Allusions in "Of Booker T Washington & Others"

Terrible Maroons

A group of runaway slaves during the colonial era that hid in the mountains of Virginia, the swamps of South Carolina, and in the mountains of Jamaica. They set up communities in secluded areas or lived on their own in order to stay hidden. These runaway slaves were self-governed and enforced their own definition of freedom, reshaping their place in society as something other than what was planned for them. They were both celebrated and feared at their time. In Jamaica, they threatened the prosperous sugar industry by rebelling against the system of slavery through plantation raids, the killing of white militiamen and freeing slaves. They did not conform to the expectations of their race and led a life with a motive of "revolt and revenge".

Senator Bill Tillman

A racist southern senator who claims to have murdered black people during an election, lead a violent group of white supremacists who caused harm to blacks, and as a senator opposed black rights and equality. Dubois is, obviously, an opponent of Tillmans and claims that it is every thinking black man should criticize him. He states this to advocate for blacks to stand up for themselves and it supports one of Dubois' thesis' that criticism should be allowed and is a vital part of advancement for blacks and is necessary in a thinking intellectual society

Robert B. Elliott

After referencing many famous black intellectuals of the 19th Century, he moves onto referencing three famous black politicians later in the same paragraph. Along with contemporaries Blanche Bruce and John Mercer Langston, Robert B. Elliott was a person of color who gained significant political advances for African Americans in the days of Reconstruction. Arriving from England to South Carolina in 1867, 25 year old Elliott started a law practice and became involved in the local Republican Party. Quickly, he became the Associate Editor of the South Carolina Leader, a widely read local Republican African American newspaper. In 1868, just a year after his arrival in America, Elliott won a seat in the South Carolina House of Representatives, a year after becoming the first black commanding general of the South Carolina National Guard. The next year, he was elected to Congress (Black Americans in Congress, Christopher) and fought for political and social progress for blacks, fighting the Ku Klux Klan and speaking in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1875. He held many more public offices, fighting political corruption as sheriff, being elected the Speaker of the General Assembly of South Carolina and pushing his reform agenda as the Attorney General of South Carolina until the end of Reconstruction. DuBois mentions Elliott to emphasize the massive strides African Americans have made in the political field, despite the massive roadblocks put up by whites.

Alexander Crummell

Alexander Crummell was born in the early 1800s to free parents. He attended an integrated school and an abolitionist school during his youth. He grew up to be a very influential person who addressed issues of the black community and wanted black people to achieve their highest goals and be ambitious. He wanted to prove to everyone that blacks and whites were equal, not inferior/superior, to one another. He also lived and taught in Africa for a while and wanted African Americans to go to Liberia where he was. W.E.B. DuBois referenced Crummell as someone with great social significance during their time not only because he had views that were opposite to Booker T. Washington (Washington advised blacks to stay in the fields wCrummell advised blacks to shoot for the stars), but because DuBois and Crummell worked together at the American Negro Academy that Crummell founded.

Lord Byron

An esteemed poet and politician from England, and a leader in the European Romantic movement of the 1800s. His most well known works include a short poem, "She Walks in Beauty", and the longer narrative poem "Don Juan". Spent many years traveling across Europe, while in Switzerland he developed a relationship with Percy Bysshe Shelley, another British poet and leader of the Romantic movement. Later in life, he joined the Greek independence movement and fought against the Ottoman empire. An excerpt from his "Descriptive and Narrative of Greece, III" can be found in this passage because of it's brief mention of a life spent enslaved, and all that slavery encompasses. It also addresses the slave master and their role in the cycle of slavery.

Grimkes

Archibald and Francis Grimke were both highly educated intellectuals and advocates for black rights. Archibald, was the vice president of the NAACP and a strong advocator for black suffrage, he disagreed with both Washington and Dubois, criticizing Washington for his Accommodationist approach and Dubois for his lack of direct action. Dubois sights him, along with other heavyweight black intellectuals who represent "the other class of negroes" who disagree with Washington, but should voice their concerns louder and challenge him.

