus's message was meant only for a small group of spiritual elites. c. Only Jews could understand Jesus's specific moral message. d. Gentiles should be accepted into Christianity on an equal basis. e. Gentiles should be accepted into Christianity on an equal basis.

Gentiles should be accepted into Christianity on an equal basis. A well-educated, Hellenized Jew who was comfortable in both the Roman and Jewish worlds, Paul recognized that Christianity would not grow if it remained within Judaism and unconnected with the non-Jewish world.

Hans Holbein the Younger

German Painter noted for his portraits and religious paintings.

Johannes Gutenberg

German printer who was the first in Europe to print using movable type and the first to use a printing press (1400-1468)

What was a difference between the Romanesque and Gothic styles of medieval architecture? Romanesque architecture had larger windows. Gothic architecture allowed higher ceilings. The Romanesque style had its beginnings around 1135. Romanesque architecture used flying buttresses.

Gothic architecture allowed higher ceilings. Gothic cathedrals had extremely high walls filled with glass and used flying buttresses to support the weight of the high ceilings and walls.

fiefs

Grants of land, theoretically temporary, from lords to their noble dependents (fideles or, later, vassals) given in recognition of services, usually military, done or expected in the future; also called benefices. Pg. 246

Homer

Greece's first and most famous author, who composed The Iliad and The Odyssey.

Christ

Greek for "anointed one," in Hebrew Mashiach or in English Messiah; in apocalyptic thought, God's agent sent to conquer the forces of evil. Christianity offered an answer to the question about divine justice raised by the Jews' long history of oppression under the kingdoms of the ancient and Hellenistic Near East: if God was just, as Hebrew monotheism taught, how could he allow the wicked to prosper and the righteous to suffer? Nearly two hundred years before Jesus's birth, persecution by the Seleucid king Antiochus IV (r. 175-164 B.C.E.) had provoked the Jews into revolt, a struggle that generated the concept of apocalypticism (see Chapter 2). According to this doctrine, evil powers controlled the world, but God would end their rule by sending the Messiah ("anointed one," Mashiach in Hebrew, Christ in Greek) to conquer them. A final judgment would follow, punishing the wicked and rewarding the righteous for eternity. Apocalypticism especially influenced the Jews living in Judaea under Roman rule and later, inspired Christians and Muslims.

The Acropolis

Greek for "city in the sky". The chief temples of the city were located here.

martyr

Greek for "witness," the term for someone who dies for his or her religious beliefs. The occasional persecutions in the early empire did not stop Christianity. Christians like Vibia Perpetua regarded public executions as an opportunity to become a martyr (Greek for "witness"), someone who dies for his or her religious faith. Martyrs' belief that their deaths would send them directly to paradise allowed them to face torture. Some Christians actively sought to become martyrs. Tertullian (c. 160-240 C.E.) proclaimed that "martyrs' blood is the seed of the Church." Ignatius (c. 35-107 C.E.), bishop of Antioch, begged Rome's congregation, which was becoming the most prominent Christian group, not to ask the emperor to show him mercy after his arrest: "Let me be food for the wild animals [in the arena] through which I can reach God," he pleaded. "I am God's wheat, to be ground up by the teeth of beasts so that I may be found pure bread of Christ." Stories reporting the martyrs' courage showed that the new religion gave its believers spiritual power to endure suffering.

Aristotle

Greek philosopher (384-322 B.C.E.) famous for his scientific investigations, development of logical argument, and practical ethics. After studying with Plato, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) founded his own school, the Lyceum, in Athens. He taught his own life-guiding philosophy, emphasizing practical reasoning. Like Plato, he thought Athenian democracy constituted bad government because it did not restrict decision making to the most educated and moderate citizens. His vast writings have made him one of the world's most influential thinkers to this day. Aristotle's achievements included scientific investigation of the natural world, development of systems of logical argument, and practical ethics based on experience. He believed that the search for knowledge brought the good life and genuine happiness. His lectures covered biology, botany, zoology, medicine, anatomy, psychology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mathematics, music, metaphysics, rhetoric, literary criticism, political science, and ethics. By creating a system of logic for precise argumentation, Aristotle also established grounds for determining whether an argument was logically valid. Aristotle's thought process stressed rationality and common sense, not metaphysics. He rejected Plato's theory of Forms and insisted that understanding depended on observation. He coupled detailed investigation with careful reasoning in biology, botany, and zoology. He collected information on more than five hundred different kinds of animals, including insects. His recognition that whales and dolphins are mammals was not rediscovered for another two thousand years. Some of Aristotle's observations justified inequalities characteristic of his time. He argued that some people were slaves by nature because their souls lacked the rationality to be fully human. Mistaken biological information led Aristotle to evaluate females as inferior on the grounds they were incomplete males. However, he also believed that human communities could be successful and happy only if women and men both contributed. In ethics, Aristotle emphasized the need to develop practical habits of just behavior in order to achieve happiness. Ethics, he taught, cannot work if it consists only of abstract reasons for just behavior. People should achieve self-control by training their minds to overcome instincts and passions. Self-control meant finding "the mean," or balance, between denying and indulging physical pleasures.

Septuagint

Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible. Greek was the widely spoken language of the mediterranean. This allowed non-hebrew speakers to read the hebrew scripture.

triremes

Greek wooden warships rowed by 170 oarsmen sitting on three levels and equipped with a battering ram at the bow. Over time, more and more Delian League members voluntarily paid cash because it was easier. Athens used this money to construct triremes and pay men to row them; oarsmen who brought a slave to row alongside them earned double pay. Drawn primarily from the poorest citizens, rowers gained both income and also political influence in Athenian democracy because the navy became the city-state's main force. These benefits made poor citizens eager to expand Athens's power over other Greeks. The increase in Athenian naval power thus promoted the development of a wider democracy at home, but it undermined the democracy of the Delian League. The Athenian assembly could use the league fleet to force disobedient allies to pay cash dues. Athens's dominance of the Delian League has led historians to label it Athenian Empire. By about 460 B.C.E., the Delian League's fleet had expelled all Persian garrisons from northern Greece and driven the enemy fleet from the Aegean Sea. This sweep eliminated the Persian threat for the next fifty years. Military success made Athens prosperous by bringing in spoils and cash dues from the Delian League and making seaborne trade safe. The prosperity benefited rich and poor alike — the poor with good pay, the elite commanders by enhancing their chances for election to high office if they spent their war spoils on public festivals and buildings. In this way, the democracy of Golden Age Athens benefited from what modern scholars often call imperialism.

Code of Hammurabi

Hammurabi, king of Babylon's law code was based on an ideal of justice. Its eye-for-an-eye principle matched the crime and punishment as literally as possible. The code punished fraudulent prosecutions by imposing the death penalty on anyone failing to prove a serious accusation. It also relied on "nature-decided justice" by allowing accused persons to leap into a river: if they sank, they were guilty; if they floated, they were innocent. King Hammurabi emphasized relieving the poor's burdens as crucial to royal justice. His laws divided society into free persons, commoners, and slaves. These categories reflected a social hierarchy in which some people were assigned a higher value than others. An attacker who caused a pregnant woman of the free class to miscarry, for example, paid twice the fine for the same offense against a commoner. Between social equals, the code specified an eye for an eye. A member of the free class who killed a commoner, however, was not executed, only fined. Many of Hammurabi's laws concerned the king's interests as a property owner leasing land to tenants. His laws were harsh for offenses against property, including mutilation or a gruesome death for crimes ranging from theft to wrongful sales and careless construction.

How did Augustus solve the issue of succession to the principate? a. He urged the Senate to restore the republic after his death. b. He said his offices should be divided among his several sons. c. He adopted his stepson Tiberius. d. He adopted his stepson Tiberius. e. He asked the Senate to choose his successor.

He adopted his stepson Tiberius. Augustus adopted his stepson Tiberius, a common practice among members of the elite in Rome, and Augustus shared his consular and tribunician powers with Tiberius long before his death, thus grooming Tiberius for the principate. In his will, Augustus left most of his vast fortune to Tiberius, and the Senate formally requested Tiberius to assume the burdens of the principate. Thus, Augustus had succeeded in creating a dynasty.

Why was the Persian king Cyrus the Great important in the history of the Hebrews? a. He allowed thousands of the Hebrews to return to their former kingdom and rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. b. He allowed thousands of the Hebrews to return to their former kingdom and rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. c. He conquered both the northern and southern Hebrew kingdoms, eliminating those states. d. He adopted elements of the Hebrew faith into Zoroastrianism. e.He liberated the Hebrews from their enslavement in Egypt.

He allowed thousands of the Hebrews to return to their former kingdom and rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. After the Assyrians conquered the northern kingdom of Israel, the Babylonians crushed the southern kingdom of Judah. The survivors were forcibly relocated to Babylonia, a period commonly known as the Babylonian Captivity. When the Persian king Cyrus overthrew the Babylonians in 539 B.C.E., he permitted the Israelites to return to their part of Canaan. Cyrus allowed them to rebuild their main temple in Jerusalem and to practice their religion.

How was Pico's eclecticism reflected in his education, ideas, and beliefs? He worked at various times as a carpenter, a physician, and a sculptor. He converted to Judaism later in life. He studied not only the works of Cicero but also the writings of lesser known Latin authors. He believed that Jewish mystical writings supported Christian scriptures.

He believed that Jewish mystical writings supported Christian scriptures. Pico believed that one should pick the best ideas from a wide selection of sources and doctrines. Thus, he learned Hebrew, studied Jewish mystical writings, and then compared them to Christian scriptures.

Why did Luther turn against the rebels during the Peasants' War of 1525? He believed that rulers were ordained by God and must be obeyed. He believed himself to have been betrayed by the rebel leaders. He was coerced into doing so by his noble allies. He knew the rebels were going to lose.

He believed that rulers were ordained by God and must be obeyed. Initially, Luther had tried to mediate the conflict, but he believed that God ordained rulers, who must therefore be obeyed even if they were tyrants.

What was a significant initiative of Pope Innocent III, whose papacy began in 1198? He called the Fourth Crusade. He rejected the idea of secular authority for popes and urged monarchs to fulfill their responsibilities. He called on the church to reestablish the church structures of early Christianity. He called for reconciliation with Islam.

He called the Fourth Crusade. Innocent III called the Fourth Crusade, which mobilized a large force drawn from every level of European society.

What steps did Henry II take to curb the power of barons and churchmen and extend monarchical authority? He destroyed or confiscated newly built castles. He replaced all existing barons with new men. He established a military draft and set up a standing army. He closed all church courts.

He destroyed or confiscated newly built castles. Taking advantage of the chaos of civil war, a number of barons had built castles. Henry II saw these castles as the threat to royal authority that they were and destroyed or confiscated them.

How did Alexius Comnenus win the support of the Byzantine nobility? He exempted them from military service. He gave them lifetime possession of large imperial estates. He granted them new government offices. He agreed to create a representative assembly.

He gave them lifetime possession of large imperial estates. In return for their services in his wars, Alexius Comnenus gave these nobles lifetime possession of large imperial estates and their dependent peasants.

How did Augustus promote marriage and childbirth? a. He reduced the amount of annual taxes required per head for those with large families. b. He provided a stipend for every family with a certain number of children. c. He freed fathers and their sons from military service. d. He granted privileges to the parents of three or more children.

He granted privileges to the parents of three or more children. Fearing the falling birthrate would destroy the social elite on whom Rome relied for public service, Augustus granted privileges to the parents of three or more children.

How did Alexius Comnenus win the support of the urban elite? He gave them lifetime possession of large imperial estates. He granted them new government offices. He agreed to create a representative assembly. He exempted them from military service.

He granted them new government offices. In so doing, he rewarded the urban elite for their support and brought them into the imperial government.

Why did Thomas Becket, the archbishop of Canterbury, resist the authority of Henry II after 1164? He insisted that church officials were subject to church courts. He disagreed with Henry II's arguments about church teachings. He opposed Henry II's decision to go to war. He believed that Henry II was too great a sinner to serve as sovereign.

He insisted that church officials were subject to church courts. Becket insisted that clergy should be under the jurisdiction of church courts, which challenged Henry II's position that everyone, including the clergy, was subject to the royal courts.

How did Charlemagne imitate the Roman imperial model during the last twenty years of his reign? He set up a senate to advise him on matters of state. He required subjects to worship him as a god. He tolerated religious diversity. He sponsored building programs to symbolize his authority.

He sponsored building programs to symbolize his authority. Charlemagne sponsored building programs to symbolize his authority, standardized weights and measures, and acted as a patron of intellectual and artistic efforts. In addition, he built a capital city at Aachen, complete with a chapel that was patterned on Justinian's church of San Vitale at Ravenna.

Which of these describes Constantine's religious policies? a. He kept his own religion a secret and promoted the traditional imperial cult. b. He had little or no interest in religious matters. c. He promoted his own religion while seeking to crush all others. d. He tried to promote his own religion while placating those who followed a different faith.

He tried to promote his own religion while placating those who followed a different faith. Constantine promoted his newly chosen religion while trying to placate traditional polytheists, who still greatly outnumbered Christians. For example, he returned all property confiscated from Christians during the Great Persecution, but he had the treasury compensate those who had bought it.

Why did Urban II call for the First Crusade? He hoped to undermine support for the German emperor. He hoped to gain considerable new wealth for the church. He sought revenge against the Byzantines. He wanted to place the papacy in a new position of leadership within European society.

He wanted to place the papacy in a new position of leadership within European society. Urban II wanted to win back the Holy Land, fulfill the goals of the Truce of God, and place the papacy in a new position of leadership within European society.

How did Charles Martel advance the fortunes of his family? He won a famous victory against a Muslim army. He formed an alliance with the Magyars. He deposed the last Merovingian king. He defeated a large Viking raiding party.

He won a famous victory against a Muslim army. Charles Martel was renowned for defeating an invading army of Muslims from al-Andalus near Poitiers in 732.

What was Jesus's conception of the Messiah, or savior? a. He said the Messiah would punish all nonbelievers. b. He would establish a spiritual kingdom, not an earthly one. c. Jesus said the Messiah would destroy the Roman legions and inaugurate a period of peace and prosperity for Jews. d. Jesus claimed not to believe in a Messiah.

He would establish a spiritual kingdom, not an earthly one. Jesus called on people to prepare themselves for the "treasures in heaven" rather than on earth.

Which of these played an important role in Augustus's successful creation of the Roman Empire? a. His scaling back of Rome's military expenditures b. His manipulation of political symbols c. His manipulation of political symbols d. His willingness to delegate power e. His embrace of social and cultural innovation

His manipulation of political symbols Augustus was a master of self-presentation and political propaganda.

Which of these describes the impact of Luther's message in the 1520s? His message influenced German elites but had little impact on ordinary Germans. His message spread quickly and unleashed powerful forces no one could control. His message found a receptive audience in France and England but not in Germany. His message went largely unnoticed until the 1530s.

His message spread quickly and unleashed powerful forces no one could control. Spread by the printing press, Luther's ideas circulated widely, letting loose forces that neither the church nor Luther could control. Social, nationalist, and religious protests fused with lower-class resentments, much as in the Czech movement that the priest and professor Jan Hus had inspired a century earlier.

Procopius

Historian of the Byzantine Empire who in his Secret History revealed the cruelty of the autocratic system in which the emperor ruled by divine providence.

The development of agriculture and the domestication of animals were key elements in which of the following?

Historians call agriculture and the domestication of animals the "farming package," which created the Neolithic Revolution. The farming package had revolutionary effects because it produced many permanent settlements and food surpluses.

hoplite

Historians have customarily believed that a hoplite revolution was the reason for expanded political rights. A hoplite was an infantryman who wore metal body armor and attacked with a thrusting spear. Hoplites formed the basis of the citizen militias that defended Greek city- states. Staying in line and working together were the secrets to successful hoplite tactics. In the eighth century B.C.E., a growing number of men became prosperous enough to buy metal weapons and train as hoplites, especially because the use of iron had made such weapons more readily available. According to the hoplite revolution theory, these new hoplites — feeling that they should enjoy political rights in exchange for buying their own equipment and training hard — forced the social elite to share political power by threatening to refuse to fight, which would have crippled military defense. This interpretation correctly assumes that the hoplites had the power to demand and receive a voice in politics but ignores that hoplites were not poor. Furthermore, archaeology shows that not many men were wealthy enough to afford hoplite armor until the middle of the seventh century B.C.E., well after the earliest city- states had emerged. How then did poor men, too, win political rights? The most likely explanation is that the poor earned respect by fighting to defend the community, just as hoplites did. Fighting as lightly armed troops, poor men could disrupt an enemy's line by slinging rocks and shooting arrows. It is also possible that tyrants — sole rulers who seized power for their families in some city- states — boosted the status of poor men. Tyrants may have granted greater political rights to poor men as a means of gathering popular support.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1519-1556) and the most powerful ruler in sixteenth-century Europe; he reigned over the Low Countries, Spain, Spain's Italian and New World dominions, and the Austrian Habsburg lands. Pg. 371

The Iliad

Homer's The Iliad recounted the tale of the Trojan War of the late Bronze Age.

Idealism

How someone or something "should be" or "should look." Egyption pharaohs were always portrayed as idealistic versions of themselves.

hunter-gatherers

Human beings who roam to hunt and gather food in the wild and do not live in permanent, settled communities. In the Paleolithic Age, people existed as hunter-gatherers who originally lived in mostly egalitarian bands (meaning all adults enjoyed a rough equality in making group decisions). They roamed in groups of twenty to fifty, hunting animals, catching fish and shellfish, and gathering plants, fruits, and nuts. Women with young children foraged for plants close to camp; they provided the group's most reliable supply of nourishment. Objects from distant regions found in burial sites show that hunter-gatherer bands traded with one another. Trade spread knowledge — especially technology, such as techniques for improving tools, and art for creating beauty and expressing beliefs. The use of fire for cooking was a major innovation because it allowed people to obtain nourishment from wild grains that they could not digest if eaten raw.

In which of these areas did Roman Catholicism dominate? a. Hungary b. Serbia c. Bulgaria d. Kiev

Hungary Hungarian Roman Catholicism was part of a larger pattern. In the southeast, orthodox Byzantine Christianity dominated, while in the west and northwest, Roman Catholicism tended to be most important.

icons

Images of holy people such as Jesus, Mary, and the saints. Controversy arose in Byzantium over the meaning of such images. The iconoclasts considered them "idols," but those who adored icons maintained that they manifested the physical form of those who were holy. Pg. 212

commune

In a medieval town, a sworn association of citizens who formed a legal corporate body. The commune appointed or elected officials, made laws, kept the peace, and administered justice. Communes were especially common in northern and central Italy, France, and Flanders. Even before the commercial revolution, Italian cities had become centers of regional political power; the commercial revolution swelled them with tradespeople, whose interest in self-government was often fueled by religious as well as economic concerns. Pg. 263

Which of these was a major seventeenth-century social and economic trend? International trade quickened, especially in the Mediterranean. Prices rose precipitously. In most places, population growth slowed. With a few exceptions, agricultural yields slowly increased.

In most places, population growth slowed. In most places, population growth slowed, and in many places, population actually declined.

sacraments

In the Catholic church, the institutionalized means by which God's heavenly grace is transmitted to Christians. Examples of sacraments include baptism, the Eucharist (communion), and marriage Pg. 269

jihad

In the Qur'an, the word means "striving in the way of God." This can mean both striving to live righteously and striving to confront unbelievers, even as far as holy war. Pg. 205

The patron-client system reflected the a. The egalitarian nature of Roman society. b. Inequalities and hierarchical nature of Roman society. c. Roman commitment to civic duty. d. Impersonal nature of Roman politics.

Inequalities and hierarchical nature of Roman society. Within this system, free men promised their votes to a more powerful man in exchange for his help in legal or other matters.

proletarians

In the Roman republic, the mass of people so poor they owned no property. Gaius Marius (c. 157-86 B.C.E.), from the equites class, set the pattern for the influential "new man." Gaining fame for his brilliant military record, Marius won election as a consul for 107 B.C.E. Marius's success as a commander, first in North Africa and next against German tribes attacking southern France and Italy, led the people to elect him consul six times, breaking all tradition. For his victories, the Senate voted Marius a triumph, Rome's ultimate military honor. Despite Marius's triumph, the optimates never accepted him as an equal. His support came from the common people, whom he had won over with his revolutionary reform of entrance requirements for the army. Previously, only men with property could usually enroll as soldiers. Marius opened the ranks to proletarians, men who had no property and could not afford weapons. For them, serving in the army meant an opportunity to better their life by acquiring plunder and a grant of land. Marius's reform created armies that were more loyal to their commander than to the republic. Poor Roman soldiers behaved like clients following their commander as patron, who gave them financial gifts of war spoils. They in turn supported his political ambitions. Commanders after Marius used client armies to advance their careers more ruthlessly than he had, accelerating the republic's internal conflict.

Where did Protestants seek examples of correct moral behavior? In the works of St. Thomas Aquinas In the lives of the traditional saints In the lifestyle of pious monks In the sermons of their preachers

In the sermons of their preachers Protestants did not have monasteries or convents or saints' lives to set examples; they sought moral examples in their own homes, in the sermons of their preachers, and in their own reading of the Bible.

Where did Protestants seek examples of correct moral behavior? In the lives of the traditional saints In their own homes In the works of St. Thomas Aquinas In the lifestyle of pious monks

In their own homes Protestants did not have monasteries or convents or saints' lives to set examples; they sought moral examples in their own homes, in the sermons of their preachers, and in their own reading of the Bible.