Fighting of Salem and Poor

As Du Bois discusses the changes in the nature of African American leadership, he compares the tumultuous and rebellious motives of pre-1750 black leaders to the those of the latter half of the 16th century, a progressive chapter in this area of African American life. Salem Poor and Peter Salem serve as ideal examples of the change in mentality occurring in the evolving minds of African Americans. Poor fought in the United states military, even after buying his freedom 6 years before, and is best known for his service at the Battle of Bunker Hill. With no personal gain in sight, he fought purely for the liberty of a country that had abused him and his people for generations, with no end in sight. This courage was the basis of a petition to Congress by his fellow soldiers to honor his efforts, calling him "an experienced" and "excellent" soldier who heroically and fearlessly killed British Lieutenant-Colonel Abercrombie. Salem was an African American soldier from Massachusetts who served in the Battle of Bunker Hill in exchange for his freedom in 1775. He is credited for fighting valiantly and patriotically as well killing British Major John Pitcairn, making him one of the last to retreat from the battle. Du Bois cites these men as examples of the integration and assimilation attempted by a previously vengeful black society. Acts like these reflect the dedication of African Americans to creating a country they can contribute to and bettering the relations of black and whites.

Intellectual accomplishments of Banneker and Derham

Ben Bannaker was an astronomer and one of the first Black americans to gain scientific recognition and distinction for his life's work. James Derham was the first African American man to practice medicine in the United States, although he was never granted an M.D degree. In this paragraph of Dubois' essay, he lists many noteworthy blacks who helped assimilate their race into the populace of the country after slavery. These people helped advance their race in the 1800's.

Bruce

Blanche Kelso Bruce was born into slavery, but later emancipated by his father and slave master, Pettis Perkinson. He had been tutored as a child, and was able to read and write, unlike the majority of enslaved children. After attending Oberlin College, he started a school for black children in Missouri. Bruce purchased a Mississippi Delta plantation, became a wealthy landowner, and was eventually elected to be the second African American to serve in the upper house of Congress. He was later appointed to be the Register of the U.S. Treasury by President Garfield. Bruce is a strong example of self-assertion, because of the school for black children he established, and the way he built himself financially and politically. This allowed him to represent African Americans in the government and further the standing of his race in the U.S.

Philadelphia and New York color-prescription

Churches in America at the time of W.E.B DuBois typically had a particular amount of blacks they would allow to sit for a congregation. This would lead to the lightest blacks being able to sit in the congregation, often excluding whole families due to their dark complexion. These limits led to black families leaving white churches and forming their own, helping to make Sunday morning "the most segregated hours in Christian America", as they were referred to by a Virginia Tech Professor in his study of the segregation of American churches.(http://www.phil.vt.edu/JKlagge/ConductorChurch.htm) An Emerson study found that only 8% of American churches had less than 80% of their congregation as one race. This de facto segregation can be traced back to when the segregation was mandated by churches.

Martyrdom of Attucks

Crispus Attucks was a black man in the 1770s, and the first person killed in the Boston Massacre in 1770. He was and still is often referred to as the first casualty of the American Revolutionary War. After his death by the hands of British soldiers, Attucks and the rest of the victims of the Massacre became instant martyrs and symbols of liberty for American Patriots that would fight in the Revolutionary War. The fact that America cared so deeply in this time for the death of a black man was telling of the improving attitude of the American public on the subject of the black race. DuBois alludes to this event in the context of said "liberalization" of American culture in the late 18th century. He uses this event to point to how, in the late 18th century, thoughts of the assimilation of blacks into the white and free society of America were being entertained. He uses America's adoration of Attucks after his death as an example of such ideas.

Bishop Daniel Payne

Daniel Payne was born in South Carolina, in 1811 to free parents. He was the sixth bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. Payne also founded Wilberforce University, which was America's first privately owned Historically Black College. Payne dedicated his life to pushing for African- American equality in society. DuBois writes, "Self-assertion, especially in political lines, was the main programme... and, less conspicuous but of greater social significance Alexander Crummell and Bishop Daniel Payne." (5). DuBois describes Bishop Daniel Payne as an assertive leader, who caused great social change, to contrast Booker T. Washington who he believes is not assertive enough.

Vesey in Carolina in 1822:

Denmark Vesey was a former slave who in 1822 was tried and hanged for allegedly organizing a slave revolt of over 1,000 freed and enslaved blacks in South Carolina. The plot was supposedly planned such that the thousand men would invade Charleston, and kill any whites there. However, the plot was uncovered before any revolt took place, and Vesey and 36 of his co-conspirators were hanged after a dubious trial. Vesey was considered a hero by many anti-slavery activists. Fredrick Douglass, notably, used his name as a battle cry for the first all-black infantry during the Civil War. DuBois alludes to this event when discussing the several slave revolts that took place after the revolutionary war, naming Vesey's planned revolt among Gabriel's and Nat Turner's. He mentions these revolts to show how slaves at the time felt the need to revolt for their freedom after the financial and social troubles that occurred following the Revolutionary War cooled off the humanitarian thoughts of black equality and assimilation that were present in late 18th century in America.

weaker and darker people of West Indies, Hawaii, and the Philippines

Du Bois mentions the weaker and darker people of the West Indies, Hawaii, and the Philippines because he is implying that there is no escaping lying and brute forces because Europe's dealing with the non-white population of the world has typically ended with slaver, death, war etc. These people in particular are used as an example because Du Bois opinion on the Spanish-American war, where America acquired Hawaii and the Philippines, was just another example of an overlying theme of white supremacy.

Negroes form African Church (NY & Philly when prescription instituted)

Dubois goes on in this piece of the text to talk about the formation of several churches by native Africans in the US. For the 1st time for many black people in America this is the 1st time they are seeing an organized faith based group of people who look like them. "...the formation of a peculiar socio-religious among the Negroes.." (4). New York and Philadelphia, both northern cities have been an epicenter for free blacks since slavery began in America, which makes sense that these locations were the first homes to the African church. During this time some of the largest centers of worship to the African American community in these were built. Some of the institutions include St. Philips Episcopal Church (1809), Abyssinian Baptist Church (1809)of New York City and African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas (1792),First African Presbyterian Church (1807) of Philadelphia.

Barbadoes of Boston

Dubois introduces James G. Barbadoes as "Barbadoes of Boston." According to Dubois, Barbadoes and others like him in thought strove to be unified as men, not as slaves, and as "people of color," not as "Negroes." But their wishes were unfollowed and they were considered "despised blacks" and soon found themselves clinging to rights they had possessed formerly. Barbadoes was one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833, the second largest abolitionist organization in the United States. Barbadoes supported William Lloyd Garrison, the author of the controversial abolitionist newspaper, The Liberator, and campaigned against the wrongful imprisonment of free black sailors in Southern ports. Barbadoes' experience in the United States is useful to Dubois who is, at this point in the essay, trying to demonstrate the changing relations between blacks and whites throughout the nineteenth century.

Cato of Stono

Dubois is alluding to one of the few successful slave revolts in Colonial History, The Stono uprising. The revolt took place in 1739 in Charles Town, now referred to as Charleston, South Carolina. Due to the time period some of the enslaved people who were a part of the uprising were Africans brought over to the colonies at the beginning of the British being a party in the international slave trade business. Not yet crushed by the systematic oppression of slavery, these enslaved people wanted respect, revenge, and liberty. " Before 1750, while the fire of African freedom still burned in the veins of slave..."(4.) They raided a local store gathering weapons, they killed 2 shopkeepers in the process. The 20 enslaved people who took part in the revolt marched all the way into spanish territory, ensuring their freedom.

Reconstruction politicians of color

During the civil war and reconstruction period from 1860 -1880 the south remained in slavery but within decade slaves would be free to a certain extent , the rights to vote and hold political office. In 1935 W.E.B Du Bois's wrote "Black Reconstruction". A book based on how the civil War was turned into a tragic caused by "premature" granting of civil and political rights to African Americans. During this time in history there were racial tolerant in the south. Du Bois felt as if African Americans were not given the right to freedom that they earned and deserved and felt the need to speak out.

Gabriel in VA 1800

Gabriel Prosser was an enslaved African-American man in Virginia in 1800. After attempting to steal a pig and biting the ear off the person who caught him, Gabriel was sentenced to a month in jail. While in his cell, he decided that the life of a slave was not one worth living, and that he would organize a rebellion. He spent most of 1800 using the skills he learned as a blacksmith to mold swords from shovels and organizing other slaves. After organizing an estimated 1,000 slaves, on the night the revolt was planned for in August of 1800, a major thunderstorm struck down on Virginia. Before the morning came, Gabriel had been outed by two fellow slaves and was eventually sentenced to death.

Socrates

Great Greek philosopher famous for his 'Socratic Method' and his wisdom that he passed to his most famous student, Plato. He believed that a statement could only be considered true if it could not be proved false. He was known to constantly test the wisdom of those wiser than himself, which often got him into trouble. Dubois mentioned him as a way to show an understanding of his teachings and to imply that he, a renowned thinker, would not approve of Booker T. Washington's actions. Name-dropping this person also demonstrates DuBois' knowledge of classical philosophy, further solidifying himself as an intellectual.