Where did Protestants seek examples of correct moral behavior? In their own reading of the Bible In the lives of the traditional saints In the works of St. Thomas Aquinas In the lifestyle of pious monks

In their own reading of the Bible Protestants did not have monasteries or convents or saints' lives to set examples; they sought moral examples in their own homes, in the sermons of their preachers, and in their own reading of the Bible.

Which of these describes Athens in the decades following the Persian invasion? Disengaged from wider Greek politics Increasingly monarchial Correct: Increasingly imperialistic Increasingly imperialistic An agent of democratization

Increasingly imperialistic As the Athenians drove the Persians out of the Aegean, they also became increasingly imperialistic. Athens began reducing its allies to the status of subjects and collecting tribute, and the Athenians placed the economic resources of the Delian League under tighter and tighter control.

What challenge did the Lombard kings in Italy face? a. A resentful pagan population b. Pressure from Arab invaders c. Insubordinate aristocrats d. Limited holdings in northern Italy

Insubordinate aristocrats Theoretically, the dukes of Benevento and Spoleto were royal officers, but in fact they ruled independently.

Which of these was an important difference between the Islamic renaissance and the contemporaneous cultural movements in the Byzantine and Carolingian empires? Byzantine and Carolingian scholars were among the first to write on inexpensive paper. Islamic scholars were always government officials. Islamic scholars wrote for a broad audience. Byzantine and Carolingian scholars wrote for ordinary people.

Islamic scholars wrote for a broad audience. The fact that Islamic scholars wrote for a broad audience is suggested by the fact that they wrote on inexpensive paper.

What challenge did Abelard's Sic et Non pose to his students? It challenged them to discover new ways of thinking about medicine and the body. It challenged them to reject papal authority. It challenged them to reconcile seemingly contradictory statements from the Bible and the writings of church authorities. It challenged them to reject the seven liberal arts and embrace instead a truly Christian approach to scholarship.

It challenged them to reconcile seemingly contradictory statements from the Bible and the writings of church authorities. Sic et Non consisted of opposing positions on 156 subjects. Abelard's students loved the challenge: they were eager to find the origins of the quotes, consider the context of each one carefully, and seek to reconcile the opposing sides by using the tools of logic.

Which of these was a long-term consequence of the Investiture Conflict? It led to the development of an extremely powerful Holy Roman Emperor. It contributed to the development of a new notion of kingship. It strengthened the authority of the German bishops. It strengthened the position of the pope in German society.

It contributed to the development of a new notion of kingship. Kings would no longer be seen as the head of the church. This new understanding set in motion a process that would lead to the modern distinction between church and state.

Which of these was a long-term consequence of the Investiture Conflict? It strengthened the authority of the German bishops. It led to the development of an extremely powerful Holy Roman Emperor. It contributed to the development of autonomous Italian city-states. It strengthened the position of the pope in German society.

It contributed to the development of autonomous Italian city-states. The northern and central Italian communes were formed in the crucible of the war between the pope and the emperor. In fierce communal struggles, city factions, often created by local grievances but claiming to fight on behalf of the papal or the imperial cause, created their own governing bodies.

In the aftermath of the Hundred Years' War, what happened to the territorial size of France? It was cut in half. It doubled. It was reduced to the area surrounding Paris. It quadrupled to twice its modern size.

It doubled. By the end of the fifteenth century, France had doubled its territory, assuming boundaries close to its modern ones, and was looking to expand even further.

Which of these was an important consequence of Byzantium's loss of control of the Balkans? a. It exacerbated the growing separation between the eastern and western parts of the former Roman Empire. b. It led to the dramatic decline of Constantinople. c. It meant that the Balkans would become predominantly Roman d. Catholic and subject to the authority of the papacy. It led to renewed instability in western Europe.

It exacerbated the growing separation between the eastern and western parts of the former Roman Empire. Avar and Slavic control of the Balkans effectively cut off trade and travel between Constantinople and the cities of the Dalmatian coast, while the new Bulgarian state served as a political barrier across the Danube.

Henry II

King of England (r. 1154-1189) who ended the period of civil war there and affirmed and expanded royal powers. He is associated with the creation of common law in England. Pg. 292

How did the invention of mechanical printing change European culture? It led to the emergence of a literate elite. It created a new interest in classical languages and literature. It freed individuals from having to memorize everything they learned. It prompted secular rulers and high church officials to support institutions of higher learning.

It freed individuals from having to memorize everything they learned. The invention of mechanical printing dramatically increased the speed at which people could transmit knowledge, freed individuals from having to memorize everything they learned, and helped create a wide community of scholars no longer dependent on personal patronage or church sponsorship for texts.

Which of these was a consequence of the printing and distribution of Luther's German-language Bible? It facilitated the spread of Lutheranism to northern Italy. It made Bible reading an exclusively private activity. It helped standardize the German language. It prompted the Catholic church to crack down on Bible reading by the laity.

It helped standardize the German language. Luther's Bible not only made the sacred writings more accessible to ordinary people but also helped standardize the German language.

What was significant about the papacy of Leo IX, which began in 1049? It led to increasing control of church officials by the papacy. It marked the growing influence of the Holy Roman Emperor over church policies and teaching. It led to reforms in favor of a married clergy. It led to corruption so outrageous that many began to push for reform of the church.

It led to increasing control of church officials by the papacy. Leo IX believed that church reform required papal control of church officials.

Why was the death of Henry II of France in 1559 an important turning point in French religious history? It marked the end of official royal support for Catholicism. It marked the beginning of four decades of religious wars in France. It marked the beginning of official support for religious toleration. It marked the end of official royal support for Protestantism.

It marked the beginning of four decades of religious wars in France. Beginning in 1560, France was plunged into four decades of religious wars whose savagery was unparalleled elsewhere in Europe.

What was significant about the papacy of Leo IX, which began in 1049? It led to reforms in favor of a married clergy. It led to corruption so outrageous that many began to push for reform of the church. It marked the moment in which the decisive split was made between the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches. It marked the growing influence of the Holy Roman Emperor over church policies and teaching.

It marked the moment in which the decisive split was made between the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches. A failed diplomatic mission in 1054 created an insurmountable schism between the two churches.

What was accomplished by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494? It granted papal approval of the slave trade. It divided North America between the British and the French. It resolved the dispute between Spain and Portugal over Brazil. It settled competing claims to discoveries in the Atlantic.

It settled competing claims to discoveries in the Atlantic. To settle competing claims to the Atlantic discoveries, Spain and Portugal turned to Pope Alexander VI. The resulting Treaty of Tordesillas gave Spain everything to the west of an imaginary line drawn down the Atlantic, and Portugal received everything to the east.

Why did the Merovingian dynasty last for over two hundred years? a. It successfully combined Roman and Frankish traditions. b. It enjoyed the protection of the western Roman emperors. c. Its leaders helped establish a thriving urban culture. d. The Franks had a long tradition of centralized government.

It successfully combined Roman and Frankish traditions. The Merovingians survived so long because they successfully combined their own traditions of military bravery with Roman social and legal traditions.

Which of these helps explain why leprosy was such a stigmatized disease in the thirteenth century? It was an outward sign of inward sinfulness. It was introduced into Europe by returning crusaders and so was associated with Muslims. It was thought to be evidence of Protestant heresies. It can be transmitted only through sex.

It was an outward sign of inward sinfulness. Leprosy was often considered a disease of the soul, an outward sign of inward sinfulness.

What happened to the Hebrew kingdom in the centuries that followed the death of Solomon? a. It went into a long period of slow decline. b. It was divided and eventually conquered by invaders. c. It was divided and eventually conquered by invaders. d. It reached its pinnacle of wealth and power. e. It entered a period of aggressive expansion.

It was divided and eventually conquered by invaders. Political division made the Hebrews easy targets for the Assyrians and the Babylonians.

What advantages did Rome's location offer? a. It was ideally situated for international trade. b. It encouraged Romans to build connections with peoples to the north. c. It catalyzed the residents of western Italy to look to the Adriatic Sea. d. It stimulated Romans to focus on trade, not agriculture.

It was ideally situated for international trade. The Italian peninsula stuck so far out into the Mediterranean that east-west seaborne traffic naturally encountered it, and the city had a good port nearby.

Which of these is true of the new vernacular poetry of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries? It was meant to be read or sung aloud. It was written for the urban commercial classes. It was an exclusively male cultural phenomenon. It was written in Latin.

It was meant to be read or sung aloud. Meant to be read or sung aloud, sometimes with accompanying musical instruments, the new vernacular poetry celebrated nobles' lives and provided a common experience for aristocrats at court.

Philip II (Philip Augustus)

King of France (r. 1180-1223) who bested the English king John and won most of John's continental territories, thus immeasurably strengthening the power of the Capetian dynasty. Pg. 296

In what way was the Castillian cortes innovative? It was the first such representative body to include townsmen. It was the first such representative body to include members of the nobility. It was the first such representative body to be elected and not selected. It was the first such representative body to include clergy.

It was the first such representative body to include townsmen. King Alfonso IX summoned townsmen to the cortes in 1188, getting their representatives to agree to his plea for military and financial support and for help in consolidating his rule.

How did the Peace of Westphalia differ from earlier peace treaties? It was the first to be signed by government ministers and not rulers themselves. It was the first to bring warring parties together a few at a time. It was the first to employ a diplomatic congress. It was the first to establish an international body to settle future disputes.

It was the first to employ a diplomatic congress. For the first time, a diplomatic congress convened to address international disputes, and those signing the treaties guaranteed the resulting settlement. A method still in use, the congress was the first to bring all parties together rather than two or three at a time.

Catherine de Médicis

Italian-born mother of French king Charles IX (r. 1560-1574); she served as regent and tried but failed to prevent religious warfare between Calvinists and Catholics. Pg. 389

Which of these was true of the typical Frankish village? a. It would likely have had a population in excess of five hundred. b. Its inhabitants would have included both peasants and aristocrats. c. Most of its inhabitants would have been artisans and merchants. d. It would have grown up around a large stone castle.

Its inhabitants would have included both peasants and aristocrats. The typical village had a large central building for an aristocratic household and many smaller buildings in which peasants lived.

Why did the geography of ancient Greece encourage political fragmentation? a. Its coastal outline prevented communication. b. Its mountains impeded communication between regions. c. Its mountains impeded communication between regions. d. Its many swamps made travel and transportation of goods difficult. e. Its plains were too vast to be crossed.

Its mountains impeded communication between regions. Mountains slowed communication between areas, which encouraged separate settlements that eventually developed into poleis, or city-states.

Yeshua ben Yosef

Jesus' real name

predestination

John Calvin's doctrine that God preordained salvation or damnation for each person before creation; those chosen for salvation were considered the "elect." Pg. 373

What was Alexander's strategy for ruling a vast empire? a. Imitate the Persians in all things. b. Keep an area's traditional administrative system in place while founding cities of Greeks and Macedonians in the conquered territory. c. Wipe out all existing institutions and replace them with Macedonian ones. d. Gain the support of the poor and use it to dominate the rich.

Keep an area's traditional administrative system in place while founding cities of Greeks and Macedonians in the conquered territory. This strategy was first revealed in Egypt and Persia.

Hammurabi

King of Babylonia in the eighteenth century B.C.E. , famous for his law code. He became the most famous lawgiver in Mesopotamia. His laws for his kingdom straddling the Euphrates River drew on earlier Mesopotamian codes, such as that of the Ur III dynasty, and reveal details on city life in particular.

journeymen / journeywomen

Laborers in the Middle Ages whom guildmasters hired for a daily wage to help them produce their products. Pg. 262

Paleolithic Cave Painting

Lascaux, France 15-13,000 B.C.E An example of Naturalism.

Which of these was perhaps most representative of humanists in general? Francis Petrarch Christine de Pisan Lauro Quirini Giovanni Pico della Mirandola

Lauro Quirini In many ways, Quirini was a typical humanist. Educated at the University of Padua and the recipient of a law degree, Quirini wrote numerous letters and essays and corresponded with other humanists.

coloni

Literally, "cultivators"; tenant farmers in the Roman Empire who became bound by law to the land they worked and whose children were legally required to continue to farm the same land. The new tax system could work only if agricultural production remained stable and the government kept track of the people who were liable for the head tax. Diocletian therefore restricted the movement of tenant farmers, called coloni (cah-LOW-nee, "cultivators"), whose work provided the Empire's economic base. Now, male coloni, as well as their wives in areas where women were assessed for taxes, were increasingly tied to a particular plot of land. Their children, too, were bound to the family plot, making farming a hereditary obligation.

equites

Literally, "equestrians" or "knights"; wealthy Roman businessmen who chose not to pursue a government career. Gaius, elected tribune for 123 B.C.E. and, contrary to tradition, again for the next year, also pushed measures that outraged his fellow elite: more farming reforms, subsidized prices for grain, public works projects to employ the poor, and colonies abroad with farms for the landless. His most revolutionary measures proposed Roman citizenship for many Italians, and new courts to try senators accused of corruption as provincial governors. The new juries would be manned by equites (EH-kwee-tehs, "equestrians" or "knights"). These were wealthy businessmen whose focus on commerce instead of government made their interests different from the senators' interests. To keep their rank, they were required to own a large amount of property, though not as much as those ranked as senators. Because they did not serve in the Senate, the equites could convict senators for crimes without having to face peer pressure.

patria potestas

Literally, "father's power"; the legal power a Roman father possessed over the children and slaves in his family, including owning all their property and having the right to punish them, even with death. The family was Roman society's bedrock because it taught values and determined the ownership of property. Men and women shared the duty of teaching their children values, though by law the father possessed the patria potestas ("father's power") over his children — no matter how old — and his slaves. This power made him the sole owner of all his dependents' property. As long as he was alive, no son or daughter could officially own anything, accumulate money, or possess any independent legal standing. Unofficially, however, adult children did control personal property and money, and favored slaves could build up savings. Fathers also held legal power of life and death over these members of their households, but they rarely exercised this power except through exposure of newborns, an accepted practice to limit family size and dispose of physically imperfect infants. Patria potestas did not allow a husband to control his wife; instead, under the common arrangement called a "free" marriage, the wife formally remained under her father's power as long as the father lived. But in the ancient world, few fathers lived long enough to oversee the lives of their married daughters or sons; four out of five parents died before their children reached age thirty. A Roman woman without a living father was relatively independent. Legally, she needed a male guardian to conduct her business, but guardianship was largely an empty formality by the first century B.C.E. As a commentator explained: "The common belief seems more false than true that, because of their instability of judgment, women are often deceived and that therefore it is only fair to have them controlled by the authority of guardians. In fact, women of full age manage their affairs themselves." A Roman woman had to grow up fast. Tullia (c. 79-45 B.C.E.), daughter of Rome's most famous politician and orator, Cicero, was engaged at twelve, married at sixteen, and widowed by twenty-two. Like every other wealthy married Roman woman, she managed the household slaves, monitored the nurturing of the young children by wet nurses, kept account books to track the property she personally owned, and accompanied her husband to dinner parties — something a Greek wife was not allowed to do.

iconoclasm

Literally, "icon breaking"; referring to the destruction of icons, or images of holy people. Byzantine emperors banned icons from 726 to 787; a modified ban was revived in 815 and lasted until 843. Pg. 214

popolo

Literally, "people"; a communal faction, largely made up of merchants, that demanded (and often obtained) power in thirteenth-century Italian cities. Pg. 329

mos maiorum

Literally, "the way of the elders"; the set of Roman values handed down from the ancestors. Roman values defined relationships with other people and with the gods. Romans guided their lives by the mos maiorum ("the way of the elders"), values passed down from their ancestors. The Romans preserved these values because, for them, old equaled "tested by time," while new meant "dangerous." Roman morality emphasized virtue, faithfulness, and respect. A reputation for behaving morally was crucial to Romans because it earned them the respect of others. Virtus ("manly virtue") meant strength, loyalty, and courage, especially in war. It also included wisdom and moral purity; in this broader sense, women, too, could possess virtus. Fides (FEE-dehs, "faithfulness") meant keeping one's obligations no matter the cost. Failing to meet an obligation offended the community and the gods. Faithful women remained virgins before marriage and monogamous afterward. Faithful men kept their word, paid their debts, and treated everyone with justice — which did not mean treating everyone equally, but rather appropriately, according to whether the person was a social superior, an equal, or an inferior. Showing respect and devotion to the gods and to one's family was the supreme form of faithfulness. Romans believed they had to worship the gods faithfully to maintain the divine favor that protected their community. Roman values required that each person maintain self-control and limit displays of emotion. So strict was this value that not even wives and husbands could kiss in public without seeming emotionally out of control. It also meant that a person should never give up, no matter how hard the situation. The reward for living these values was respect from others. Women earned respect by bearing legitimate children and educating them morally. Men became respected through military service and helping others. They relied on their reputations to help them win election to the republic's government posts. A man of the highest reputation commanded so much respect that others would obey him regardless of whether he held an office with formal power over them. A man with this much prestige was said to possess authority. The concept of authority based on respect reflected the Roman belief that some people were by nature superior to others and that society had to be hierarchical to be just. Romans believed that aristocrats, people born into the "best" families, automatically deserved high respect. In return, aristocrats were supposed to live strictly by the highest values to serve the community. In legends about the early days of Rome, a person could be poor and still remain a proud aristocrat. Over time, however, money became overwhelmingly important to the Roman elite, to purchase showy luxuries, large-scale entertainment, and costly gifts to the community. In this way, wealth became necessary to maintain high social status.

In the ninth- and tenth-century churches, who chose local bishops and priests? Local lords and kings named bishops and expected their loyalty. Bishops were elected by local clergy, who in turn were chosen by congregations. Bishops appointed priests but were themselves selected by powerful abbots. The pope chose bishops, who appointed all priests.

Local lords and kings named bishops and expected their loyalty. In the ninth and tenth centuries, the church was increasingly controlled by kings and feudal lords, who chose priests and bishops within their territory.

Which of these explains why the impact of the Fourth Lateran Council's provisions was less dramatic than church leaders hoped? The papacy lacked the means to communicate its wishes to church officials across Europe. The papacy was not really committed to implementing the council's decisions. Most Christians did not acknowledge the authority of the pope. Local political authorities often failed to enforce church laws.

Local political authorities often failed to enforce church laws. All church laws took effect only when local political powers enforced them, and in many cases local authorities allowed traditional practices to continue.

Which of the following was part of the trivium, the first three of the seven liberal arts? Law Astronomy Logic Medicine

Logic Grammar, rhetoric, and logic (or dialectic) belonged to the beginning arts, the so-called trivium.

In the wake of Alexander the Great's death, the general Antigonus was given authority over what region? a. The Indus Valley b. Macedonia c. Babylonia d. Egypt

Macedonia Antigonus I took control of Anatolia, the Near East, Macedonia, and Greece.

Jesuits

Members of the Society of Jesus, a Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) and approved by the pope in 1540. Jesuits served as missionaries and educators all over the world. Pg. 378

Fatimids

Members of the tenth-century Shi'ite dynasty who derived their name from Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad and wife of Ali; they dominated in parts of North Africa, Egypt, and even Syria. The splintering of the Islamic world was to be expected since central power there was based on the conquest of many diverse regions, each with its own deeply rooted traditions and culture. The Islamic religion, with its Sunni/Shi'ite split, also became a source of polarization.* Western Europeans knew almost nothing about Muslims, calling all of them Saracens (from the Latin word for "Arabs") without distinction. But, as is still true today, Muslims were of different ethnicities, practiced different customs, and identified with different regions. With the fragmentation of political and religious unity, each of the tenth- and early-eleventh-century Islamic states built on local traditions under local rulers. A good example of this trend was the Shi'ite group known as the Fatimids. Taking their name from Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad and wife of Ali, they established themselves in 909 as rulers in the region of North Africa now called Tunisia. The Fatimid ruler claimed to be not only the true imam — the descendant of Ali — but also the mahdi, the "divinely guided" messiah, come to bring justice on earth. In 969, the Fatimids declared themselves rulers of Egypt. Their dynasty lasted for about two hundred years. Fatimid leaders also controlled North Africa, Arabia, and even Syria for a time. They established a lavish court culture that rivaled the one at Baghdad, and they supported industries such as lusterware that had once been a monopoly of the Abbasids. Pg. 234

masters

Men (and occasionally women) who, having achieved expertise in a craft, ran the guilds in the Middle Ages. They had to be rich enough to have their own shop and tools and to pay an entry fee into the guild. Often their positions were hereditary. Pg. 262

What Mesopotamian inventions most influenced later mathematical and astronomical developments?

Mesopotamian achievements in mathematics and astronomy had an enduring effect. Mathematicians devised algebra, including the derivation of roots of numbers. They invented place-value notation, which makes a numeral's position in a number indicate ones, tens, hundreds, and so on. The system of reckoning based on sixty, still used in the division of hours and minutes and in the degrees of a circle, also comes from Mesopotamia.

Persian Empire

Mesopotamian empire that conquered the existing Median, Lydian, and Babylonian empires, as well as Egypt and many others. Also known as the Achaemenid Empire.