Title

He speaks of Booker T. Washington and others like him who hold views opposing his own. By naming Washington directly -- a favorite of whites who favored his espousals of "separate but equal" -- he sets up a comparison/contrast at the beginning of this persuasive essay. His use of "Of" for this and all the essays in The Souls of Black Folk ("Of Spiritual Strivings," "Of the Quest for the Golden Fleece," etc.) from which the essay comes, harkens to the earliest writings of Renaissance philosopher, essayist, scientist, lawyer, statesman Francis Bacon, whose published collection, Essays (1597), used "Of" to start each essay within the text ("Of Death," "Of Truth," "Of Wisdom for a Man's Self," "Of Cunning," etc.). In modeling Bacon's form, Dubois casts himself as an intellectual, a philosopher, as an essayist, as well as a man highly educated and well versed in the classics.

The Other Class of Negroes

Here the reader is educated about the extraordinary class of black people living in America at the time. Dubois alludes to a class of negroes aren't common but are well educated and moderately wealthy. "The other class of Negroes who cannot agree with Mr.Washington has hitherto said little aloud. They deprecate the sight of scattered counsels, of internal disagreement..." (7). They were usually doctors, lawyers, politicians, etc. A term used to describe them are "The Talented Tenth". That meant out of the 100% of black people in the US at the time only 10% were educated and living well off. They were the select few who were afforded opportunities, so that the government can say that not all people of color live in poverty and a neglected. These people made up much of the voice that spoke out against racial injustice at the time due to their status in society. They heavily advocated for things such as The right to vote, Civic equality, The education of youth according to ability.

Revolution of 1876

I could not find much about what this was, but I did get information about the Election of 1876 and the Compromise of 1877, and DuBois references "the suppression of negro votes", so I am assuming those were related to/are the Revolution of 1876. In the election of 1876, the Democratic candidate Tilden won the popular vote, but neither Tilden nor Hayes (Dem. and Rep. candidates) had enough electoral votes to become President. At the same time, Republicans were having trouble with and getting tired of upholding Reconstruction policy and many Southerners took offense to troops being at voting places and blacks voting. Some negotiations took place and the Compromise of 1877 was signed, which removed troops from voting stations and took pressure off of Reconstruction, and Hayes took office. I am assuming this could be called the Revolution of 1876 because it was really the end of Reconstruction and a new revolution of pushback against blacks, particularly in the South.

John Brown's raid

John Brown's raid was an intended slave revolt led by John Brown, a Northerner that planned to seize arms and ammunition from the federal reserve and use them to arm slaves in the South and instigate a slave revolt. Brown led a small army of 18 men into Harper's Ferry, Virginia, where they managed to take the federal complex with little resistance. He then attempted to contact slaves whom could assist him in his revolt. No slaves answered his call, and instead local citizens and militia surrounded him. Eventually, troops came from Washington to arrest Brown. He was tried and hanged for his crimes. Some in the North heralded Brown's actions as noble and brave, much to the disgust of many Southerners. Thus, John Brown's raid further divided the North and South during the period that would eventually lead to Civil War. DuBois alludes to this event when discussing the more aggressive push for black freedom equality that was present in the years before and after the Civil War. John Brown's raid was a notable extreme of this phenomenon, and DuBois notes it as such.

John Mercer Langston

John Mercer Langston was the first African American to attend Oberlin University and was later elected to Congress in 1888 as the first representative of color from the state of Virginia. During Jim Crow, he was one of five African Americans elected to Congress from the South, and was the last to be elected until about a decade later in 1973. He was an intellectual trailblazer for African Americans, being the first dean of the law school of Howard University and the president of what is now known as Virginia State University. DuBois acknowledging the accomplishments of Langston and politicians like him is almost a direct response to Booker T. Washington's "Atlanta Compromise" speech, where Washington tells the audience that African Americans shouldn't pursue political careers because of their lower status.

Price (1880s?) ultimate assimilation through self-assertion, and no other terms

Joseph C. Price was the founder and president of Livingston College in North Carolina. Livingston College was dedicated to the education of black males, Price believed that education would be the quickest way for blacks to integrate to society. This being said, Price also believed that backs must demand the rights that are granted to every other citizen in order to become a part of society, and cannot afford to be patient and wait to be handed rights, as that will never happen. Price used his incredible public speaking skills in order to persuade his frequently large crowds, Price was considered one of the most influential black men in America before his death in his late 30s. DuBois references Price as a leader who believes in accepting nothing less than the rights of a white man, much like DuBois himself.

Kelly Miller

Kelly Miller was an African American mathematician, essayist, sociologist and writer. As the first African American to attend Johns Hopkins University, he also attended Howard University and established a legacy as an intellectual icon for blacks throughout the late 17th century and early 18th century. He went on to become a professor of mathematics at Howard University, then a professor of Sociology, which he introduced to the school, and eventually dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. Well known for his writing, Miller's philosophy was a sort of mixture of views of the liberal Du Bois and conservative Washington. He sought to find a "middle path" between the two and form a plan for the integration of blacks into an all-white society. His plan was based on an education system that would allow "symmetrical development" in African American society, making both "vocational and intellectual instruction" viable options. As Du Bois explains the different ideologies of Washington's opposers, he describes a group of blacks who did not wish to see division and destruction amongst African Americans who held opposing views on handling race in America. Among these is Miller, whom he calls on to speak out against Washington's submissiveness. Du Bois urges that leaders of this "middle" belief system not only acknowledge the progressive parts of Washington's plan but recognize the faults as well and stand up for civic equality, the right to vote, and the complete education of youth.

Shad of Wilmington

Mary Ann Shadd Cary was an abolitionist from Wilmington, Delaware. She was the first African American female to be a newspaper editor in North America with her newspaper, The Provincial Freemen. She was also the second African American woman to earn her law degree in the United States. Shadd Cary was born free in the North in 1823 and is used by Dubois to express the division between Northern free blacks and Southern slaves. Dubois writes that northern abolitionists such as Shadd Cary turned to abolitionism as a last resort for selfish reasons. He believes that after failing to assimilate with white society and being associated in the minds of whites with Southern slaves, Northern blacks felt that they must fight for abolition in order for themselves to be truly free.

Negro common schools

Negro Common Schools were the public schools of today but for solely black students to attend. These schools were much harder to establish in the beginning because there were not the resources necessary. There was not enough black educators yet that had received a higher education (Du Bois 8). These are mentioned in the text because Du Bois uses this to point out one of Washington's flaws. Washington was criticized for not being able to see, "that no such educational system ever has rested or can rest on any other basis than that of the well-equipped college and university" (Du Bois 8). The use of Negro Common Schools as an example speaks to the fact that Washington had only 3 main focuses, one of them being industrial education (Du Bois 6). Du Bois brilliantly analyses very clearly the faults of Washington's beliefs and theories while supporting them at the same time.

St. Francis of Assisi

Patron saint of Assisi, Italy. He lived from 1181 to 1226. He is also the patron saint of ecology, merchants, and animals. He gave up all of his worldly possessions to live by the Gospel. He believed materialism was the end to God's love. He said, "If we had any possessions we should need weapons and laws to defend them." DuBois alludes to him after writing, "And so thoroughly did he [Booker T. Washington] learn the speech and thought of triumphant commercialism, and the ideals of material prosperity..." (2). DuBois calls Booker T. Washington out for being materialistic; and at the same time mentions a holy Catholic saint to contrast Washington's actions, which DuBois is deeming as sacrilegious.

Remond -- self assertion and self-development

Sarah Parker Remond was born into one of the most important African American families in Salem, Massachusetts. She developed a presence in anti-slavery movement, as she established herself as an abolitionist, lecturer and agent of the American Anti-Slavery Society. Remond travelled to England to gain support for the American abolition movement and returned after the beginning of the Civil War to gain support for the Union. She went on to become a physician and practice medicine for 20 years. Remond is a symbol of self-assertion and self-development in many ways. Her lectures were public assertions, which were very influential being that she spoke in so many places, and carried herself powerfully. Remond's participation in the anti-slavery movement is part of her self-development, being that she was working towards a brighter future for the African American community. Her medical practice was also a personal advancement, because it was such a rarity for a black woman to be a practicing physician.

schemers of migration and colonization

Schemers of Migration and colonization was a movement formed by Du Bois of New haven , Barbados of Boston , Shad of Wilmington and others all coming together not as "Slaves " and not as "people of color" but as Men trying to abolish slavery in the south , but also maintain the rights of voting and working as freemen.

Danish blacks

The Danish West Indies was a Danish colony in Caribbean is consist of 3 small islands Saint Thomas , Saint John and Saint Croix where they spoke their native language Dutch. The Danish blacks daily life was no different from the African Americans . They were not many opportunities for them .There daily Life was consist of hard work and labor. Most Danish people took their lives away due to frustration and desperation because of not having control of their lives and having free will. In 1848 Governor Peter Von Scholten granted slaves their freedom but most people believed otherwise .It was not the governor that grant them freedom but the enslaved population who took matters in their own hands demanded their freedom. After that time period not much has changed living conditions did not improve as well as education and healthcare.