Which of these sang in German? Ministerials Trouvères Minnesingers Troubadours

Minnesingers Minnesingers sang their love poems in German.

palace society

Minoan and Mycenaean social and political organization centered on multi-chambered buildings housing the rulers and the administration of the state. By around 2200 B.C.E., Minoans on Crete and nearby islands had created a palace society, a name pointing to its sprawling multichambered buildings housing not only the rulers, their families, and their servants, but also the political, economic, and religious administrative offices of the state. Minoan rulers combined the functions of ruler and priest, dominating both politics and religion. The palaces seem to have been independent, with no single Minoan community imposing unity on the others. The general population clustered around each palace in houses adjacent to one another; some of these settlements reached the size and density of small cities. The Cretan site Knossos is the most famous such palace complex. Other, smaller settlements dotted outlying areas of the island, especially on the coast. The Minoans' numerous ports supported extensive international trade, above all with the Egyptians and the Hittites. The most surprising feature of Minoan communities is their lack of strong defensive walls. Palaces, towns, and even isolated country houses had no fortifications. The remains of the newer palaces — such as that at Knossos, with its hundreds of rooms in five stories, indoor plumbing, and colorful scenes painted on the walls — have led some historians to the controversial conclusion that Minoans avoided war among themselves, despite their having no single central authority over their independent settlements.

decurions

Municipal Senate members in the Roman Empire responsible for collecting local taxes. A tax on agriculture in the provinces (Italy was exempt) provided the principal source of revenue. The bureaucracy was inexpensive because it was small: only several hundred Roman officials governed a population of about fifty million. Most locally collected taxes stayed in the provinces to pay expenses there, especially soldiers' pay. Governors with small staffs ran the provinces, which eventually numbered about forty. This lean bureaucracy was possible especially because elite civilians in the provinces were responsible for collecting the taxes that financed Roman government. Serving as decurions (members of municipal Senates), these wealthy men were required personally to guarantee that their area's financial responsibilities were met. If there was a shortfall in tax collection or local finances, the decurions had to pay the difference from their own pockets. Wise emperors kept taxes moderate. As Tiberius put it, when refusing a request for tax increases from provincial governors, "I want you to shear my sheep, not skin them alive." The financial liability in holding civic office made that honor expensive, but the accompanying prestige made the elite willing to take the risk. Rewards for decurions included priesthoods in the imperial cult, an honor open to both men and women. The system worked because it observed tradition: the local elites were their communities' patrons and the emperor's clients. As long as there were enough rich, public-spirited provincials participating, the principate functioned by fostering the old ideal of community service by the upper class in return for respect and social status.

Which of these was true of armies during the later phases of the Thirty Years' War? Most soldiers were motivated by religious convictions. Most soldiers were unpaid draftees. Mutinies were frequent. Armies grew increasingly professional and reliable.

Mutinies were frequent. As the war dragged on, governments were increasingly short of funds and often failed to pay the troops. The result was frequent mutinies, looting, and pillaging.

Palette of Narmer

Narmer (a.k.a. Menes) conquers Nile Delta By 2687 BCE, Upper and Lower Egypt unified. A makeup palette (like a painting palette).

Which of these was an important trend in European warfare in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries? European military technology fell behind that of Asia and Africa. The cost of warfare fell. Battles became less frequent. New military technology made warfare deadlier.

New military technology made warfare deadlier. New guns and cannons dramatically increased the firepower of European armies.

Which of the following occurred in both the Islamic world and the Byzantine Empire in the ninth and tenth centuries? New representative legislative bodies were created. The process of political centralization accelerated. The central ruler became a figurehead only. New regional lords challenged the power of the central ruler.

New regional lords challenged the power of the central ruler. In the Islamic world, as in the Byzantine, new regional lords challenged the power of the central ruler. But the process advanced quicker in Islamic than in Byzantine territories.

Who were the ninth-century Magyars? The founders of Poland Islamic warriors who raided eastern Europe Nomadic people from the Ural Mountains A tribe formerly enslaved by the Rus

Nomadic people from the Ural Mountains The Magyars came from the central European steppes to plunder and raid western Europe.

Which of these was an important difference between Italian humanists and northern humanists? Italian humanists were much more interested in classical languages. Italian humanists very rarely included Christian themes in their work. Northern humanists tended to focus more on religious revival and the inculcation of Christian piety. Northern humanists gave priority to civic life and other secular concerns.

Northern humanists tended to focus more on religious revival and the inculcation of Christian piety. Many northern humanists were university-educated clergy who saw religious revival as their most important task.

Which of these helped create the Great Famine of the early fourteenth century? The introduction of new agricultural technology A prolonged drought Overpopulation A series of unusually cold winters

Overpopulation The exponential leap in population from the tenth through most of the thirteenth century slowed to zero around the year 1300, but all the land that could be cultivated had been settled by this time.

Which of these earlier scholars can be seen as a forerunner of scholasticism? Einhard Alcuin The Venerable Bede Peter Abelard

Peter Abelard Scholasticism was the culmination of the method of logical inquiry and exposition pioneered by masters like Peter Abelard and Peter the Chanter.

metaphysics

Philosophical ideas about the ultimate nature of reality beyond the reach of human senses. This was one of Plato's interests.

Ataraxia

Pleasure through the avoidance of pain. A state of freedom from emotional disturbance and anxiety; tranquility; peace of mind. Enjoying the simple joys of life such as good food. Not the same as hedonism.

Neoplatonism

Plotinus's spiritual philosophy, based mainly on Plato's ideas, which was very influential for Christian intellectuals. Christian and polytheist intellectuals debated Christianity's relationship to Greek philosophy. Origen (c. 185-255 C.E.) argued that Christianity was superior to Greek philosophical doctrines as a guide to correct living. At about the same time, Plotinus (c. 205-270 C.E.) developed the philosophy that had the greatest influence on religion. His spiritual philosophy was influenced by Persian religious ideas and, above all, Plato's philosophy, for which reason it is called Neoplatonism. Plotinus's ideas deeply influenced many Christian thinkers as well as polytheists. He wrote that ultimate reality is a trinity of The One, of Mind, and of Soul. By rejecting the life of the body and relying on reason, individual souls could achieve a mystic union with The One, who in Christian thought would be God. To succeed in this spiritual quest required strenuous self-discipline in personal morality and spiritual purity as well as in philosophical contemplation.

politiques

Political advisers during the sixteenth-century French Wars of Religion who argued that compromise in matters of religion would strengthen the monarchy. Pg. 390

Inscriptions from Pompeii

Political campaigning Gossip Similar to modern bathroom stall wall writings Far different than the usual surviving primary sources which are often from kings or other high ranking individuals.

Which of these was an important difference between Christians and polytheists in the third and fourth centuries? a. Polytheists embraced Neoplatonist philosophy. b. Polytheists rejected the notion that there was such a thing as a supreme god. c. Polytheists did not believe Christians possessed the sole version of religious truth. d. Polytheists were uncomfortable with Christianity's tendency to mix religion and politics.

Polytheists did not believe Christians possessed the sole version of religious truth. Most polytheists rejected the notion that any group could claim a monopoly on religious truth. Most Christians vehemently disagreed

Gregory VII

Pope during the 11th century who attempted to free Church from interference of feudal lords; quarreled with Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV over practice of lay investiture. Gregory was, and remains, an extraordinarily controversial figure. As pope, he thought that he was acting as the vicar, or representative, of St. Peter on earth. In his view, the reforms he advocated and the upheavals he precipitated were necessary to free the church from the evil rulers of the world. But his great nemesis, Henry IV, had a very different view of Gregory. He considered him an ambitious and evil man who "seduced the world far and wide and stained the Church with the blood of her sons." Modern historians are only a bit less divided in their assessment of Gregory. Few deny his sincerity and deep religious devotion, but many speak of his pride, ambition, and single-mindedness Pg. 267

Which of these is an accurate description of the demographic and economic trends in the second half of the sixteenth century? Population declined and prices rose. Population grew and prices rose. Population grew and prices fell. Population declined and prices fell.

Population grew and prices rose. Population grew and prices rose in the second half of the sixteenth century. England's population grew by 70 percent, and in parts of Spain the population grew by 100 percent (that is, it doubled). Food prices rose particularly fast, climbing 400 percent over the course of the whole century.

The first phase of European overseas expansion began in 1434 with which of the following? English exploration of the North Atlantic Portuguese exploration of the West African coast Swedish exploration of the Arctic Circle Spanish exploration of the North African coast

Portuguese exploration of the West African coast The Portuguese hoped to find a sea route to the spice-producing lands of South and Southeast Asia in order to bypass the Ottoman Turks, who controlled the traditional land routes between Europe and Asia.

Which of these was central to St. Francis's religious life? Poverty Isolation Meditation Self-flagellation

Poverty Clinging to poverty as if, in his words, "she" were his "lady," Francis accepted no money, walked without shoes, and wore only one coarse tunic.

Aphrodite of Knidos

Praxiteles. Roman marble copy after an original of ca. 350-340 BCE. First nude statue of a goddess. praxiteles turns marble into "flesh" late classical. Not meant to be erotic Considered ideal for the time.

debasement of coinage

Putting less silver in a coin without changing its face value; a failed financial strategy during the third-century C.E. crisis in Rome. The increased demand for pay and supplies strained imperial finances. The army had become a source of negative instead of positive cash flow to the treasury, and the economy had not expanded to make up the difference. To make matters worse, inflation had driven up prices. The principate's long period of peace promoted inflation by increasing demand for goods and services to a level that outstripped the supply. In desperation, some emperors attempted to curb inflation by debasing imperial coinage. Debasement of coinage meant putting less precious metal in each coin and adding more metal of less worth without changing the coin's face value. In this way, the emperors created more cash from the same amount of precious metal. But merchants soon raised prices to make up for the debased coinage's reduced value; this in turn produced more inflation, causing prices to rise even more. Still, the soldiers demanded that their patrons, the emperors, pay them well. This pressure drove imperial finances into collapse by the 250s C.E.

Realism

Real-like As if it existed in reality. A believable representation - even of mythological things. In contrast to idealism.

patrilineal

Relating to or tracing descent through the paternal line (for example, through the father and grandfather). Recognizing the overriding claims of one son, often the eldest, they handed down their entire inheritance to him. (The system of inheritance in which the heir is the eldest son is called primogeniture.) The heir, in turn, traced his lineage only through the male line, backward through his father and forward through his own eldest son. Such patrilineal families left many younger sons without an inheritance and therefore without the prospect of marrying and founding a family; instead, the younger sons lived at the courts of the great as youths, or they joined the church as clerics or monks. The development of territorial rule and patrilineal families went hand in hand, as fathers passed down to one son not only manors but also titles, castles, and authority over the peasantry. Pg. 249

Which of these was true of the period that followed the Thirty Years' War? The Habsburgs emerged as Europe's preeminent power. Europe remained at peace for almost fifty years. States grew increasingly decentralized. Religion was no longer the underlying cause of international warfare.

Religion was no longer the underlying cause of international warfare. After 1648, international warfare would be undertaken for reasons of national security, commercial ambition, or dynastic pride rather than to enforce religious uniformity.

Which of these contributed to the splintering of the Islamic world? The growing success of Christian missionaries The growing power of the Byzantine Empire Religious divisions within Islam The decline of international and regional trade

Religious divisions within Islam The Sunni/Shi'ite split had a particularly divisive and polarizing impact on the Islamic world.

Which of these describes the influence of classical models on Renaissance architects and artists? Renaissance architects and artists sought to produce exact copies of classical models. Renaissance architects and artists saw the weight of classical traditions as an impediment to progress. Renaissance architects and artists were largely ignorant of the classical past. Renaissance architects and artists melded classical models with medieval forms and traditions.

Renaissance architects and artists melded classical models with medieval forms and traditions. Architects and artists admired ancient Athens and Rome, but they also modified these classical models, melding them with Renaissance artistic traditions.

plebiscites

Resolutions passed by the Plebeian Assembly; such resolutions gained the force of law in 287 B.C.E. Three different assemblies made legislation, conducted elections, and rendered judgment in certain trials. The Centuriate Assembly, which elected praetors and consuls, was dominated by patricians and rich plebeians. The Plebeian Assembly, which excluded patricians, elected the tribunes. In 287 B.C.E., its resolutions, called plebiscites (PLEB-uh-sites), became legally binding on all Romans. The Tribal Assembly mixed patricians with plebeians and became the republic's most important assembly. Each assembly was divided into groups, with each group comprising a different number of men based on status and wealth; each group had one vote. Before assembly meetings, orators gave speeches about issues. Everyone, including women and noncitizens, could listen to these pre-vote speeches. The crowd expressed its opinions by either applauding or hissing. This process mixed a small measure of democracy with the republic's oligarchy. Early on, the praetors decided most legal cases. A separate jury system arose in the second century B.C.E., and senators repeatedly clashed with other upper-class Romans over whether these juries should consist exclusively of senators. Accusers and accused had to speak for themselves in court, or have friends speak for them. Priests dominated in legal knowledge until the third century B.C.E., when senators with legal expertise, called jurists, began to offer advice about cases. The Roman republic's complex political and judicial system evolved in response to conflicts over power. Laws could emerge from different assemblies, and legal cases could be decided by various institutions. Rome had no single highest court, such as the U.S. Supreme Court, to give final verdicts. The republic's stability therefore depended on maintaining the mos maiorum. Because they defined this tradition, the most socially prominent and richest Romans dominated politics and the courts.

Which of these was at the heart of the imperial financial crisis of the third century C.E.? a. A series of natural disasters b. Rising military costs c. Rising military costs d. Government corruption e. Unemployment

Rising military costs

What do the events that led to the Hundred Years' War suggest about the nature of medieval warfare? Economic causes of wars were most important. Divisions over religious principles and authority underlay most wars. Rivalries between monarchs and their competing territorial claims caused wars. National hatreds and tensions pressured kings to go to war.

Rivalries between monarchs and their competing territorial claims caused wars. The Hundred Years' War began in rivalries between monarchs and competing territorial claims.

The patron-client system reflected the a. The egalitarian nature of Roman society. b. Impersonal nature of Roman politics. c. Roman commitment to civic duty. d. Roman belief that such ties were crucial to the maintenance of social stability.

Roman belief that such ties were crucial to the maintenance of social stability. The patron-client system demonstrated the Roman idea that social stability and well-being were achieved by faithfully maintaining established ties.

principate

Roman political system invented by Augustus as a disguised monarchy with the princeps ("first man") as emperor. In 27 B.C.E., Octavian proclaimed that he "gave back the state from [his] own power to the control of the Roman Senate and the people" and announced they should decide how to preserve it. Recognizing Octavian's power, the senators asked him to safeguard the state, granted him special civil and military powers, and bestowed on him the honorary title Augustus, meaning "divinely favored." Augustus changed Rome's political system, but he retained the name republic and maintained the appearance of representative government in what is today called the Roman Empire. Citizens elected consuls, the Senate gave advice, and the assemblies met. Augustus occasionally served as consul, but mostly he let others hold that office so they could enjoy its prestige. He concealed his monarchy by referring to himself only with the honorary title princeps, meaning "first man" (among social equals), a term of status from the republic. The Romans used the Latin word princeps to describe the position that we call emperor, and so the Roman government in the early empire after 27 B.C.E. is most accurately labeled the principate. Each new princeps was supposed to be chosen only with the Senate's approval, but in practice each ruler chose his own successor, in the way a royal family decides who will be king. To preserve the tradition that no official should hold more than one post at a time, Augustus as princeps had the Senate grant him the powers, though not the office, of a tribune. In 23 B.C.E., the Senate agreed that Augustus should also have a consul's power to command (imperium): in fact, his power would be superior to that held by the actual consuls. Holding the power of a tribune and a power even greater than a consul's meant that Augustus could rule the state without filling any formal executive political office. Augustus insisted that people obeyed him not out of fear but out of respect for his auctoritas ("authority"). Since Augustus realized that symbols affect people's perception of reality, he dressed and acted modestly, like a regular citizen, not an arrogant king. Livia, his wife, played a prominent role as his political adviser and partner in publicly upholding old-fashioned values. In fact, Augustus and the emperors who came after him were able to exercise supreme power because they controlled the army and the treasury. Later Roman emperors held the same power but continued to refer to the state as the republic; the senators and the consuls continued to exist, and the rulers continued to pretend to respect them.

How did the Third Punic War end? a. The Romans ran out of men and materials and had to end the fighting. b. Locked in a stalemate, Rome and Carthage made peace. c. Rome gained mastery over Spain. d. Rome destroyed Carthage.

Rome destroyed Carthage. After winning the war, the Romans heeded the senator Cato's demand: "Carthage must be destroyed!" They obliterated the city and converted its territory into a province.

Colosseum

Rome's fifty-thousand-seat amphitheater built by the Flavian dynasty for gladiatorial combats and other spectacles. In his role as "first man" protecting the people, Titus built Rome's Colosseum, outfitting the fifty-thousand-seat amphitheater with awnings to shade the crowd. The Colosseum was constructed on the site of the private fishpond in Nero's palace to demonstrate the Flavian dynasty's commitment to the people.

Cicero

Rome's most famous orator and author of the doctrine of humanitas. The orator and politician Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.) wrote speeches, letters, and treatises on political science, philosophy, ethics, and theology. He adapted Greek philosophy to Roman life and stressed the need to appreciate each person's uniqueness. His doctrine of humanitas ("humaneness," "the quality of humanity") expressed an ideal for human life based on generous and honest treatment of others and a commitment to morality based on natural law (the rights that belong to all people because they are human beings, independent of the differing laws and customs of different societies).

The involvement of Prince Henry in Portuguese exploration offers evidence for the importance of what aspect of European expansion? Protestant willingness to defy church restrictions on commerce Personal participation of royalty Royal patronage Mathematical talent

Royal patronage Prince Henry's active patronage of exploration and maritime activity, particularly for geography and navigation, was vital to early Portuguese success in this area.

Which of these trends shaped the rural economy of the Middle Ages? The duties and obligations of serfdom grew more onerous. Migration to cities completely depopulated many rural areas. Rural life was increasingly organized for the marketplace. Cash wages for agricultural workers gave way to barter agreements.

Rural life was increasingly organized for the marketplace. Great lords hired trained, literate agents to administer their estates, calculate profits and losses, and make marketing decisions.

Where did Muslim merchants go to purchase copper and amber? England China Rus Timbuktu

Rus Muslim merchants acquired copper, gold, and amber from Rus.

Phoenicians

Semitic-speaking Canaanites living on the coast of modern Lebanon and Syria in the first millennium B.C.E. Famous for developing the first alphabet, which was adopted by the Greeks. From major cities such as Tyre and Sidon, these merchants and sailors explored the Mediterranean, and engaged in widespread commerce.

Which of these emperors accelerated the imperial financial crisis through his unwise policies? a. Claudius b. Septimius Severus c. Septimius Severus d. Tiberius e. Marcus Aurelius

Septimius Severus Severus drained the imperial treasury to fund his dreams of military glory and conquest.

In the eighth and ninth century, how did the status of serfs differ from that of peasants? Serfs could not leave the land without permission, while peasants could. Serfs were obliged to pay a fee if they chose to marry, while peasants were not. Serfs provided agricultural labor, while peasants did not. Serfs enjoyed greater legal freedoms than peasants.

Serfs could not leave the land without permission, while peasants could. Free farmers who became bound to the land were known as serfs.

Why did French regent Catherine de Médicis arrange the marriage of the king's Catholic sister, Marguerite de Valois, to Henry of Navarre, a Huguenot and Bourbon? She was a Huguenot. She feared the rise of Guise influence. She wanted control of his lands. She wanted his help in the event of civil war.

She feared the rise of Guise influence. Catherine de Médicis feared the rise of Guise influence. To counter this, she brought a Huguenot noble, Henry of Navarre, into the royal family.

Which of these was true of Eleanor of Aquitaine? She dominated Henry II. She plotted to overthrow Henry II. She ended her life in a nunnery. She was very intelligent but poorly educated.

She plotted to overthrow Henry II. In 1173, Eleanor tried to join her eldest son, Henry the Younger, in a plot against his father, but the rebellion was put down.

Which of these was true of Christine de Pisan? She wrote under a male pseudonym. She was one of Europe's first female physicians. Her humanism made her an outcast in elite social circles. She wrote poems to support herself.

She wrote poems to support herself. Widowed at a young age, de Pisan was forced to support herself, her mother, and her three young children. To do so, she began to write poems inspired by classical models, depending on patrons to admire her work and pay her to write more.

epigrams

Short poems written by women in the Hellenistic Age; many were about other women and the writer's personal feelings. No Hellenistic women poets seem to have enjoyed royal financial support; rather, they created their art independently. They excelled in writing epigrams, short poems in the style of those originally used on tombstones to remember the dead. Highly literary poems by women from diverse regions of the Hellenistic world still survive. Many epigrams were about women, from courtesans to respectable matrons, expressing the writer's personal feelings. No other Hellenistic literature better conveys the depth of human emotion than the epigrams written by women poets.

Anabaptists

Sixteenth-century Protestants who believed that only adults could truly have faith and accept baptism. Pg. 375

In what way did most sixth- and seventh-century western European cities differ from Roman cities during the empire's heyday? a. Earlier Roman cities had been largely politically autonomous. b. Sixth- and seventh-century cities did not have the same commercial and cultural vitality. c. Sixth- and seventh-century cities served as centers of church administration. d. Earlier Roman cities were home to few poor people.

Sixth- and seventh-century cities did not have the same commercial and cultural vitality. The vibrant economy that had been the lifeblood of Roman cities had all but disappeared.

Justinian and Theodora

Sixth-century emperor and empress of the eastern Roman Empire, famous for waging costly wars to reunite the empire. The eastern emperors believed it was their duty to rule a united Roman Empire and prevent barbarians from degrading its culture. The most famous eastern Roman emperor, Justinian (r. 527-565), and his wife and partner in rule, Theodora (500-548), waged war against the barbarian kingdoms in the west, aiming to reunite the Empire and restore the imperial glory of the Augustan period. Justinian increased imperial authority and tried to purify religion to satisfy what he saw as his duty to provide strong leadership and God's favor. He and his successors in the eastern Empire contributed to the preservation of the memory of classical Greek and Roman culture by preserving a great deal of earlier literature, both non-Christian and Christian.

According to the fifteenth-century Renaissance scholar Giovanni Pico della Mirandola in On the Dignity of Man, why did God create humans? To serve as the master of creation So people could fall in love So men could honor women So man could become whatever he chose to be

So man could become whatever he chose to be Pico della Mirandola suggested that God created humans to determine for themselves what they wanted from life.

How did European peasants respond to the pressures created by the Great Famine? Some developed new agricultural technologies to increase crop yields. Some switched from settled agriculture to a pastoral lifestyle. Some moved east where land was more plentiful. Some moved west where land was more plentiful.

Some moved east where land was more plentiful. Hungry peasants migrated from west to east, to Poland, for example, where land was more plentiful.

With which of these would most traditional Romans agree? a. All people are equal. b. All people are capable of leadership. c. Morality applies only to the poor. d. Some people are naturally superior to others.

Some people are naturally superior to others. Romans believed that aristocrats, people born into the "best" families, automatically deserved high respect.

Which of these belief systems presented itself as the "science of living" and required self-discipline from its followers? a. Christianity b. Stoicism c. The cult of Mithras d. The cult of Isis

Stoicism The Stoics emphasized self-discipline and a sense of duty, teachings that fit well with traditional Roman values.

Ab Urbe Condita

Story of the history of Rome written by Livy (59 BCE - 17 CE)

Puritans

Strict Calvinists who in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries opposed all vestiges of Catholic ritual in the Church of England. Pg. 393

Suleiman the Magnificent

Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (r. 1520-1566) at the time of its greatest power. Pg. 382

Koine

The "common" or "shared" form of the Greek language that became the international language in the Hellenistic period. Cultural transformations also shaped Hellenistic society. Wealthy non-Greeks increasingly adopted a Greek lifestyle to join the Hellenistic world's social hierarchy. Greek became the common language for international commerce and communication. The widespread use of the simplified form of the Greek language called Koine ("common") reflected the emergence of an international culture employing a common language; this was the reason the Egyptian camel trader stranded in Syria mentioned at the beginning of this chapter was at a disadvantage because he did not speak Greek. The most striking evidence of this cultural development comes from Afghanistan. There, King Ashoka (r. c. 268-232 B.C.E.), who ruled most of the Indian subcontinent, used Greek as one of the languages in his public inscriptions meant to teach Buddhist self-control, such as abstinence from eating meat. Local languages did not disappear in the Hellenistic kingdoms, however. In one region of Anatolia, for example, people spoke twenty-two different languages.

dynatoi

The "powerful men" who dominated the countryside of the Byzantine Empire in the tenth and eleventh centuries, and to some degree challenged the authority of the emperor. At Constantinople the emperor reigned supreme. But outside the capital, extremely powerful military families began to compete with imperial power. The dynatoi ("powerful men"), as this new hereditary elite was called, got rich on plunder and new lands taken in the aggressive wars of the tenth century. They took over or bought up whole villages, turning the peasants' labor to their benefit. For the most part they exercised their power locally, but they also sometimes occupied the imperial throne. Pg. 229

tetrarchy

The "rule by four," consisting of two co-emperors and two assistant emperors/designated successors, initiated by Diocletian to subdivide the ruling of the Roman Empire into four regions. Diocletian appointed three "partners" (a co-emperor, Maximian, and two assistant emperors, Constantius and Galerius, who were the designated successors) to join him in ruling the Empire in a tetrarchy ("rule by four"). Each ruler controlled one of four districts. Diocletian served as supreme ruler and was supposed to receive the loyalty of the others. He also created smaller administrative units, called dioceses, under separate governors, who reported to the four emperor's assistants, the praetorian prefects (Map 7.1). This system was Diocletian's attempt to put imperial government into closer contact with the Empire's frontier regions, where the dangers of invasion and rebellious troops loomed. Diocletian's reforms ended Rome's thousand years as the Empire's most important city. Diocletian did not even visit Rome until 303, nearly twenty years after becoming emperor. Italy became just another section of the Empire, now subject to the same taxation as everywhere else.

Jacquerie

The 1358 uprising of French peasants against the nobles amid the Hundred Years' War; it was brutally put down. Pg. 342

Which of the following was true of Abbasid rule? The Abbasid caliphs found support in an uneasy coalition of Sunnis and Christians. The Abbasid caliphs adhered to Persian courtly models. The Abbasid caliphs saw themselves as Bedouins and lived a nomadic lifestyle. The Abbasid caliphs were generally hostile to scholarly and artistic endeavors.

The Abbasid caliphs adhered to Persian courtly models. The Abbasid caliphs adhered even more firmly than the Umayyads to Persian courtly models, with a centralized administration, a large staff, and control over the appointment of regional governors.

How did the weakening of the Abbasid caliphate contribute to the weakening of the Carolingians? The decline of the Abbasids coincided with the renewal of the Byzantine Empire. The decline of the Abbasids opened the way for the Viking invasions. The Abbasids were important trading partners for the Carolingians. The Abbasids were important military allies of the Carolingians.

The Abbasids were important trading partners for the Carolingians. The weakening of the Abbasids disrupted the trade networks that linked them to the Carolingians.

polis

The Archaic Age (c. 750-500 B.C.E) saw the creation of the Greek city-state — the polis — an independent community of citizens inhabiting a city and the countryside around it. Greek city-states were communities in which citizenship was the basis of politics and society. With only one exception, Greek city-states did not have kings but instead were self-governing. Greece's geography, dominated by mountains and islands, promoted the creation of hundreds of independent city- states around the Aegean Sea. From there, Greeks dispersed around the Mediterranean to settle hundreds more trading communities that often grew into new city-states. Individuals' drive for profit from trade, especially in raw materials, and for farmland in foreign territories started this process of founding new settlements. Though it took varying forms, the Greek polis differed from the Mesopotamian city-state, primarily in being a community of citizens making laws and administering justice among themselves instead of being the subjects of a king. Another difference was that poor citizens of Greek city- states enjoyed a rough legal and political equal-ity with the rich. Not different, however, were the subordination of women and the subjugation of slaves.

Socratic method

The Athenian philosopher Socrates' method of teaching through conversation, in which he asked probing questions to make his listeners examine their most cherished assumptions.

radical democracy

The Athenian system of democracy established in the 460s and 450s B.C.E. that extended direct political power and participation in the court system to all adult male citizens. Historians have labeled the changes to Athenian democracy in the 460s and 450s B.C.E. radical ("from the roots") because the new system gave political and judicial power to all adult male citizens (the "roots" of democracy, in the Greek view). This direct democracy consisted of the assembly, the Council of Five Hundred chosen annually by lottery, nine archons (higher-level officials) chosen by lottery, the Council of the Areopagus of ex-archons serving for life, an executive board of ten "generals" elected annually with political and military responsibilities, hundreds of other annual minor officials (most chosen by lottery), and the court system. Athens's radical democracy balanced two competing goals: (1) wide participation by as many male citizens as possible through attendance at the assembly and service in official positions filled by lottery, and (2) effective political and military leadership in elective positions by citizens with education and international experience. These highest-level officials received no pay, only public acclaim — or criticism. All public offices had an annual term limit, but a successful "general" could be reelected indefinitely. Officials exercised power as members of committees, never as sole operators. The changes in the judicial system strongly supported radical democracy. Previously, archons and the Council of the Areopagus had decided most legal cases. Reform happened when, as with Cleisthenes before (see Chapter 2), an elite man proposed it in support of greater political influence for poorer citizens — to win their votes against his rivals. In 461 B.C.E., it was Ephialtes who convinced the assembly to establish a new system taking jurisdiction from the archons and giving it to courts manned by citizen jurors. To increase participation and prevent bribery, jurors were selected by lottery from male citizens over thirty years old. They received pay to serve on juries numbering from several hundred to several thousand members. No judges or lawyers existed, and jurors voted by secret ballot after hearing speeches from the persons involved, with every trial completed in a single day. As in the assembly, a majority vote decided; no appeals of verdicts were allowed.

What was the decisive battle of the Norman conquest? The Battle of Agincourt The Battle of Stamford Bridge The Battle of Calais The Battle of Hastings

The Battle of Hastings The total defeat of Harold of Wessex's army at the Battle of Hastings gave the Normans complete control of England.

Alexius I (Alexius Comnenus)

The Byzantine emperor (r. 1081-1118) whose leadership marked a new triumph of the dynatoi. His request to Pope Urban II for troops to fight the Turks turned into the First Crusade. Pg. 274

Basil II

The Byzantine emperor (r. 976-1025) who presided over the end of the Bulgar threat (earning the name Bulgar-Slayer) and the conversion of Kievan Russia to Christianity. Pg. 232

Heraclius

The Byzantine emperor who reversed the fortunes of war with the Persians in the first quarter of the seventh century. Pg. 209

Charlemagne

The Carolingian king (r. 768-814) whose conquests greatly expanded the Frankish kingdom. He was crowned emperor on December 25, 800. In western Europe, Charlemagne — a Frankish king from a new dynasty, the Carolingians — forged a huge empire and presided over yet another cultural renaissance. Yet this newly unified kingdom was fragile, disintegrating within a generation of Charlemagne's death. In western Europe, even more than in the Byzantine and Islamic worlds, power fell into the hands of local lords. Pg. 229

Catacombs of Rome

The Catacombs of Rome are former underground burial grounds that date from the second to the fifth century and were principally used by Christians and Jews. The catacombs are subterranean passageways that were used as place of burial for a number of centuries.

Hagia Sophia

The Cathedral of Holy Wisdom in Constantinople, built by order of the Byzantine emperor Justinian.

Which of these was the most important early attempt to clarify orthodoxy? a. The Council of Rome b. The Council of Nicaea c. The Council of Chalcedon d. The Council of Alexandria

The Council of Chalcedon The conclusions of the Council of Chalcedon form the basis of the doctrine of most Christians in the West today.

Which of these fared relatively well during the economic recession of the first half of the seventeenth century? Italy The Holy Roman Empire The Dutch Republic Spain

The Dutch Republic The only country that emerged unscathed from this downturn was the Dutch Republic, thanks to a growing population and a tradition of agricultural innovation. During this period, their foreign trade, textile industry, crop production, and population all grew.

Henry VIII

The English king (r. 1509-1547) who first opposed the Protestant Reformation and then broke with the Catholic church, naming himself head of the Church of England in the Act of Supremacy of 1534. Pg. 373

According to Plato, which of these was the only genuine reality? a. The existence of God b. The Forms c. Our own experiences d. That which we can perceive with our senses

The Forms According to Plato, the Forms are the only genuine reality. All things that humans perceive with their senses on earth are only dim and imperfect copies of these metaphysical, ultimate realities.

Carolingian

The Frankish dynasty that ruled a western European empire from 751 to the late 800s; its greatest vigor was in the time of Charlemagne (r. 768-814) and Louis the Pious (r. 814-840). The Carolingians were among many aristocratic families on the rise during the Merovingian period (see Western Europe: A Medley of Kingdoms in Chapter 8), but they gained exceptional power by monopolizing the position of palace mayor — a sort of prime minister — under the Merovingian kings. Charles Martel (Charles the Hammer), mayor 714-741, gave the name Carolingian (from Carolus, Latin for "Charles") to the dynasty. Renowned for defeating an invading army of Muslims from al-Andalus near Poitiers in 732, he also contended vigorously against other aristocrats who were carving out independent lordships for themselves. Charles Martel and his family turned aristocratic factions against one another, rewarded supporters, crushed enemies, and dominated whole regions by supporting monasteries that served as focal points for both religious piety and land donations. Pg. 238

Roman expansion in Italy suffered a temporary reversal when a. A group of unhappy senators launched a rebellion. b. The Gauls invaded Italy and sacked Rome. c. A plague struck the city. d. the Etruscans regrouped and attacked Rome.

The Gauls invaded Italy and sacked Rome. A devastating sack of Rome in 387 B.C.E. by marauding Gauls (Celts) from beyond the Alps made Romans forever fearful of foreign invasion.

By the 350s B.C.E., which city-state's endless war making and collaboration with the Persians caused so much strife that the weakened Greek city-states could not fend off the Macedonians? a.Athens b.Corinth c.Sparta d.Thebes

The Greek city-states' continuing competition for power in the fourth century B.C.E. drained their resources. Sparta's attempt to dominate central Greece and western Anatolia by collaborating with the Persians provoked violent resistance from Thebes and Athens. By the 350s B.C.E., the Greek city-states had so weakened themselves that they were unable to prevent the Macedonian kingdom from taking control of Greece.

arete

The Greek value of competitive individual excellence. With the Mycenaean rulers long gone, leadership became an open competition in Dark Age Greece. Individuals who proved themselves excellent in action, words, charisma, and religious knowledge joined the social elite, enjoying higher prestige and authority in society. Excellence — arete (ah-re-TAY) in Greek — was earned in competition. Men competed with others for arete as warriors and persuasive public speakers. Women won their highest arete by managing a household of children, slaves, and storerooms. Members of the elite accumulated wealth by controlling agricultural land, and people of lower status worked for them as tenants or slaves.

Which of these is most closely linked to church efforts to stamp out heresy in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries? Population growth The Gregorian reforms The reemergence of cities The centralization of political power in France and England

The Gregorian reforms The eleventh-century Gregorian reform created a clear church hierarchy headed by a pope who could enforce a single doctrine and discipline.

Militant French Catholic nobles followed the lead of which family? The House of Orange The Guise family The Bourbon family The Médicis

The Guise family The most militantly Catholic nobles took their cues from the Guise family. The Huguenots followed the lead of the Bourbon family, who stood first in line to inherit the throne if the Valois kings failed to produce a male heir.

Of the following families or states, which of these lost the most as a result of the Peace of Westphalia? The Habsburgs Sweden England The Ottomans

The Habsburgs The Habsburgs were forced to recognize Dutch independence; give the German princes the right to establish Lutheranism, Catholicism, or Calvinism as their state religion; and give up considerable territory in the west.

Stoicism

The Hellenistic philosophy whose followers believed in fate but also in pursuing excellence (virtue) by cultivating good sense, justice, courage, and temperance. The other most prominent Hellenistic philosophy, Stoicism, prohibited an isolationist life. Its name derives from the Painted Stoa in Athens, where Stoic philosophers discussed their ideas. Stoics believed that fate controls people's lives but that individuals should still make the pursuit of excellence their goal and participate in public life. Stoic excellence meant putting oneself in harmony with the divine, rational force of universal nature by cultivating good sense, justice, courage, and temperance. These doctrines applied to women as well as men. Some Stoics advocated equal citizenship for women, unisex clothing, and abolition of marriage and families. The Stoic belief in fate raised the question of whether humans have free will. Stoic philosophers concluded that purposeful human actions do have significance even if fate rules. Nature, itself good, does not prevent evil from occurring, because excellence would otherwise have no meaning. What matters in life is striving for good. A person should therefore take action against evil by, for example, participating in politics. To be a Stoic also meant to shun desire and anger while calmly enduring pain and sorrow, an attitude that yields the modern meaning of the word stoic. Through endurance and self-control, Stoics gained inner tranquility. They did not fear death because they believed that people live the same life over and over again. This repetition occurred because the world is periodically destroyed by fire and then re-formed.

Who served as an important source of furs, slaves, wax, and honey for the Byzantines? The Kievan Rus The Syrians The Venetians The Franks

The Kievan Rus The Byzantine relationship with the Kievan Rus would have a lasting impact on Russian history.

Neo-Assyrians

The Neo-Assyrian Empire was an Iron Age Mesopotamian empire, in existence between 900 and 600 BC. The Assyrians perfected early techniques of imperial rule, many of which became standard in later empires.

Which statement describes the Persian Empire? a. The Persian Empire outdid the Assyrian Empire in the suppression of conquered peoples. b. The Persian Empire was one of political unity and cultural diversity. c. The Persian Empire was built using diplomacy, not force. d. The Persian Empire achieved unity by imposing the Persian culture on all conquered subjects.

The Persian Empire was one of political unity and cultural diversity. Skillful use of diplomacy, combined with a tolerance for local customs and religions, helped the Persians maintain control over their vast and diverse empire.

Prior to the Islamic conquests, which of these offered the principal challenge to Byzantine power? a. The Bulgars b. The Slavs c. The Lombards d. The Persians

The Persians Before the Muslims came on the scene, the principal challenge to Byzantine power came from the Sasanid Empire of Persia.

What Mediterranean power founded the city of Carthage as part of their trading empire? a. The Phoenicians b. The Egyptians c. The Hebrews d. The Hittites

The Phoenicians The city of Carthage was founded by Phoenicians as a trading colony around 800 B.C.E.

Julian the Apostate

The Roman emperor (r. 361-363) who rejected Christianity and tried to restore traditional religion as the state religion. Apostate means "renegade from the faith." The slow pace of Christianization revealed how strong polytheism remained in this period, especially at the highest social levels. In fact, the emperor known as Julian the Apostate (r. 361-363) rebelled against his family's Christianity — the word apostate means "renegade from the faith" — by trying to reverse official support of the new religion in favor of his philosophical interpretation of polytheism. Like Christians, he believed in a supreme deity, but he based his religious beliefs on Greek philosophy when he said, "This divine and completely beautiful universe, from heaven's highest arch to earth's lowest limit, is tied together by the continuous providence of god, has existed ungenerated eternally, and is imperishable forever." Emperors after Julian provided financial support for Christianity, dropped the title pontifex maximus, and stopped paying for sacrifices.

Theodosius I

The Roman emperor (r. 379-395) who made Christianity the state religion by ending public sacrifices in the traditional cults and closing their temples. In 395, he also divided the empire into western and eastern halves to be ruled by his sons. Christianity officially replaced polytheism as the state religion in 391 when Theodosius I (r. 379-395) enforced a ban on privately funded polytheist sacrifices. In 395, he also announced that all polytheist temples had to close. Nevertheless, some famous shrines, such as the Parthenon in Athens, remained open for a long time. Pagan temples were gradually converted to churches during the fifth and sixth centuries. Non-Christian schools were not forced to close — the Academy, founded by Plato in Athens in the early fourth century B.C.E., endured for 140 years more. Jews posed a special problem for the Christian emperors. They seemed entitled to special treatment because Jesus had been a Jew. Previous emperors had allowed Jews to practice their religion, but the rulers now imposed legal restrictions. They banned Jews from holding office but still required them to assume the financial burdens of curials without the status. By the late sixth century, the law barred Jews from marrying Christians, making wills, receiving inheritances, or testifying in court. These restrictions began the long process that turned Jews into second-class citizens in later European history, but they did not destroy Judaism.

humanitas

The Roman orator Cicero's ideal of "humaneness," meaning generous and honest treatment of others based on natural law.

optimates

The Roman political faction supporting the "best," or highest, social class; established during the late republic. The conflict over reforms introduced factions (aggressive interest groups) into Roman politics. Members of the elite now identified themselves as either supporters of the people, the populares (pah-poo-LAH-rehs) faction, or supporters of "the best," the optimates (op-tih-MAH-tehs) faction. Some chose a faction from genuine allegiance to its policies; others supported whichever side better promoted their own political advancement. The elite's splintering into bitterly hostile factions remained a source of murderous political violence until the end of the republic. Some chose a faction from genuine allegiance to its policies; others supported whichever side better promoted their own political advancement. The elite's splintering into bitterly hostile factions remained a source of murderous political violence until the end of the republic.

populares

The Roman political faction supporting the common people; established during the late republic. The conflict over reforms introduced factions (aggressive interest groups) into Roman politics. Members of the elite now identified themselves as either supporters of the people, the populares (pah-poo-LAH-rehs) faction, or supporters of "the best," the optimates (op-tih-MAH-tehs) faction. Some chose a faction from genuine allegiance to its policies; others supported whichever side better promoted their own political advancement. The elite's splintering into bitterly hostile factions remained a source of murderous political violence until the end of the republic. Some chose a faction from genuine allegiance to its policies; others supported whichever side better promoted their own political advancement. The elite's splintering into bitterly hostile factions remained a source of murderous political violence until the end of the republic.

Which of these helps explain Rome's victory in the First Punic War? a. The Romans mastered naval warfare. b. The Romans won all the major land battles of the war. c. A plague struck Carthage, undermining the Carthaginians' ability to field large armies. d. Roman soldiers were better trained and better disciplined than their Carthaginian counterparts.

The Romans mastered naval warfare. Previously unskilled at naval warfare, the Romans expended vast sums to build warships to combat Carthage's experienced navy.

orders:patricians and plebeians

The Romans struggled for 250 years to shape a stable government for the republic. Roman social hierarchy split the population into two orders: the patricians (a small group of the most aristocratic families) and the plebeians (the rest of the citizens). These two groups' conflicts over power created the so-called struggle of the orders. The struggle finally ended in 287 B.C.E., when plebeians won the right to make laws in their own assembly. Patricians constituted a tiny percentage of the population — numbering only about 130 families — but in the beginning of the republic their inherited status entitled them to control public religion and to monopolize political office. Many patricians were much wealthier than most plebeians. Some plebeians, however, were also rich, and they resented the patricians' dominance, especially their ban on intermarriage with plebeians. Poor plebeians demanded farmland and relief from crushing debts. Patricians inflamed tensions by wearing special red shoes to set themselves apart; later, they changed to black shoes adorned with a small metal crescent. To pressure the patricians, the plebeians periodically refused military service. This tactic worked because Rome's army depended on plebeian manpower for its citizen militia. In response to plebeian unrest, the patricians agreed to the earliest Roman law code. This code, enacted between 451 and 449 B.C.E. and known as the Twelve Tables, guaranteed greater equality and social mobility. The Twelve Tables prevented patrician judges from giving judgments in legal cases only according to their own wishes. The Roman belief in fair laws as the best protection against social strife helped keep the republic united until the late second century B.C.E.

Which of these was true of government under Augustus? a. The army was disbanded. b. The office of consul was eliminated. c. The state was referred to as the empire. d. The Senate advised the consuls and other leaders.

The Senate advised the consuls and other leaders. Augustus was careful to maintain the appearance of representative government.

What group was the target of the Northern Crusades? The Persians and their allies The Irish and the northern Scots The Jews of Scandinavia The Slavic peoples of the Baltic Coast

The Slavic peoples of the Baltic Coast The Northern Crusades targeted the Slavic peoples of the Baltic Coast.

Hernán Cortés

The Spanish explorer (1485-1547) who captured the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán (present-day Mexico City), in 1519. Pg. 366

After the reign of Solomon, what feature served as the religious heart of the Hebrew kingdom? a. The Sinai Peninsula b. The Jordan River c. The Temple of Jerusalem d. The fortress of Masada

The Temple of Jerusalem The most symbolic of Solomon's building projects was the Temple of Jerusalem, which became the home of the Ark of the Covenant, the chest that contained the holiest of Hebrew religious articles. The temple in Jerusalem was intended to be the religious heart of the kingdom, a symbol of Hebrew unity and Yahweh's approval of the state built by Saul, David, and Solomon.

In 449 b.c.e., after much struggle, the patricians surrendered their legal monopoly and codified and published what document? a. Code of the Senate b. Ius natural c. The Twelve Tables d. Ius gentium

The Twelve Tables Because only the patricians knew what the law was, only they could argue cases in court, and all too often, they used the law for their own benefit. The plebeians wanted the law codified and published. The Twelve Tables covered many legal issues, including property ownership, guardianship, inheritance, procedure for trials, and punishments for various crimes.

Concordat of Worms

The agreement between pope and emperor in 1122 that ended the Investiture Conflict. Pg. 268

Caroline Minuscule

The alphabet that Carolingian scribes perfected, from which our modern alphabet was developed.

According to Aristotle, true knowledge comes from what? Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button. a. The renunciation of all material things b. The analysis of natural phenomena and logical reasoning c. The analysis of natural phenomena and logical reasoning d. The development of critical thinking skills through continuous questioning e. The contemplation of ideal forms

The analysis of natural phenomena and logical reasoning Plato's student Aristotle also thought that true knowledge was possible, but he believed that such knowledge came from observation of the world, analysis of natural phenomena, and logical reasoning, not from contemplation. The writings of Aristotle had a profound impact on the development of Western thought.

hieroglyphic

The ancient Egyptian pictographic writing system for official texts. Although Egyptians absorbed knowledge from both the Mesopotamians and the Nubians, their African neighbors to the south, they developed their own written scripts. For official documents they used a pictographic script known as hieroglyphic. Eventually, Egyptians also developed the handwritten cursive script called demotic (Greek for "of the people"), a much simpler and quicker form of writing.

From which social group did the Anabaptists draw most of their leadership? The artisan class The landed gentry The rural poor The nobility

The artisan class The Anabaptist movement drew its leadership primarily from the artisan class and its members from the middle and lower classes — men and women attracted by a simple but radical message of peace and salvation.

battle of Hastings

The battle of 1066 that replaced the Anglo-Saxon king with a Norman one and thus tied England to the rest of Europe as never before. The decisive battle in which William the Conqueror (duke of Normandy) defeated the Saxons under Harold II (1066) and thus left England open for the Norman Conquest. Pg. 279

polytheism

The belief in and worship of multiple gods. In religion, Mesopotamians continued earlier traditions by practicing polytheism, worshipping many gods thought to control different aspects of life, including the weather, fertility, and war. People believed that their safety depended on the goodwill of the gods, and each city-state honored a deity as its special protector. To please the gods, city dwellers offered sacrifices and built ziggurats (temple towers) soaring as high as ten stories. Mesopotamians believed that if human beings angered the gods, divinities such as the sky god, Enlil, and the goddess of love and war, Inanna (also called Ishtar), would punish them by sending disease, floods, famine, and defeats in war.

moral dualism

The belief that the world is the arena for an ongoing battle for control between the divine forces of good and evil. Persian kings ruled as the agents of Ahura Mazda, the supreme god of Persia. Persian religion, Zoroastrianism, made Ahura Mazda the center of its devotion and took its doctrines from the teachings of the legendary prophet Zarathustra. Zarathustra taught that Ahura Mazda demanded purity from his worshippers and helped people who lived truthfully and justly. The most important doctrine of Zoroastrianism was moral dualism, which saw the world as a battlefield between the divine forces of good and evil. Ahura Mazda, the embodiment of good and light, struggled against the evil darkness represented by the Satan-like figure Ahriman. Human beings had to choose between the way of the truth and the way of the lie, between purity and impurity. Only those judged righteous after death made it across "the bridge of separation" to heaven and avoided falling from its narrow span into hell. Persian religion's emphasis on ethical behavior and on a supreme god had a lasting influence on others, especially the Israelites. The moral dualism of Persian religion, Zoroastrianism, influenced later religions.

The Bull Dancers

The bull mural was located in the maze like structure of the palace. This may be where the classical Greece story of king Minos and the minotaur in the maze came from.

By 1000, which of these was the key to power in France? The castle Control of long-distance trade The standing army Cannons

The castle In the south of France, power was so fragmented that each man who controlled a castle — a castellan — was a virtual ruler, although often with a very limited reach. In northwestern France, territorial princes, basing their rule on the control of many castles, dominated much broader regions.

agora

The central market square of a Greek city-state, a popular gathering place for conversation. Generals won votes by spending their war spoils on public running tracks, shade trees, and buildings. The super-rich commander Cimon (c. 510-c. 450 B.C.E.), for example, paid for the Painted Stoa to be built on the edge of Athens's agora, the central market square. There, shoppers could admire the building's paintings commemorating the military achievements of the family of Cimon. This sort of financial contribution was voluntary, but the city-state also required wealthy citizens to pay for festivals and warship equipment. This obligation on the rich was essential because Athens, as usual in ancient Greece, had no regular property or income taxes.

blood libel

The charge that Jews used the blood of Christian children in their Passover ritual; though false, it led to massacres of Jews in cities in England, France, Spain, and Germany in the thirteenth century. Pg. 317

What was one consequence of Roman expansion during the republic? a. The city of Rome was flooded with landless poor people. b. Egyptian culture came to have a strong influence on Roman art and literature. c. All conquered peoples became citizens. d. For the first time, a majority of Romans lived in cities.

The city of Rome was flooded with landless poor people.

First Triumvirate

The coalition formed in 60 B.C.E. by Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar. (The word triumvirate means "group of three.") The senators, jealous of Pompey's glory, blocked his reorganization of the former Seleucid kingdom and his distribution of land to his army veterans. Pompey then negotiated with his fiercest political rivals, Caesar and Crassus. In 60 B.C.E., they formed an unofficial arrangement called the First Triumvirate (tree-UHM-vir-ate, "group of three"). This coalition of political rivals revealed how private relationships had largely replaced communal values in politics. To cement their political bond, Caesar arranged to have his daughter, Julia, marry Pompey in 59 B.C.E., even though she had been engaged to another man. Pompey soothed Julia's jilted fiancé by offering the hand of his own daughter, who had been engaged to yet somebody else. Through these marital machinations, the two powerful antagonists now had a common interest: the fate of Julia, Caesar's only daughter and Pompey's new wife. (Pompey had earlier divorced his second wife after Caesar allegedly seduced her.) Pompey and Julia apparently fell deeply in love in their arranged marriage. As long as Julia lived, Pompey's affection for her kept him from breaking his alliance with her father.

reconquista

The collective name for the wars waged by the Christian princes of Spain against the Muslim-ruled regions to their south. These wars were considered holy, akin to the crusades. Slowly, the idea of the reconquista, the Christian "reconquest" of Spain from the Muslims, took shape, fed by religious fervor as well as by greed for land and power. In 1063, just before a major battle, the pope issued an incentive to all who would fight — an indulgence that lifted the knights' obligation to do penance, although it did not go so far as to forgive all sins. Pg. 267

scientific method

The combination of experimental observation and mathematical deduction used to determine the laws of nature; first developed in the seventeenth century, it became the secular standard of truth. Pg. 405

Which of these accurately describes the position of the sacraments in Catholicism at the beginning of the eleventh century? The very concept of a sacrament did not exist. The concept of the sacraments existed, but little else about them was clear. Most Christians believed there were seven sacraments, but some believed there were more. Most Christians only acknowledge one sacrament, the ancient sacrament of marriage.

The concept of the sacraments existed, but little else about them was clear. At the beginning of the eleventh century, Christians were unclear about how many sacraments there were, how they worked, or even their significance.

Investiture Conflict

The confrontation between Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV that began in 1075 over the appointment of prelates in some Italian cities and grew into a dispute over the nature of church leadership. It ended in 1122 with the Concordat of Worms. The great confrontation between Gregory and Henry that historians call the Investiture Conflict began in 1075 over the appointment of the archbishop of Milan and a few other Italian prelates. When Henry insisted on appointing these clergymen, Gregory admonished the king. Henry responded by calling on Gregory to step down as pope. In turn, Gregory called a synod that both excommunicated and suspended Henry from office. Pg. 267

Which of these characterizes the Islamic world in the aftermath of the Islamic conquests? a. The conquests led to decades of economic and social turmoil. b. The conquests were not followed by the imposition of effective rule. c. The conquests ushered in an era of peace and prosperity. d. The conquests intensified internal divisions within the conquered territories.

The conquests ushered in an era of peace and prosperity. Ironically, the definitive victories of the Muslim warriors in the seventh and early eighth centuries ushered in a time of peace.

Which of these explains why the Greeks learned to write again after the fall of the Mycenaean civilization? a. The continuation of seaborne trade b. The discovery of Minoan texts c. The retention of a wealthy social elite d. The discovery of Mycenaean texts

The continuation of seaborne trade Trade led to cultural exchange. When the Greeks learned to write again, it was with an adapted version of the Phoenician alphabet.

Fourth Lateran Council

The council that met in 1215 and covered the important topics of Christianity, among them the nature of the sacraments, the obligations of the laity, and policies toward heretics and Jews Pg. 313

Which of these describes French royal policy toward Protestants from 1534 to 1559? The crown maintained a balance of power between Catholics and Protestants. The crown succeeded in eliminating Protestants as an important minority within France. The crown tolerated Protestantism and even encouraged it some regions. The crown was largely indifferent to the spread of Protestantism in France.

The crown maintained a balance of power between Catholics and Protestants. Francis I and his successor, Henry II, succeeded in maintaining a balance of power between Catholics and Calvinists, but after Henry's death, the weakened monarchy could no longer hold together the fragile realm.

Fourth Crusade

The crusade that lasted from 1202 to 1204; its original goal was to recapture Jerusalem, but the crusaders ended up conquering Constantinople instead. Pg. 305

Mediterranean polyculture

The cultivation of olives, grapes, and grains in a single, interrelated agricultural system. Scholars agree that the development of Mediterranean polyculture — the cultivation of olives, grapes, and grains in a single, interrelated agricultural system — greatly increased the health and wealth of Minoan society. This innovation made the most efficient use of a farmer's labor by combining crops that required intense work at different seasons. This system of farming, which still characterizes Mediterranean agriculture, had two major consequences. First, the combination of crops provided a healthy way of eating (the "Mediterranean diet"), which in turn stimulated population growth. Second, agriculture became both more diversified and more specialized, increasing production of the valuable products olive oil and wine.

Edict of Nantes

The decree issued by French king Henry IV in 1598 that granted the Huguenots (French Calvinists) a large measure of religious toleration. Pg. 390

Which of these helps explain the changes that occurred in the status of Jews in Europe between the twelfth and the thirteenth centuries? A wave of peasant uprisings Population growth Growing urbanization The deepening of popular piety

The deepening of popular piety As medieval Christians grew more engaged in their own religious life, they came to see non-Christians, and Jews in particular, as a threat to the health and safety of their communities.

Which of these events marked the beginning of the Thirty Years' War? The invasion of northern Germany by Christian IV of Denmark The invasion of northern Germany by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden France's declaration of war on Spain The deposition of Ferdinand II by rebellious Czechs

The deposition of Ferdinand II by rebellious Czechs The Czech rebellion was suppressed by imperial forces, but that did not bring the war to an end.

Diaspora

The dispersal of the Jewish population from their homeland. Gradually, Jews created their monotheism by accepting that Yahweh was the only god and that they had to obey his laws. Jews retained their identity by following this religion regardless of their personal fate or their geographical location. Therefore, Jews who did not return to their homeland could maintain their Jewish identity by following Jewish law while living among foreigners. In this way, the Diaspora ("dispersion of population") came to characterize the history of the Jewish people.

What caused the social and economic upheaval of the late republican period? a. The need to combat powerful competing empires in the east and north b. The disruption of Rome's agricultural system c. A sharp drop in population d. Widespread corruption

The disruption of Rome's agricultural system The wars of the third and second centuries B.C.E. damaged small farmers, creating grave social and economic difficulties for the republic.

Pontifex Maximus

The high priest of Rome, the head of Roman state religion; he appointed and oversaw the vestal virgins.

Historicity

The issue of the relationship of a text and the event to which it refers and whether the text accurately reflects the "happenedness" of the event.

Which of these contributed to the outbreak of the Social War? a. The death of the dictator Sulla b. The growing desperation of the Roman poor c. Unrest within the lower ranks of the Roman army d. The dissatisfaction of Rome's Italian allies with their lack of political rights

The dissatisfaction of Rome's Italian allies with their lack of political rights The Italian allies were expected to pay taxes and serve in the army, but they had no voice in political decisions.

Which of these contributed to the splintering of the Islamic world? The growing success of Christian missionaries The growing power of the Byzantine Empire The diversity of the conquered territories The decline of international and regional trade

The diversity of the conquered territories The splintering of the Islamic world was to be expected because central power there was based on the conquest of many diverse regions, each with its own deeply rooted traditions and culture.

Which of these is an example of the influence of Anglo-Saxon institutions on Norman government? The division of the kingdom into large but scattered fiefs The division of the kingdom into shires The construction of castles to reinforce the king's power The anointing of the king at the time of his coronation

The division of the kingdom into shires The new kings retained the old administrative divisions and legal system of the shires.

Nicene Creed

The doctrine agreed on by the council of bishops convened by Constantine at Nicaea in 325 to defend orthodoxy against Arianism. It declared that God the Father and Jesus were homoousion ("of one substance"). Disputes such as those of the The doctrine called Arianism led Constantine to try to determine religious truth. In 325, he convened 220 bishops at the Council of Nicaea to discuss Arianism. The majority voted to banish Arius to the Balkans and declared in the Nicene Creed that the Father and the Son were homoousion ("of one substance") and co-eternal. So difficult were the issues, however, that Constantine later changed his mind twice, first recalling Arius from exile and then soon after reproaching him yet again.

Which of these was crucial to the Burgundians' success? Burgundy's unassailable natural defenses The dukes' personal relationships with their subjects The duke's control of the Hanseatic League Burgundy's strong ties with Spain

The dukes' personal relationships with their subjects The dukes traveled constantly from one part of their dominion to another, making personal contact with their subjects. They also staged elaborate ceremonies to enhance their power and promote their legitimacy.

Abbasids

The dynasty of caliphs that, in 750, took over from the Umayyads in all of the Islamic realm except for Spain (al-Andalus). From their new capital at Baghdad, they presided over a wealthy realm until the late ninth century. In 750, a civil war ousted the Umayyads and raised the Abbasids to the caliphate. The Abbasids found support in an uneasy coalition of Shi'ites, and non-Arabs who had been excluded from the Umayyad government. Under the Abbasids, the center of Islamic rule shifted from Damascus, with its roots in the Roman tradition, to the newly founded city of Baghdad in Iraq. Here the Abbasid caliphs adhered even more firmly than the Umayyads to Persian courtly models, with a centralized administration, a large staff, and control over the appointment of regional governors. Pg. 233

cortes

The earliest European representative institution, called initially to consent to royal wishes; first convoked in 1188 by the king of Castile-León. Pg. 326

Cuneiform

The earliest form of writing, invented in Mesopotamia and done with wedge-shaped characters. The invention of writing in Mesopotamia transformed the way people exchanged stories and ideas. Sumerians originally invented this new technology to do accounting. Before writing, people drew small pictures on clay tablets to keep count of objects or animals. Writing developed when people created symbols to represent the sounds of speech instead of pictures to represent concrete things. Sumerian writing did not use an alphabet (a system in which each symbol represents the sound of a letter), but rather a system of wedge-shaped marks pressed into clay tablets to represent the sounds of syllables and entire words. Today this form of writing is called cuneiform (from cuneus, Latin for "wedge"). For a long time, writing was a professional skill for accounting mastered by only a few men and women known as scribes. The possibilities for communication over time and space exploded when people began writing down nature lore, mathematics, foreign languages, and literature. Sumer - beginning in 3,100 B.C.E.

What significant conclusion did Aristarchus reach? a. The foundation of all matter is atoms. b. Species evolve over time. c. Life has existed for millions of years. d. The earth and planets revolved around the sun.

The earth and planets revolved around the sun. In taking this view, he argued against Aristotle's view that the earth was the center of the universe, but his ideas were eclipsed by the work of a later Hellenistic scientist, Claudius Ptolemy. Early in the third century B.C.E., Aristarchus was the first to propose the correct model of the solar system: the earth revolving around the sun. Later astronomers rejected Aristarchus's heliocentric model in favor of the traditional geocentric one (with the earth at the center), because conclusions drawn from his calculations of the earth's orbit failed to correspond to the observed positions of celestial objects. Aristarchus had assumed a circular orbit instead of an elliptical one, an assumption not corrected until much later.

With which of these statements would Ptolemy have agreed? The earth is at the center of the cosmos. The sun is at the center of the cosmos. The planets revolve in elliptical orbits. The earth is more perfect than the heavens.

The earth is at the center of the cosmos. According to the Greek astronomer Ptolemy, the earth was at the center of the cosmos. Above the earth were fixed the moon, the stars, and the planets in concentric crystalline spheres. Chall

Hijra

The emigration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina. Its date, 622, marks the year 1 of the Islamic calendar. Pg. 205

Why was inflation a problem in the Roman Empire during the third century? a. Bad weather caused poor harvests, raising the cost of food. b. Non-Roman soldiers demanded more pay. c. The flood of cheap goods from the eastern Mediterranean harmed Roman production. d. The emperors reduced the amount of precious metal in coins. e. The emperors reduced the amount of precious metal in coins.

The emperors reduced the amount of precious metal in coins. To be able to continue paying their troops, the emperors reduced the silver content in coins in favor of less valuable metals like copper, but the result was inflation that crippled the economy further.

What challenges did Byzantium face at the time that Alexius Comnenus became the Byzantine emperor? Slave revolts were becoming ever more frequent. The empire was under attack from every side. The crusaders had turned away from the Holy Land and toward Byzantium. A new round of iconoclasm had just begun.

The empire was under attack from every side. The empire was under attack from Normans in southern Italy, Seljuk Turks in Asia Minor, and new groups in the Balkans.

Which of the following helps explain the breadth and rapidity of Islamic expansion and conquests? a. Islamic naval power b. A series of natural disasters c. The existence of discontented minorities in the Byzantine and Sasanid states d. An ongoing civil war in the Byzantine Empire

The existence of discontented minorities in the Byzantine and Sasanid states Discontented Christians and Jews welcomed Muslims into both Byzantine and Persian territories.

Which of these innovations did Henry II add to the existing English legal system? The division of the kingdom into shires The office of sheriff Royal district courts The expansion of the reach of common law

The expansion of the reach of common law Under Henry II, many more Englishmen came within the reach of the common law, a set of laws that applied to all of England.

Which of these was typical of the government policies of the Byzantine emperors of the second half of the twelfth century? The monopolization of commerce The establishment of a clear separation between church and state The favoring of the military elite The expansion of the Byzantine civil service

The favoring of the military elite The Byzantine emperors who ruled during the last half of the twelfth century downgraded the old civil servants, elevated imperial relatives to high offices, and favored the military elite.

Torah

The first five books of the Hebrew Bible, also referred to as the Pentateuch. It contains early Jewish law. It is believed to be written by Moses. The Hebrew Bible sets forth the religious and moral code the Israelites had to follow. The Torah recorded laws for righteous living. Most famous are the Ten Commandments, which required Israelites to worship Yahweh exclusively; make no idols; keep from misusing Yahweh's name; honor their parents; refrain from work on the seventh day of the week (the Sabbath); and abstain from murder, adultery, theft, lying, and covetousness. Many of the Israelites' laws shared the traditional form and content of earlier Mesopotamian laws, such as those of Hammurabi. Like his code, Israelite law protected the lower classes and people without power, including strangers, widows, and orphans.

Twelve Tables

The first written Roman law code, enacted between 451 and 449 B.C.E. To pressure the patricians, the plebeians periodically refused military service. This tactic worked because Rome's army depended on plebeian manpower for its citizen militia. In response to plebeian unrest, the patricians agreed to the earliest Roman law code. This code, enacted between 451 and 449 B.C.E. and known as the Twelve Tables, guaranteed greater equality and social mobility. The Twelve Tables prevented patrician judges from giving judgments in legal cases only according to their own wishes. The Roman belief in fair laws as the best protection against social strife helped keep the republic united until the late second century B.C.E.

Five Pillars of Islam

The five essential practices of Islam, namely, the zakat (alms); the fast of Ramadan; the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca); the salat (formal worship); and the shahadah (profession of faith). Pg. 206

Alexander the Great

The fourth-century B.C.E. Macedonian king whose conquest of the Persian Empire led to the greatly increased cultural interactions of Greece and the Near East in the Hellenistic Age. Alexander secured his rule by eliminating rivals and defeating Macedonia's enemies to the west and north with swift attacks. He forced the southern Greeks, who had defected from the alliance at the news of Philip's death, to rejoin. To demonstrate the cost of disloyalty, in 335 B.C.E., Alexander destroyed Thebes for having rebelled. In 334 B.C.E., Alexander launched the most astonishing military campaign in ancient history, leading a Macedonian and Greek army against the Persian Empire to fulfill Philip's dream of avenging Greece. Alexander's conquest of all the lands from Turkey to Egypt to the western edge of India while still in his twenties led later peoples to call him Alexander the Great. Alexander inspired his troops by leading charges against the enemy, riding his warhorse Bucephalas ("Oxhead"). Everyone saw him speeding ahead in his plumed helmet, polished armor, and vividly colored cloak. He was so intent on conquest that he rejected advice to delay the war until he had fathered an heir. He gave away nearly all of his land and property as gifts to strengthen ties with his army officers. Alexander aimed at becoming more famous even than Achilles; he always kept a copy of Homer's Iliad under his pillow — along with a dagger. Building on Near Eastern traditions of siege technology and Philip's innovations, Alexander developed even better military technology. When Tyre, a heavily fortified city on an island off the eastern Mediterranean coast, refused to surrender to him in 332 B.C.E., he built a massive stone pier as a platform for artillery towers, armored battering rams, and catapults flinging boulders to breach Tyre's walls. Knowing that Alexander could overcome their fortifications made enemies much readier to negotiate a deal. In his conquest of Egypt and the Persian heartland, Alexander revealed his strategy for ruling a vast empire: keep an area's traditional administrative system and religious practices in place while founding cities of Greeks and Macedonians in the conquered territory. In Egypt, he established his first new city, naming it Alexandria after himself. In Persia, he proclaimed himself the king of Asia and relied on Persian administrators. Alexander led his army past the Persian heartland farther east into territory hardly known to the Greeks. He aimed to outdo the heroes of legend by marching to the end of the world. Shrinking his army to reduce the need for supplies, he marched northeast into what is today Afghanistan and Uzbekistan. Unable to subdue the local guerrilla forces, Alexander settled for an alliance sealed by his marriage to the Bactrian princess Roxane. Alexander then headed east into India. Seventy days of marching through monsoon rains extinguished his soldiers' fire for conquest. In the spring of 326 B.C.E., they mutinied, forcing Alexander to turn back. The return journey through southeastern Iran's deserts cost many casualties from hunger and thirst; the survivors finally reached safety in the Persian heartland in 324 B.C.E. Alexander immediately began planning an invasion of the Arabian peninsula and North Africa. He also announced that he wanted to receive the honors due a god. Most Greek city-states obeyed by sending religious delegations to him. Personal motives best explain Alexander's announcement: he had come to believe he was truly the son of Zeus and that his superhuman accomplishments demonstrated that he must himself be a god in a human body present among other human beings. Alexander died from a fever in 323 B.C.E. Unfortunately for the stability of his immense conquests, he had no heir ready to take over his rule; Roxane gave birth to their son only after Alexander's death. The story goes that, when at Alexander's deathbed his commanders asked him to whom he left his kingdom, he replied, "To the most powerful." Modern scholars express different evaluations of Alexander, ranging from condemning him as a bloodthirsty warmonger to praising him as a visionary creating a multiethnic world encompassing all cultures. The ancient sources suggest that Alexander had interlinked goals reflecting his restless and ruthless nature: to conquer and administer the known world with a new ruling class mixing competent people from all ethnic groups, to outdo the exploits and glory of legendary heroes, and to earn the status no living human had ever achieved — that of a god-man on earth. It is certain that Alexander's explorations benefited scientific fields from geography to botany because he took along knowledgeable writers to collect and catalog new knowledge. He had vast quantities of scientific observations and money for research dispatched to his old tutor Aristotle. Alexander's new cities promoted trade between Greece and the Near East. Most of all, his career brought the two cultures into closer contact than ever before. This contact represented his career's most enduring impact.

Frederick II

The grandson of Barbarossa who became king of Sicily and Germany, as well as emperor (r. 1212-1250), who allowed the German princes a free hand as he battled the pope for control of Italy. Pg. 321

The Etruscans

The group of people who ruled Rome before Romans revolted. A very poorly understood group whose language has not been fully deciphered.

praetorian guard

The group of soldiers stationed in Rome under the emperor's control; first formed by Augustus. Augustus made the military the foundation of the emperor's power by turning the republic's citizen militia into a professional, full-time army and navy. He established regular lengths of service and retirement benefits, making the emperor the troops' patron to solidify their loyalty to him. To pay the added costs, Augustus imposed Rome's first inheritance tax on citizens, angering the rich. He also stationed several thousand soldiers in Rome for the first time ever. These soldiers — the praetorian guard — would later play a crucial role in selecting the next emperor when the current one died. Augustus meant them to provide security for him and prevent rebellion in the capital by serving as a visible reminder that the superiority of the princeps was backed by the threat of armed force.

Which of the following helps explain the breadth and rapidity of Islamic expansion and conquests? a. An ongoing civil war in the Byzantine Empire b. The high quality of Islamic armies c. A series of natural disasters d. Islamic naval power

The high quality of Islamic armies Inspired by jihad, Arab fighters were well prepared: fully armed and mounted on horseback, using camel convoys to carry supplies and provide protection, they conquered with amazing ease. Challenge

castellan

The holder of a castle. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, castellans became important local lords. They mustered men for military service, collected taxes, and administered justice. Pg. 248

Qur'an

The holy book of Islam, considered the word of Allah ("the God") as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. Pg. 204

Augustus

The honorary name meaning "divinely favored" that the Roman Senate bestowed on Octavian; it became shorthand for "Roman imperial ruler." In 27 B.C.E., Octavian proclaimed that he "gave back the state from [his] own power to the control of the Roman Senate and the people" and announced they should decide how to preserve it. Recognizing Octavian's power, the senators asked him to safeguard the state, granted him special civil and military powers, and bestowed on him the honorary title Augustus, meaning "divinely favored."

What led to Wat Tyler's Rebellion in 1381? The government's efforts to organize a defense force for coastal areas The imposition of a new poll tax A new system of church tithes War with the Holy Roman Empire

The imposition of a new poll tax The movement known as Wat Tyler's Rebellion started in much of southern and central England when royal agents tried to collect poll taxes to finance the Hundred Years' War.

Which of these posed a threat to the position and status of nobles and knights in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries? The Crusades The increased use of mercenary infantry Church reform movements The political aspirations of the peasantry

The increased use of mercenary infantry The increased use of mercenary infantry threatened the knights' primacy on the battlefield.

lay investiture

The installation of clerics into their offices by lay rulers. In the investiture ritual, the emperor or his representative symbolically gave the church and the land that went with it to the priest or bishop or archbishop chosen for the job. Pg. 265

patron-client system

The interlocking network of mutual obligations between Roman patrons (social superiors) and clients (social inferiors). A patron was a man of superior status able to provide benefits to lower-status people; these were his clients, who in return owed him duties and paid him special attention. In this hierarchical system, a patron was often himself the client of a higher-status man. Benefits and duties created mutual exchanges of financial and political help. Patrons would help their clients get started in business by giving them a gift or a loan and connecting them with others who could help them. In politics, a patron would promote a client's candidacy for elective office and provide money for campaigning. Patrons also supported clients if they had legal trouble. Clients had to support their patrons' campaigns for election to public office and lend them money to build public works and to fund their daughters' dowries. A patron expected his clients to gather at his house at dawn to accompany him to the forum, the city's public center, to show his great status. A Roman leader needed a large house to hold this throng and to entertain his social equals. Patrons' and clients' mutual obligations endured for generations. Ex-slaves, who became the clients for life of the masters who freed them, often handed down this relationship to their children. Romans with contacts abroad could acquire clients among foreigners; Roman generals sometimes had entire foreign communities obligated to them. The patron-client system demonstrated the Roman idea that social stability and well-being were achieved by faithfully maintaining established ties.

Which of these was a consequence of seaborne trade during the Dark Age? a. The revival of Mycenaean civilization b. The impoverishment of rural Greeks c. The introduction of iron metallurgy into Greece d. The emergence of representative governments

The introduction of iron metallurgy into Greece. Trade brought the rediscovery of writing, a resumption of the production of decorative ceramics, and the introduction of iron metallurgy into Greece.

The seventeenth-century scientist Isaac Newton is most famous for his work on which of the following? Empiricism The law of universal gravitation The law of inertia Heliocentrism

The law of universal gravitation Newton's law of gravity had the advantage of explaining the whole universe in a unified system.

Which of these did participants in the new religious reform movements of the late twelfth century place at the center of their spiritual and emotional lives? Stoic philosophy The lives of the apostles The life of Christ The miracles of the saints

The life of Christ Intensely interested in the life of Christ, reformers in the late twelfth century made his childhood, agony, death, and presence in the Eucharist the emotional focus of their own lives.

Hundred Years' War

The long war between England and France, 1337-1453 (actually 116 years); it produced numerous social upheavals yet left both states more powerful than before. Pg. 339

secularization

The long-term trend toward separating state power and science from religious faith, making the latter a private domain; begun in the seventeenth century, it prompted a search for nonreligious explanations for political authority and natural phenomena. Pg. 404

What did the eastern emperors see as the best defense against barbarization? a. The expansion of the army b. The maintenance of Roman tradition and identity c. The suppression of Christianity d. The creation of a public school system

The maintenance of Roman tradition and identity The eastern emperors worked to maintain Roman tradition and identity, believing that "Romanness" was the best defense against what they saw as the barbarization of the western empire.

First Crusade

The massive armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem that lasted from 1096 to 1099. It resulted in the massacre of Jews in the Rhineland (1095), the sack of Jerusalem (1099), and the setting up of the crusader states Inspired by local preachers, men and women, rich and poor, young and old, laypeople and clerics heeded Urban's call to go on the First Crusade (1096-1099). Between 60,000 and 100,000 people abandoned their homes and braved the rough journey to Jerusalem. They went to fight for God, to gain land and plunder, or to follow their lord. Although women were discouraged from going, some crusaders were accompanied by their wives. Pg. 275

Parthenon

The massive temple to Athena as a warrior goddess built atop the Athenian acropolis in the Golden Age of Greece. On Athens's acropolis (the rocky hill at the city's center), Pericles had the most famous buildings of Golden Age Athens erected during the 440s and 430s B.C.E.: a mammoth gateway and also an enormous marble temple of Athena called the Parthenon ("virgin goddess's house"). These two buildings cost well more than the equivalent of a billion dollars today, a phenomenal sum for even a large Greek city-state. Pericles' political rivals slammed him for spending too much public money on the project and diverting Delian League funds to beautify Athens. Research in surviving financial records reveals this accusation was false: Athens's own revenues financed the building program.

Synod of Whitby

The meeting of churchmen and King Oswy of Northumbria in 664 that led to the adoption of the Roman brand of Christianity in England. Pg. 221

Which of these events precipitated the Christianization of Lithuania? The merger of Poland and Lithuania The formation of the Hanseatic League The Black Death The Fifth Crusade

The merger of Poland and Lithuania As part of the negotiations that led to the merger, Grand Duke Jogailo of Lithuania promised to convert Lithuania, and after his coronation as the king of Poland he sent churchmen there to begin the long, slow process.

scholasticism

The method of logical inquiry used by the scholastics, the scholars of the medieval universities; it applied Aristotelian logic to biblical and other authoritative texts in an attempt to summarize and reconcile all knowledge. Pg. 318

capitalism

The modern economic system characterized by an entrepreneurial class of property owners who employ others and produce (or provide services) for a market in order to make a profit. In addition to guilds, medieval entrepreneurs created new kinds of business arrangements through partnerships, contracts, and large-scale productive enterprises — the ancestors of modern capitalism. Pg. 262

Sappho

The most famous woman lyric poet of ancient Greece, a native of Lesbos. Some lyric poems generated controversy because the ideas expressed in them valued individual expression and opinion over conventional views. Solon wrote poems justifying his reforms. Other poets criticized traditional values, such as strength in war. Sappho, a lyric poet from Lesbos born about 630 B.C.E. and famous for her poems on love, wrote, "Some would say the most beautiful thing on our dark earth is an army of cavalry, others of infantry, others of ships, but I say it's whatever a person loves." In this poem Sappho was expressing her longing for a woman she loved, who was now far away.

St. Bernard

The most important Cistercian abbot (early twelfth century) and the chief preacher of the Second Crusade. The Carthusian order grew slowly. Each monastery was limited to only twelve monks, the number of the Apostles. The Cistercians, by contrast, expanded rapidly. Their guiding spirit was St. Bernard (c. 1090-1153), who arrived at the Burgundian monastery of Cîteaux (in Latin, Cistercium, hence the name of the monks) in 1112 along with about thirty friends and relatives. St. Bernard soon became abbot of Clairvaux, one of a cluster of Cistercian monasteries in Burgundy. By the mid-twelfth century, more than three hundred monasteries spread throughout Europe were following what they took to be the customs of Cîteaux. Nuns, too — as eager as monks to live the life of simplicity and poverty that they believed the Apostles had enjoyed and endured — adopted Cistercian customs. By the end of the twelfth century, the Cistercians were an order: all of their houses followed rules determined at the General Chapter, a meeting at which the abbots met to hammer out legislation. Pg. 271

Which of these defines the Columbian exchange? The movement of peoples, animals, plants, manufactured goods, precious metals, and diseases among Europe, the New World, and Africa The movements of plants and animals from the Americas to Europe, and of people and technology from Europe to the Americas The movement of people, diseases, and technology from Europe and Asia to the Americas, and of precious metals and plants from the Americas to Asia The movement of slaves from Africa to the Americas, commodities from the Americas to Europe, and manufactured goods from Europe to Africa and the Americas

The movement of peoples, animals, plants, manufactured goods, precious metals, and diseases among Europe, the New World, and Africa The Columbian exchange was a global phenomenon, involving a diverse set of biological, technological, and cultural exchanges.

Visigoths

The name given to the barbarians whom Alaric united and led on a military campaign into the western Roman Empire to establish a new kingdom; they sacked Rome in 410. When the emperor Theodosius died in 395, the barbarians whom he had allowed to settle in the Empire rebelled. United by the Gothic chief Alaric into a tribe known as the Visigoths, they fought their way into the western Empire. In 410, they stunned the world by sacking Rome itself. For the first time since the Gauls eight hundred years before, a foreign force occupied the ancient capital. They terrorized the population: "What will be left to us?" the Romans asked when Alaric demanded all the citizens' goods. "Your lives," he replied. Too weak to fend off the invaders, the western emperor Honorius in 418 reluctantly agreed to settle the newcomers in southwestern Gaul (present-day France), where they completed their unprecedented transition from tribe to kingdom, organizing a political state and creating their identity as Visigoths. They had no precedents to follow from their previous existence, so they adapted the only model available: Roman tradition, including a code of written law. The Visigoths established mutually beneficial relations with local Roman elites, who used time-tested ways of flattering their new superiors to gain advantages.

Mongols

The name of a people mobilized by Chingiz Kahn (c. 1162-1227) into a formidable army that conquered China, Rus, and the eastern half of the Islamic world. Pg. 329

Delian League

The naval alliance led by Athens in the Golden Age (500-400 B.C.E.) that became the basis for the Athenian Empire. It began as a democratic alliance, but Athens soon controlled it because the allies allowed the Athenians to command and to oversee the financing of the league's fleet. At its height, the league included some three hundred city-states. Each paid dues according to its size; Athens determined how the dues were spent.

city-state

The need to construct and maintain a system of irrigation canals in turn led to the centralization of authority in Mesopotamian cities, whose rulers took control of the farmland and irrigation systems outside their fortified walls. This political arrangement — an urban center exercising control over the surrounding countryside — is called a city-state. Mesopotamian city-states were independent communities competing with each other for land and resources.

Which of these was an important difference between the reformed orders of the early twelfth century and the new religious groups that emerged in the late twelfth century? The earlier reformed orders were critical of excessive wealth. The new groups focused on urban life. The new groups sought isolation from the world. The earlier reformed orders were wildly unpopular when they first emerged.

The new groups focused on urban life. Unlike the reformed orders of the early half of the century, which had fled the cities, the new religious groups embraced (and were embraced by) urban populations.

Which of these posed a threat to the position and status of nobles and knights in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries? Church reform movements The newly emerging merchants in cities The political aspirations of the peasantry The Crusades

The newly emerging merchants in cities

dominate

The openly authoritarian style of Roman rule from Diocletian (r. 284-305) onward; the word was derived from dominus ("master" or "lord") and contrasted with principate. No one could have predicted Diocletian's rise to power: he began life as an uneducated peasant in the Balkans, but his leadership, courage, and intelligence propelled him through the ranks until the army made him emperor in 284. He ended a half century of civil war by imposing the most autocratic system of rule in Roman history. Historians refer to Roman rule from Diocletian onward as the dominate, because he took the title dominus ("lord" or "master") — what slaves called their owners. The emperors of the dominate continued to refer to their government as the Roman republic, but in truth they ruled autocratically. This new system eliminated the principate's ideal of the princeps ("first man") as the social equal of the senators. The emperors of the dominate now recognized no equals. The offices of senator, consul, and other traditional positions continued, but only as posts of honor. These officials had the responsibility to pay for public services, especially chariot races and festivals, but no power to govern. Imperial administrators were increasingly chosen from lower ranks of society, according to their competence and their loyalty to the emperor. The dominate's emperors took ideas for emphasizing their superiority from the Sasanids in Persia, whose empire (224-651) they recognized as equal to their own in power and whose king and queen they addressed as "our brother" and "our sister." The Roman Empire's masters broadcast their majesty by surrounding themselves with courtiers and ceremony, presiding from a raised platform, and sparkling in jeweled crowns, robes, and shoes. Constantine took from Persia the tradition that emperors set themselves apart by wearing a diadem, a purple gem-studded headband. In another echo of Persian monarchy, a series of veils separated the palace's waiting rooms from the interior room where the emperor listened to people's pleas for help or justice. Officials marked their rank by wearing special shoes and belts and claiming grandiose titles such as "Most Perfect." The dominate's emperors also asserted their supreme power through laws and punishments. They alone made law. To impose order, they raised punishments to brutal levels. New punishments included Constantine's order that the "greedy hands" of officials who took bribes "shall be cut off by the sword." The guardians of a young girl, who allowed a lover to seduce her, were executed by having molten lead poured into their mouths. Penalties grew ever harsher for the majority of the population, legally designated as "humbler people," who were punished more severely than the "better people" for comparable offenses (see Chapter 6). In this way, the dominate strengthened the divisions between ordinary people and the rich.

Great Schism

The papal dispute of 1378-1417 when the church had two and even (between 1409 and 1417) three popes. The Great Schism was ended by the Council of Constance. Pg. 344

Gregorian reform

The papal movement for church reform associated with Gregory VII (r. 1073-1085); its ideals included ending three practices: the purchase of church offices, clerical marriage, and lay investiture. Pg. 267

What challenges did Byzantium face at the time that Alexius Comnenus became the Byzantine emperor? The crusaders had turned away from the Holy Land and toward Byzantium. Slave revolts were becoming ever more frequent. The people of Constantinople were struggling under high taxes and rising living costs. A new round of iconoclasm had just begun.

The people of Constantinople were struggling under high taxes and rising living costs. This combination impoverished many inhabitants of the city and created political and social instability.

Lombards

The people who settled in Italy during the sixth century, following Justinian's reconquest. A king ruled the north of Italy, while dukes ruled the south. In between was the papacy, which felt threatened both by Lombard Arianism and by the Lombards' geographical proximity to Rome. Pg. 209

Avignon papacy

The period (1309-1378) during which the popes ruled from Avignon, France rather than from Rome. The papacy's weakness was dramatically demonstrated by its move to Avignon. In 1309, forced from Rome by civil strife, the papacy settled in this city close to France. Here it remained until 1378. Pg. 328

Babylonain Captivity

The period where the Judahites were in bondage in the capital of Babylon. These are not the the same Babylonians of Hammurabi's time.

rationalism

The philosophic idea that people must justify their claims by logic and reason, not myth. Ionian philosophers insisted that natural phenomena were neither random nor arbitrary. They applied the word cosmos — meaning "an orderly arrangement that is beautiful" — to the universe. The cosmos included not only the motions of heavenly bodies but also the weather, the growth of plants and animals, and human health. Because the universe was ordered, it was knowable; because it was knowable, thought and research could explain it. Philosophers therefore looked for the first or universal cause of all things, a quest that scientists still pursue. These first philosophers believed they needed to give reasons for their conclusions and to persuade others by arguments based on evidence. That is, they believed in logic. This new way of thought, called rationalism, became the foundation for the study of science and philosophy. This rule-based view of the causes of events and physical phenomena contrasted sharply with the traditional mythological view. Many people had difficulty accepting such a startling change in their understanding of the world, and the older tradition of explaining events as the work of deities lived on alongside the new approach. The early Greek philosophers deeply influenced later times by being the first to clearly separate scientific thinking from myth and religion. Their idea that people must give reasons to justify their beliefs, rather than simply make assertions that others must accept without evidence, was their most important achievement. This insistence on rationalism, coupled with the belief that the world could be understood as something other than the plaything of the gods, gave people hope that they could improve their lives through their own efforts.

dualism

The philosophical idea that the human soul (or mind) and body are separate. Plato believed that humans possess immortal souls distinct from their bodies; this idea established the concept of dualism, a separation between soul (or mind) and body.

Epicureanism

The philosophy founded by Epicurus of Athens to help people achieve a life of true pleasure, by which he meant "absence of disturbance." One of the two most significant new Hellenistic philosophies was Epicureanism, named for its founder, Epicurus (341-271 B.C.E.). He settled his followers around 307 B.C.E. in an Athenian house surrounded by greenery — hence, his school came to be known as the Garden. Epicurus broke tradition by admitting women and slaves to study philosophy in his group. Epicurus's key idea was that people should be free of worry about death. Because all matter consists of tiny, invisible, and irreducible pieces called atoms in random movement, as Democritus had argued, death is nothing more than the painless separating of the body's atoms. Moreover, all human knowledge must be empirical, that is, derived from experience and perception. Phenomena that most people perceive as the work of the gods, such as thunder, do not result from divine intervention in the world. The gods live far away in perfect tranquility, ignoring human affairs. People therefore have nothing to fear from the gods. Epicurus believed people should pursue true pleasure, meaning an "absence of disturbance." Thus, people should live free from the turmoil, passions, and desires of ordinary existence. A sober life spent with friends and separated from the cares of the common world provided Epicurean pleasure. Epicureanism thus challenged the Greek tradition of political participation by citizens.

Golden Horde

The political institution set up by the Mongols in Russia, lasting from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century. Pg. 329

Black Death

The term historians give to the disease that swept through Europe in 1347-1352. Pg. 337

Urban II

The pope (r. 1088-1099) responsible for calling the First Crusade in 1095. In 1095, the Byzantine emperor Alexius I (Alexius Comnenus) (r. 1081-1118) appealed for help to Pope Urban II, hoping to get new mercenary troops for a fresh offensive. Urban II (r. 1088-1099) chose to interpret the request in his own way. At a church council in Clermont (France) in 1095, he addressed an already excited throng, telling them to "wrest that land" — he meant the Holy Land — "from the wicked race, and subject it to yourselves." The crowd responded with one voice: "God wills it." Urban offered all who made the difficult trek to Jerusalem to fight against the Muslims an indulgence — the forgiveness of sins. The pains of the trip would substitute for ordinary penance. Pg. 274

Innocent III

The pope (r. 1198-1216) who called the Fourth Lateran Council; he was the most powerful, respected, and prestigious of medieval popes. Pg. 313

Boniface VIII

The pope (r. 1294-1303) whose clash with King Philip the Fair of France left the papacy considerably weakened. Pg. 327

Gregory the Great

The pope (r. 590-604) who sent missionaries to Anglo-Saxon England, wrote influential books, tried to reform the church, and had contact with the major ruling families of Europe and Byzantium. Pg. 221

What generally did Martin Luther object to in his ninety-five theses in 1517? The authority of the pope The decline in the willingness of laypeople to read the scriptures The church's treatment of John Calvin The practice of granting indulgences

The practice of granting indulgences Luther's ninety-five theses focused on the sale of indulgences and the damage they were doing to the souls of the faithful.

asceticism

The practice of self-denial, especially through spiritual discipline; a doctrine for Christians emphasized by Augustine. The question of how to understand and regulate sexual desire perplexed Christians in the search for religious truth. Augustine wrote that sex trapped human beings in evil and that they should therefore strive for asceticism (a-SET-uh-sism), the practice of self-denial and spiritual discipline. Augustine knew from personal experience how difficult it was to accept this doctrine. In his autobiographical work Confessions, written about 397, he described the deep conflict he felt between his sexual desires — which he enthusiastically followed in his earlier years — and his religious beliefs. Only after a long period of reflection and doubt, he wrote, did he find the inner strength to commit to chastity as part of his conversion to Christianity. He advocated sexual abstinence as the highest course for Christians because he believed that Adam and Eve's disobedience had forever ruined the perfect harmony God created between the human will and human passions. According to Augustine, God punished his disobedient children by making sexual desire a disruptive force that human will would always struggle to control. He reaffirmed the value of marriage in God's plan, but he insisted that sexual intercourse even between loving spouses carried the unhappy reminder of humanity's fall from grace. Reproduction, not pleasure, was the only acceptable reason for sex. This doctrine ennobled virginity and sexual renunciation as the highest virtues. By the end of the fourth century, Christians valued virginity so highly that congregations began to request virgin ministers and bishops.

Which of these increased the stress on the western central government in the fourth century? a. Religious divisions within the Roman elite b. A Persian invasion c. A massive slave uprising d. The presence of large numbers of migrants within the empire

The presence of large numbers of migrants within the empire The inability to prevent immigrants from crossing the border or to integrate them into Roman society once they had crossed put great stress on the western central government.

Edict of Milan

The proclamation of Roman co-emperors Constantine (313) and Licinius decreeing free choice of religion in the empire. Constantine changed the world's religious history forever by converting to Christianity. During the civil war after Diocletian's resignation, right before the crucial battle of the Milvian Bridge in Rome in 312, Constantine reportedly experienced a dream promising him God's support and saw Jesus's cross in the sky surrounded by the words, "Under this sign you will win the victory." Constantine ordered his soldiers to paint "the sign of the cross of Christ" on their shields. When his soldiers won a great victory in that battle, Constantine attributed his success to the Christian God and declared himself a Christian. However, Constantine did not make polytheism illegal and did not make Christianity the official state religion. Instead, he and his polytheist co-emperor Licinius enforced religious freedom, as shown by the Edict of Milan of 313. The edict proclaimed free choice of religion for everyone and referred to protection of the Empire by "the highest divinity" — a general term meant to satisfy both polytheists and Christians.

Muhammad

The prophet of Islam (c. 570-632). He united a community of believers around his religious tenets, above all that there was one God whose words had been revealed to him by the angel Gabriel. Later, written down, these revelations became the Qur'an. Pg. 203

What was a purpose of the Hanseatic League? The protection of the member cities' commercial interests The Christianization of eastern Europe The establishment of lay religious centers throughout Germany The expansion of German imperial power south and west

The protection of the member cities' commercial interests The Hanseatic League was formed to protect member cities' mutual interests in trade, art, and defense.

Which of these was a key factor in Athens's postwar economic recovery? a. Increased regional demand for slaves b. The discovery of gold outside Athens c. The rebuilding of its city walls d. The collapse of Sparta's economy

The rebuilding of its city walls Athens's postwar economy recovered as international trade was revived once its Long Walls, which protected the transportation corridor from the city to the port, were rebuilt and mining for silver to produce the city's coinage resumed.

Franciscans

The religious order founded by St. Francis (c. 1182-1226) and dedicated to poverty and preaching, particularly in towns and cities. Pg. 304

Which of these was typically part of the Byzantine pattern of conquest in Greece and the Balkans? The forced deportation of all local elites The resettlement of Christians in conquered territories The appointment of a subemperor The maintenance of local political institutions

The resettlement of Christians in conquered territories When the Byzantines conquered an area occupied by pagan Slavs, they set up a new Christian diocese there, organized it as a new military theme, and forcibly resettled Christians in the area to counteract Slavic paganism.

The development of baroque art in the later sixteenth century was encouraged by which of the following? The revitalization of the Catholic church Artists who wanted to minimize the influence of religion on culture and art in society The emotionalism of the Protestant Reformation A renewed interest in the Renaissance

The revitalization of the Catholic church The church hoped that a meaningful art movement might help rekindle the faith of ordinary churchgoers.

Merovingian dynasty

The royal dynasty that ruled Gaul from about 486 to 751. Pg. 214

Medici

The ruling family of Florence during much of the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries. Pg. 357

Julio-Claudians

The ruling family of the early principate from Augustus through Nero, descended from the aristocratic families of the Julians and the Claudians. Since Augustus claimed his system was not a monarchy, his successor could inherit his power only with the Senate's approval. Augustus therefore decided to identify an heir for the Senate to recognize as princeps after his death. This strategy succeeded and kept rule in his family, called the Julio-Claudians, until the death in 68 C.E. of Nero, Augustus's last descendant. It established the tradition that family dynasties ruled the principate. The Julio-Claudian emperors worked to prevent unrest, maintain loyalty, finance the administration and army, and govern the provinces. Augustus set the pattern for effective imperial rule: take special care of the army, communicate the emperor's image as a just ruler and generous patron, and promote Roman law and culture as universal standards. The citizens, in return for their loyalty, expected the emperors to be supportive patrons — but the difficulties of long-range communication imposed practical limits on imperial support of or intervention in the lives of the residents of the provinces.

For laypeople, perhaps the most important canons of the Fourth Lateran Council concerned which of these? Lay investiture Simony The sacraments Labor

The sacraments The council's rulings on the sacraments shaped the religious life of all Catholics.

Lyceum

The school for research and teaching in a wide range of subjects founded by Aristotle in Athens in 335 B.C.E. After studying with Plato, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) founded his own school, the Lyceum, in Athens. He taught his own life-guiding philosophy, emphasizing practical reasoning.

ladder of offices

The series of Roman elective government offices from quaestor to aedile to praetor to consul. The voting to elect officials took place around the forum in the city center. All officials worked as part of committees, to ensure power sharing. The highest officials, two elected each year, were called consuls. Their most important duty was to command the army. To be elected consul, a man had to win elections all the way up a ladder of offices (cursus honorum). Before politics, however, came ten years of military service from about age twenty. The ladder's first step was getting elected quaestor (a financial administrator). Next was election as an aedile (supervisors of Rome's streets, sewers, aqueducts, temples, and markets). The third step was election as praetor (a powerful office with judicial and military duties). The most successful praetors competed to be one of the two consuls elected each year. Praetors and consuls held imperium (the power to command and punish) and served as army generals. Families with a consul among their ancestors were honored as nobles. By 367 B.C.E., the plebeians had forced passage of a law requiring that at least one of the two consuls be a plebeian. Ex-consuls competed to become one of the censors, elected every five years to conduct censuses of the citizen body and to appoint new senators. To be eligible for selection to the Senate, a man had to have been at least a quaestor. The patricians tried to monopolize the highest offices, but after violent struggle from about 500 to 450 B.C.E., the plebeians forced the patricians to create ten annually elected plebeian officials, called tribunes, who could stop actions that would harm plebeians or their property. The tribunate did not count as a regular ladder office. Tribunes based their special power on the plebeians' sworn oath to protect them, and on their authority to block officials' actions, prevent laws from being passed, suspend elections, and contradict the Senate's advice. The tribunes' extraordinary power to veto government action often made them agents of political conflict. Men competed in elections to win respect and glory, not money. Only well-off men could serve in government because officials earned no salaries and were expected to spend their own money to pay for public works and for expensive shows featuring gladiators and wild animals. In the early republic, officials' only reward was respect, but as Romans conquered overseas territory, the desire for money from war spoils overcame many men's adherence to traditional Roman values of faithfulness, honesty, and the idea that respect should not be linked to wealth. By the second century B.C.E., military officers were also enriching themselves by extorting bribes as administrators of conquered territories. The Senate directed government policy by giving advice to the consuls. If a consul rejected the Senate's advice, a political crisis ensued. The senators' social standing gave their opinions great weight. To make their status visible, the senators wore black high-top shoes and robes with a broad purple stripe. To maintain his rank as a senator by the late republic, a man had to be able to prove that he possessed a large amount of wealth.

Peace of Westphalia

The settlement (1648) of the Thirty Years' War; it established enduring religious divisions in the Holy Roman Empire by which Lutheranism would dominate in the north, Calvinism in the area of the Rhine River, and Catholicism in the south. Pg. 397

Great Famine

The shortage of food and accompanying social ills that besieged northern Europe between 1315 and 1322 after a period of climate change. Pg. 331

simony

The sin of giving gifts or paying money to get a church office. Pg. 265

curials

The social elite in the Roman Empire's cities and towns, most of whom were obliged to serve as decurions on municipal Senates and collect taxes for the imperial government, paying any shortfalls themselves. The emperors also decreed oppressive regulations for the curials (CURE-ee-uhls), the social elite in the cities and towns. During this period, many men in the curial class were obliged to serve as decurions (unsalaried members of their city Senate) and to spend their own funds to support the community. Their financial responsibilities ranged from maintaining the water supply to feeding troops, but their most expensive duty was paying for shortfalls in tax collection. The emperors' demands for revenue made this a crushing obligation.

In what sense were the early stages of the Hundred Years' War contrary to chivalric expectations? The soldiers of the Hundred Years' War were primarily mercenaries. Duels between individual knights were common, but not decisive, in the conflict. Campaigns were largely directed against civilian populations. Very few knights were involved.

The soldiers of the Hundred Years' War were primarily mercenaries. The soldiers of the Hundred Years' War were primarily mercenaries: men who fought for pay and plunder, heedless of the king for whom they were supposed to be fighting.

Prehistoric

The time or period before recorded or written history.

Romanization

The spread of Roman law and culture in the provinces of the Roman Empire. Romanization, the spread of Roman law and culture in the provinces, raised the standard of living by providing roads and bridges, increasing trade, and establishing peaceful conditions for agriculture. The army's need for supplies created business for farmers and merchants. The increased prosperity that many provincials enjoyed under Roman rule made Romanization acceptable. In addition, Romanization was not a one-way street. In western regions as diverse as Gaul, Britain, and North Africa, interaction between the local people and Romans produced mixed cultural traditions, especially in religion and art. Therefore, Romanization merged Roman and local culture. The eastern provinces, however, largely retained their Greek and Near Eastern characteristics. Huge Hellenistic cities such as Alexandria (in Egypt) and Antioch (in Syria) rivaled Rome in size and splendor. The eastern provincial elites readily accepted Roman governance because Hellenistic royal traditions had prepared them to see the emperor as their patron and themselves as his clients.

Exodus

The story of Moses leading the Israelite people out of their enslavement in Egypt.

Gothic architecture

The style of architecture that started in the Île-de-France in the twelfth century and eventually became the quintessential cathedral style of the Middle Ages, characterized by pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and stained-glass windows. Pg. 290

Mehmed II

The sultan under whom the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453. Pg. 343

How did the Black Death affect patterns of education? As schools closed for lack of instructors and students, literacy rates dropped. The survivors built new local colleges and universities. More and more women gained the opportunity to participate in higher education. Education became an increasingly secular concern.

The survivors built new local colleges and universities. In 1348, in the midst of the Black Death, Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV chartered a university at Prague. The king of Poland founded Cracow University, and a Habsburg duke created a university at Vienna.

social hierarchy

The system of ranking people in society according to their status and authority. Evidence from graves shows that hierarchy emerged in Paleolithic times. Some Paleolithic burial sites contain weapons, tools, animal figurines, ivory beads, seashells, and bracelets alongside the corpses; the objects indicate that certain dead persons had greater status and wealth than others. Hierarchy probably began when men acquired prestige from bringing back meat after long hunts and from fighting in wars. The Neolithic Revolution generated more hierarchy because positions of authority were needed to allow some people to supervise the complex irrigation systems that supported agricultural surpluses, and because greater economic activity created a stricter division of labor by gender.

Ottonian kings

The tenth- and early-eleventh-century kings of Germany; beginning with Otto I (r. 936-973), they claimed the imperial crown and worked closely with their bishops to rule a vast territory Otto's victories brought tribute and plunder, ensuring him a following but also raising the German nobles' expectations for enrichment. The Ottonian kings — including Otto I and his successors Otto II (r. 961-983) and Otto III (r. 983-1002) — were not always able or willing to provide the gifts and inheritances their family members and followers expected. They did not divide their kingdom among their sons; instead, like castellans in France, they created a patrilineal pattern of inheritance. As a consequence, younger sons and other potential heirs felt cheated, and disgruntled royal kin led revolt after revolt against the Ottonian kings. Pg. 252

Colombian Exchange

The transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between the Americas and Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Peace of Augsburg

The treaty of 1555 that settled disputes between Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and his Protestant princes. It recognized the Lutheran church and established the principle that all Catholic or Lutheran princes enjoyed the sole right to determine the religion of their lands and subjects. Pg. 384

apostolic succession

The uninterrupted passing on of apostolic preaching and authority from the Apostles directly to all bishops. Christians continued to expect Jesus to return to pass judgment on the world during their lifetimes. When that did not happen, they began transforming their religion from an apocalyptic Jewish sect expecting the immediate end of the world into one that could survive indefinitely. This transformation was painful because early Christians fiercely disagreed about what they should believe, how they should live, and who had the authority to decide these questions. Some insisted Christians should withdraw from the everyday world to escape its evil, abandoning their families and shunning sex and reproduction. Others believed they could follow Christ's challenging teachings while living ordinary lives. Many Christians worried they could not serve as soldiers without betraying their faith because the army participated in the imperial cult. This dilemma raised the further issue of whether Christians could remain loyal subjects of the emperor. Disagreement over these doctrinal questions raged in the many congregations that arose in the early empire around the Mediterranean, from Gaul to Africa to the Near East. The need to deal with such tensions, to administer the congregations, and to promote spiritual communion among believers led Christians to create an official hierarchy of men, headed by bishops. They spearheaded the drive to build the connection between congregations and Christ that promised salvation to believers. Bishops possessed authority to define Christian doctrine and administer practical affairs for congregations. The emergence of bishops became the most important institutional development in early Christianity. Bishops received their positions according to the principle later called apostolic succession, which states that the Apostles appointed the first bishops as their successors, granting these new officials the authority Jesus had originally given to the Apostles. Those designated by the Apostles in turn appointed their own successors. Bishops had authority to ordain ministers with the holy power to administer the sacraments, above all baptism and communion, which believers regarded as necessary for achieving eternal life. Bishops also controlled their congregations' memberships and finances. The money financing the early church came from members' donations.

heliocentrism

The view articulated by Polish clergyman Nicolaus Copernicus that the earth and other planets revolve around the sun. Pg. 406

demes

The villages and city neighborhoods that formed the constituent political units of Athenian democracy in the late Archaic Age (750-500 B.C.E.). By about 500 B.C.E., Cleisthenes had engineered direct participation in Athens's democracy by as many adult male citizens as possible. First he created constituent units for the city-state's new political organization by grouping country villages and urban neighborhoods into units called demes. The demes chose council members annually by lottery in proportion to the size of their populations. To allow for greater participation, Solon's Council of Four Hundred was expanded to five hundred members. Finally, Cleisthenes required candidates for public office to be spread widely throughout the demes. The creation of demes suggests that Greek democratic notions stemmed from traditions of small-community life, in which each man was entitled to his say in running local affairs and had to persuade — not force — others to agree. It took another fifty years of political struggle, however, before Athenian democracy reached its full development with the democratization of its judicial system.

Great Persecution

The violent program initiated by Diocletian in 303 to make Christians convert to traditional religion or risk confiscation of their property and even death. To eliminate what he saw as a threat to national security from the anger of the traditional gods about the existence of Christians, Diocletian in 303 launched the so-called Great Persecution to suppress Christianity. He expelled Christians from official posts, seized their property, tore down churches, and executed anyone who refused to participate in official rituals honoring the "old" gods of Roman religion. His three partners in the tetrarchy differed in their commitment to Diocletian's policy of suppressing Christians. In the western Empire, official violence against Christians stopped after about a year; in the east, it continued for a decade. The public executions of Christians were so gruesome that they aroused the sympathy of some polytheists. The Great Persecution ultimately failed: it undermined social stability without destroying Christianity.

feudalism

The whole complex of lords, vassals, and fiefs (from the Latin feodum) as an institution. The nature of that institution varied from place to place, and in some regions it did not exist at all. Pg. 246

What were Cincius Romanus, Poggius Bracciolinus, and Bartholomaeus Politianus searching for in the town of St. Gall? The works of classical authors Stolen documents from the papal archives Legal precedents for canon law The lost works of St. Augustine

The works of classical authors The three men hoped to find the works of classical authors that had been "lost" in monastic libraries.

The Renaissance saw a revival of interest in which of the following? The philosophy of Aquinas The writings of Cicero The theology of Pope Gregory VII The histories of Einhard

The writings of Cicero Many Renaissance thinkers saw Cicero as the pinnacle of rhetorical excellence.

Why did the Huns cease to be a major threat to the Roman Empire after 453? a. They were defeated in a major battle. b. They became Roman citizens. c. They returned to their homeland for unknown reasons. d. Their leader died.

Their leader died. At the Hun leader Attila's death in 453, the Huns lost their fragile unity and faded from history.

Which of these helps explain why the Greeks were able to defeat the Persians? a. They had a much larger army. b. The Persian Empire was wracked by civil war. c. Their soldiers had stronger weapons. d. They had the help of the Greek city-states in Italy.

Their soldiers had stronger weapons. The Greeks won their battles against the Persians because their generals had better strategic foresight, their soldiers had stronger weapons, their warships were more effective, and enough of them united to preserve their independence.

How did Byzantine emperors wield power over the church? a. They occupied the position of patriarch of Constantinople. b. They called church councils to determine dogma. c. They personally appointed all parish priests. d. They forbade the church from owning any land.

They called church councils to determine dogma. With church councils, they had considerable influence over the major contours of official religious practice and belief.

In what way did the medieval summa collections reflect the principles of the Scholastic movement? They were kept within small intellectual communities to strengthen particular universities. They focused on religious questions and compiled theological perspectives. They collected and organized knowledge on a range of subjects. They demonstrated the scholastic preference for new knowledge rather than traditional ideas.

They collected and organized knowledge on a range of subjects. The medieval summa collections offered summaries of knowledge within particular fields.

Which of these was characteristic of the troubadours and their poetry? They all wrote within a single rhyme and meter scheme. They concentrated on the various forms of human love. Their most common topic was military valor. They were all men.

They concentrated on the various forms of human love. The troubadours concentrated on the various forms of human love and its joys and sorrows.

What place did women have in the Albigensian church? They were seen as allies of the devil. They could hold all but the highest positions. They were allowed to join but not to hold official positions. They were not allowed to join.

They could hold all but the highest positions. Attracting both men and women, young and old, literate and unlettered, and giving women access to all but the highest positions in their church, the dualists saw themselves as followers of Christ's original message.

How did the Vandals contribute to the further weakening of the western portion of the Roman Empire? a. They united the tribes of northern Germany in a powerful anti-Roman confederation. b. They spread disease throughout the empire, thus accelerating population decline. c. They invited the Huns to begin a new round of invasions. d. They created the conditions under which Britain could be invaded by the Anglo-Saxons.

They created the conditions under which Britain could be invaded by the Anglo-Saxons. The Anglo-Saxons invaded Britain in the 440s after the Roman army had been recalled from the province to defend Italy against the Visigoths.

What purpose did the missi dominici serve? They aided missionaries in the process of Christianization. They served as imperial tax collectors. They surveyed newly acquired territory. They ensured that all subjects had access to royal justice.

They ensured that all subjects had access to royal justice. To discourage corruption, Charlemagne appointed special officials, called missi dominici ("those sent out by the lord king"), to oversee his regional governors — the counts. The missi traveled in pairs throughout the kingdom to ensure that all, rich and poor alike, had access to royal justice.

Which of these contributed to a sense of solidarity among townspeople? They were all technically living outside the law. They often fought in wars together. They had mutual economic interests. They were generally from a single ethnic group.

They had mutual economic interests. Townspeople had a sense of solidarity because they lived in close quarters, they shared a mutual interest in laws to facilitate commerce and increase their economic freedom, and they did not fit into the traditional medieval social hierarchy.

Ancient Greek religion was based on a pantheon of gods, each representing different strengths or forces, and the Greeks believed that a. they had to try to please the gods through prayers, ritual offerings, and the avoidance of offensive behavior. b. the gods would reward them whenever they excelled or attained aretê. c. the gods demanded that humans conduct their lives according to a strict moral code that forbade transgressions like theft, murder, dishonesty, greed, and cruelty. d. the gods had chosen Greece as a favored land, and that the Greeks were destined to conquer other peoples and achieve worldly glory.

They had to try to please the gods through prayers, ritual offerings, and the avoidance of offensive behavior. Most Greeks believed that humans must honor the gods to thank them for blessings received and to receive more blessings in return, and that the gods sent both good and bad into the world. Gods could punish offenders by sending disasters such as floods, famines, earthquakes, epidemic diseases, and defeats in battle. The relationship between gods and humans generated sorrow as well as joy, but with hope for favored treatment in this life and in the underworld after death for those who lived justly. Mythology hinted at the gods' expectations of proper human behavior. For example, gods demanded hospitality for strangers, proper burial for family members, and participation in divine worship. Actions such as performing a sacrifice improperly, violating the sanctity of a temple area, or breaking an oath or sworn agreement counted as disrespect for the gods. Humans had to police most crimes themselves.

How did the social elite support the imperial regime under Tiberius and subsequent emperors? a. They wrote laws and offered advice on imperial policy. b. They managed the collection of taxes in the provinces. c. They repudiated republican government. d. They served as minor functionaries and as servants to the emperor.

They managed the collection of taxes in the provinces. The social elite supported the regime by staying loyal and managing the collection of taxes while governing provinces.

What contribution did the Neo-Babylonians make to Near Eastern culture? a. They invented the epic poem. b. They invented a phonetic alphabet. c. They preserved much of Mesopotamian literature. d. They preserved much of Mesopotamian literature. e. They introduced the idea of monotheism.

They preserved much of Mesopotamian literature. For example, they were responsible for the preservation of the Epic of Gilgamesh.

How did the social elite support the imperial regime under Tiberius and subsequent emperors? a. They served as minor functionaries and as servants to the emperor. b. They repudiated republican government. c. They pretended that the republic's traditional offices retained their original powers. d. They pretended that the republic's traditional offices retained their original powers. e. They wrote laws and offered advice on imperial policy.

They pretended that the republic's traditional offices retained their original powers. The offices of consul, senator, and provincial governor continued, with elite Romans filling them and enjoying their prestige.

How did the rule of Roman emperors from Diocletian on reflect Persian influences? a. They surrounded themselves with courtiers and ceremony. b. They staffed the imperial government entirely with slaves. c. They lived in almost complete isolation. d. They adopted Zoroastrianism as the state religion.

They surrounded themselves with courtiers and ceremony. The dominate's emperors broadcast their majesty by surrounding themselves with courtiers and ceremony; presiding from a raised platform; and sparkling in jeweled crowns, robes, and shoes.

Which of these describes the relationship between the scholastics and Aristotle? They rejected most of his teachings because he lived before the time of Christ. They saw much to value in his work but thought both Plato and Zeno to be superior. They revered him, seeing him as Christian saint. They thought that Aristotle's work was an excellent foundation upon which to build.

They thought that Aristotle's work was an excellent foundation upon which to build. The scholastics saw Aristotle's work as the zenith of what could be achieved through reason alone. They thought that, because they had the benefit of Christ's revelations, they could take Aristotle's philosophy one necessary step further and reconcile human reason with Christian faith.

To what purpose did kings, princes, and popes put their courts? They used them to keep an eye on their leading courtiers. They used them to house the poor and destitute. They used them to keep their expenses under control. They used them as a place to withdraw from public life.

They used them to keep an eye on their leading courtiers. Kings, princes, and popes alike used their courts to keep an eye on their leading courtiers (cardinals in the case of popes) and impress their other subjects.

Why did many crusaders travel to the Holy Land via the Rhineland? They wanted to visit certain shrines before they left Europe. They hoped to attract more participants there. They wanted to kill Jews. It was the most direct route.

They wanted to kill Jews.

Why did thirteenth-century townspeople gather to hear preachers like Berthold? They wanted to know how the Christian message applied to their daily lives. They hoped to hear messages of resistance and revolution. They were ordered to do so by church authorities. They saw preaching as a cheap form of public entertainment.

They wanted to know how the Christian message applied to their daily lives. The church's zeal to reform the laity was matched by the desire of many laypeople to become more involved in their religion. Consequently, men and women flocked to hear the preaching of friars.

What did the Second through Eighth Crusades have in common? The crusaders failed even to leave Europe. They were all military failures. They were not authorized by the pope. They were militarily successful but failed to lead to any consolidation of the crusader states.

They were all military failures. The success of the First Crusade was a mirage. The European toehold in the Middle East could not last. Numerous new crusades were called, and eight major ones took place between the first in 1096 and the last at the end of the thirteenth century. None were successful.

What happened to Christians who became subjects of the caliphate of Córdoba? They were enslaved and dispersed throughout the Islamic world. They were given tax-exempt status. They were allowed freedom of worship. They were forced to convert to Islam.

They were allowed freedom of worship. The Muslims allowed them freedom of worship and let them live according to their own laws.

By the late sixth century, which of these legal restrictions had been placed on Jews? a. They were forbidden from appearing in public. b. They were barred from marrying Christians. c. They were required to serve for ten years in the Roman army. d. They were forbidden from emigrating from the Roman Empire.

They were barred from marrying Christians. By the late sixth century, the law barred Jews from marrying Christians, making wills, receiving inheritances, or testifying in court.

Why were the political forms of the Greek city-states and the Greek concept of citizenship so unprecedented and unique? a. They were based on the concept of citizenship for all free inhabitants and allowed for some degree of shared governing, except in tyrannies. b. They affirmed the right of all Greek inhabitants to an equal share in the state's governance. c. They allowed all the inhabitants of a city-state, irrespective of race or gender, to vote equally. d. They represented a radical departure from long-held communal values, as the rights of the individual henceforth took precedence.

They were based on the concept of citizenship for all free inhabitants and allowed for some degree of shared governing, except in tyrannies.

What did the duchy of Burgundy and Spain have in common? They were both minor players in fifteenth-century western European politics. They were both republics. They both had relatively homogenous populations. They were both created by marriage.

They were both created by marriage. Both resulted from the merger of previously independent states through marriage.

Which of these describes the sedentary people of the Arabian peninsula? a. They were nomads who herded livestock and raided one another. b. They were an illiterate people with no written culture. c. They were farmers, merchants, and artists who lived in oases. d. They were subsistence farmers who engaged in little trade.

They were farmers, merchants, and artists who lived in oases. Sedentary people made up the majority of the population of the Arabian peninsula.

Which of these was a distinctive feature of Romanesque churches? They were heavy, solid-looking buildings. They had a single great hall and made no clear distinctions among the various parts of the church. They were primarily places of silent, private prayer. They soared high above their surroundings.

They were heavy, solid-looking buildings. Romanesque churches had thick walls and few windows.

Why did Muhammad believe Jews might be receptive to his message? a. They had demonstrated an interest in religious innovation. b. They had been oppressed by polytheists. c. They were monotheists. d. They were dissatisfied with their existing religious leadership.

They were monotheists. Muhammad expected support from Jews because he thought their monotheism prepared them for his own faith.

Which of these was true of the crusader states? They were home to large European populations.They were extremely hostile to non-Catholics.They were organized around military concerns.They were technically provinces of the Byzantine Empire.

They were organized around military concerns. The main concerns of the rulers of the crusader states were military. They set up castles and recruited knights from Europe. The main concerns of these rulers were military. They set up castles and recruited knights from Europe. So organized for war was this society that it produced a new and militant kind of monasticism: the Knights Templar. The Templars vowed themselves to poverty and chastity. But unlike monks, the Templars, whose name came from their living quarters in the area of the former Jewish Temple at Jerusalem, devoted themselves to warfare.

Which statement describes Greek colonies? a. They depended on slave labor supplied by locals. b. They were sometimes founded by farmers looking for new land to cultivate. c. Their political systems differed in dramatic ways from those of the Greek poleis. d. They were operated for the economic benefit of "mother cities."

They were sometimes founded by farmers looking for new land to cultivate. As the population expanded following the Dark Age, a shortage of farmland in Greece drove some poor farmers abroad to find fields they could work.

Which crusade got closest to aiding the crusader states based in Jerusalem? Fourth Third Northern Albigensian

Third The Third Crusade (1189-1192) got the closest to Jerusalem but ultimately failed.

What do the Mycenaean burial chambers known as tholos tombs reveal about the Mycenaeans?

Tholos tombs — massive underground burial chambers built in beehive shapes with closely fitted stones — reveal that by about 1500 B.C.E. some Mycenaeans had become very rich. The architecture of these tombs and the style of the burial goods in them testify to the far-flung expeditions for trade and war that Mycenaean rulers conducted throughout the eastern Mediterranean. Above all, their many decorative patterns clearly inspired by Minoan art indicate a close connection with that civilization on Crete.

Medieval people divided their society into what three groups? Those who pray, those who fight, and those who work Those who buy, those who spend, and those who save Those who are saved, those who are not saved, and those who are damned Those who rule, those who own, and those who obey

Those who pray, those who fight, and those who work Of these, the first two groups formed the upper classes.

How did Milan gain its independence from the archbishop who effectively ruled the city? As a result of the intervention of the pope Through force of arms Through negotiation and compromise As a result of the intervention of the German emperor

Through force of arms A series of armed clashes led to the transfer of political power from the archbishop and his clergy to a government of leading men of the city.

What was the purpose of the new forms of partnership that emerged in the Middle Ages? To evade taxes and regulations To conform with new church and royal laws To bring people together to pool their resources and finance larger initiatives To weaken the power of guilds and create new economic organizations

To bring people together to pool their resources and finance larger initiatives Although they took many forms, all of the new business agreements of the tenth and eleventh centuries had the common purpose of bringing people together to pool their resources and finance larger initiatives.

Why did the Ottoman Turks get involved in the Habsburg-Valois conflict? To help secure their independence For religious reasons To expand their territory To weaken the Persians

To expand their territory The Ottomans saw the conflict as an opportunity to expand their territory.

Why did the survivors of the Black Death build new local colleges and universities? To help search for a cure To atone for their sins To gratify donors who wanted to be known as patrons of education To provide jobs for unemployed builders

To gratify donors who wanted to be known as patrons of education The survivors built new local colleges and universities, partly to train a new generation for the priesthood and partly to satisfy local donors — many of them princes — who, riding on a sea of wealth left behind by the dead, wanted to be known as patrons of education.

What was the main purpose of the rituals in Roman religion? a. To promote personal piety b. To cleanse the individual and society of the stain of sin d. To promote virtuous behavior among Roman women e. To keep peace with the gods and obtain their aid

To keep peace with the gods and obtain their aid The main goal of religion was to secure the peace of the gods and to harness divine power for public and private enterprises. Religious rituals were an important way of expressing common values, which for Romans meant those evident in their foundation myths: bravery, morality, family, and home.

Which of these was an important goal of the scholastics? To demonstrate the superiority of the pope to secular rulers To summarize all knowledge on a given subject and then preach the results of such projects To reestablish Greek as the principal language of scholarship To educate the broad mass of the medieval population

To summarize all knowledge on a given subject and then preach the results of such projects

Which of these helped promote Islamic unity in the tenth and eleventh centuries? The Abbasid caliphate Trade The Umayyad caliphate Religious uniformity

Trade Despite political differences, borders were open and trade networks connected all of the major centers of the Islamic world.

Romulus and Remus

Traditional story of how Rome began. Twins abandoned and rescued by a wolf, raised by a shepherd . Grew to build Rome. Romulus later killed Remus.

orthodoxy

True doctrine; specifically, the beliefs defined for Christians by councils of bishops. The bishops tried to suppress the disagreements that arose in the new religion. They used their authority to define orthodoxy (true doctrine) and heresy (false doctrine). The meetings of the bishops of different cities constituted the church's organization in this period. Today this loose organization is referred to as the early Catholic (Greek for "universal") church. Since the bishops often disagreed about doctrine and about which bishops should have greater authority than others, unity remained impossible to achieve.

wergild

Under Frankish law, the payment that a murderer had to make as compensation for the crime, to prevent feuds of revenge. Roman law was the most influential precedent for the new kings in constructing states. Their tribes had never possessed written laws, but their new states required legal codes to create a sense of justice and keep order. The Visigothic kings issued the first "barbarian law code." Published in Latin in about 475, it made fines and compensation the primary method for resolving disputes. Clovis also emphasized written law for the Merovingian kingdom. His code, also published in Latin between about 507 and 511, promoted social order through clear penalties for specific crimes, formalizing a system of fines intended to defuse feuds and vendettas between individuals and clans. The most prominent component of this system was wergild, the payment a murderer had to make as compensation for his crime, to prevent endless cycles of revenge. The king received about one-third of the fine, with the rest paid to the victim's family. Since laws indicate social values, the differing amounts of wergild in Clovis's code suggest the relative values of different categories of people in his kingdom. Murdering a woman of childbearing age, a boy under twelve, or a man in the king's retinue brought a massive fine of six hundred gold coins, enough to buy six hundred cattle. A woman past childbearing age (specified as sixty years), a young girl, or a freeborn man was valued at two hundred gold coins. Ordinary slaves rated thirty-five gold coins.

Sea Peoples

Unknown group of strong warriors who crushed the Hittites and destroyed cities in southwest Asia, who fought the Egyptians for 50 years.

Whose voyage initiated the large-scale importation of porcelain from China into Europe? Vasco da Gama Marco Polo Ferdinand Magellan Hernán Cortés

Vasco da Gama Vasco da Gama led a Portuguese fleet around the cape and reached as far as Calicut, India, the center of the spice trade. His return to Lisbon with twelve pieces of Chinese porcelain for the Portuguese king set off two centuries of porcelain mania.

Who led the successful revolt against the Spanish occupation of the Netherlands in the 1570s? Catherine de Médicis Elizabeth I William of Orange Henry of Navarre

William of Orange Prince William of Orange led the Netherlands' seven predominantly Protestant northern provinces into a military alliance with the ten mostly Catholic southern provinces and drove out the Spaniards.

If you attended a lecture given by Peter the Chanter, how would you expect his lecture to begin? With an explanation of a passage from an important text With the recitation of a passage from an important text With the disputation of interpretations of a passage from an important text With an invitation to students to offer their thoughts on a passage from an important text

With the recitation of a passage from an important text After the recitation, the lecturer would move on to the explanation and the disputation

Which of the following is true of the role of women in Egyptian society? a.Women were allowed to serve in the royal army. b.Women generally had the same legal rights as men. c.Women and men shared equally in Egyptian public life. d.Women were barred from owning land and slaves and from inheriting property.

Women generally had the same legal rights as men. Egyptians preserved more of the gender equality of the early Stone Age than did their neighbors. Women generally enjoyed the same legal rights as free men. They could own land and slaves, inherit property, pursue lawsuits, transact business, and initiate divorces. Portrait statues show the equal status of wife and husband; each figure is the same size and sits on the same kind of chair. Men dominated public life, while women devoted themselves mainly to private life, managing their households and property. When their husbands went to war or were killed in battle, however, women often took on men's work. Women could serve as priestesses, farm managers, or healers in times of crisis.

What do recent archaeological discoveries of graves from the Hittite kingdom reveal?

Women occupied positions of leadership in war and peace alongside men. Archaeological discoveries in that region have revealed graves of women buried with weapons. These burials suggest that women in these groups originally occupied positions of leadership in war and peace alongside men; the prominence of Hittite queens in documents, royal letters, and foreign treaties sprang from that tradition.

Which of the following was a consequence of the fact that all university students and teachers were considered clerics? Students always completed their studies by being ordained as priests. Students and masters were under the jurisdiction of the municipality in which they resided. Women were excluded from studying or teaching at universities. Students were universally revered by townspeople.

Women were excluded from studying or teaching at universities. Because masters and students were considered clerics, and clerics were male, it meant that women could be neither students nor masters.

The Rosetta Stone

a huge stone slab inscribed with hieroglyphics, Greek, and a later form of Egyptian that allowed historians to understand Egyptian writing.

The Pantheon

all the gods of a people or religion (when capitalized, Pantheon refers to the circular domed temple in Rome built in 27 B.C. and dedicated to all the gods.)

American colonial enterprises among the Swedes, Danes, Britons, and Dutch differed from those of the Spanish and Portuguese in that only the Swedes, Danes, Britons, and Dutch chartered joint-stock companies initially. colonized the Caribbean. established colonies in South America. imported African slaves to their colonies.

chartered joint-stock companies initially. Northern European colonializing was accomplished through private joint-stock companies to enrich investors by importing fish, furs, tobacco, and precious metals (if they could be found) and to develop new markets for European products.

The emperor Constantine was historically significant because he a. established religious toleration in the empire. b. established religious toleration in the empire. c. codified Roman laws in the sixth century. d. mandated that Christianity was the state religion. e. persecuted Christians starting in 303.

established religious toleration in the empire. Constantine and his polytheist co-emperor Licinius mandated religious freedom with the 313 Edict of Milan.

The Visigoth king Alaric is best known for a. his invasion of the British Isles. b. his decision to convert to Christianity. c. his cooperation with the Romans against Attila the Hun. d. his sack of Rome in 410.

his sack of Rome in 410. Alaric and the Visigoths burned and looted the city for three days, which caused many Romans to wonder if God had deserted them.

Pope Leo IX and his successors won over Normans in the 1050s by breaking with the Greek Orthodox Church. supporting the Norman invasion of England. investing Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily to them. allowing simony to occur in Norman lands.

investing Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily to them. In 1058, the reigning pope "invested" Apulia, nearby Calabria, and even the still-unconquered Sicily to the Norman Count Roger I's brother, even though they were not the pope's to give.

The year 476 is traditionally given as the end of the Western Roman Empire because in this year the a. Visigoths sacked Rome. b. last nominal emperor was deposed. c. Vandals sacked Rome. d. Frank king Clovis overthrew the Visigoths.

last nominal emperor was deposed. In 476, following a dispute over pay, the non-Roman soldiers of the boy emperor Romulus Augustulus murdered his father and deposed the child. He was not replaced. As such, he was the last Roman emperor.

The Carolingian Empire's fall affected peasants in that they embraced the Eastern Orthodox church. lost freedoms and became serfs. emigrated to cities from the countryside. began to gain political rights.

lost freedoms and became serfs. Most free peasants under the Carolingian Empire lost that status in its aftermath and became serfs, and thus were tied generation after generation to a vassalage system that benefitted the wealthy.

Macedonia differed from most Greek poleis in that it developed as a(n) a. democracy b. oligarchy c. theocracy d. monarchy.

monarchy Macedonia had strong ties to the Greek poleis, but the government there developed as a kingdom, not as a democracy or oligarchy.

Extant

still in existence

Following the collapse of the Hittite kingdom in Anatolia (1000 B.C.E.), which new regional power arose to fill the power vacuum? a. The kingdom of Israel b. The Babylonian Empire c. The Neo-Assyrian Empire d. The Persian Empire

the Neo-Assyrian Empire