Forten and Purvis of Philadelphia

The Forten Family was a well to do family in Philadelphia, during the Nineteenth Century. Their daughters Harriet and Sarah Forten, married into the Purvis Family in 1832 and 1838. Both the Forten and Purvis families were prominent abolitionists in Philadelphia. The Forten- Purvis sisters founded the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, and attended the Women's Anti-Slavery Convention in New York, in 1837. "In August 1837 Robert Purvis organized the Vigilant Association of Philadelphia to publicly promote antislavery ideology and "to create a fund to aid colored persons in distress."" (womenshistoryblog.com). In his essay, DuBois lists famous abolitionists, including the Forten-Purvis family. He the writes, "... strove singly and together as men, they said, not as slaves; as "people of color," not as "Negroes." (5). DuBois mentions the Fortens and Purvis', who were proud and outspoken activists, who refused to yield to anyone, to contrast Washington who yields to the will of white people in his Atlanta Address. DuBois points out civil rights leaders whom he believes to be truly effective.

Haitian revolt

The Haitian Revolt is often seen as the largest and most successful slave rebellion in the Western Hemisphere. Slaves had succeeded in ending slavery and French control over the colony (Washington "Haitian Revolution"). During the time of the revolt (1791-1803), little progress with slave rights and freedoms were being made, especially in America. The most notable event from the revolt was that this became the first country founded by slaves. This is what gave American slaves ideas and began to spark "fierce attempts at insurrection" (Du Bois 4). Du Bois mentioned these events because the Haitian revolution is what started a series of smaller American slave revolts which became some of the first real evidence that slaves were not happy doing what they were doing.

Excerpt from Childe Harold's Pilgrimage by Lord Byron

To begin his essay, W.E.B. DuBois selects a brief excerpt from the 1812 epic narrative poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage by British Romantic poet Lord Byron (Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). In the section DuBois uses, Byron describes the Byronic Hero Childe Harold journeying along the Mediterranean and visiting Greece. Byron actually began writing the poem during his travels to the Mediterranean from 1809 to 1811. Byron was deeply sympathetic to the plight of the Greeks, whose land was taken over by the Ottoman Empire in 1453. This part of the poem describes the Greeks as slaves in their homeland, calling for revolution against the ruling Ottoman Empire. Nine years later, the Greek Revolution began, with Lord Byron, as well as other 19th Century Aristocrats like American Abolitionist and physician Samuel Gridley Howe, voicing their support to the Greeks, who after eight years of fighting, won their independence. DuBois uses this excerpt to create a parallel between the Greeks, enslaved from birth into a world with a ruling class that abuses and demonizes them, and black people in America. The first two lines, "From birth till death enslaved; / in word, in deed, unmanned!", describes the position of both the Greeks under the Turks, as well as black people under white people. They know nothing but a life of slavery, birth until death, in every aspect of life they have no control. Byron interjects, "Hereditary bondsmen!", as if the position of "bondsman", a slave, was hereditary, like a disease, which was essentially the case for American slaves. Byron continues, "Know ye not / Who would free themselves must strike the first blow?". Byron, and by extension DuBois, is asking the enslaved masses if they are willing to fight for their freedom, to "strike the first blow". In Byron's case, for revolution and liberation of the Greek homeland, and for DuBois, civil rights, education, and political power.

Toussaint the Savior (revolt & revenge)

Toussaint L'Ouverture was born a slave on May 20, 1743 in the French colony of Saint Dominique. His father was an African prince, captured by slavers, who taught Toussaint all about Africa and his own self-worth. He had a liberal master who allowed Toussaint to educate himself through reading and writing. He became tri-lingual and studied the work of many French philosophers who preached individual rights and equality. The French Revolution also inspired Toussaint to fight for his rights and after the colonists of Saint Dominique denied to allow blacks the freedoms that blacks in France had received post-revolution, the slaves began to revolt. Toussaint became a leader of the revolution and gained a reputation for being a capable soldier. With the revolutionaries in power in France, they set free all slaves in the French colonies, ending the revolts in Saint Dominique. Toussaint then agreed to help the French fight the British and Spanish, proving himself to be an excellent general. Toussaint became the defacto governor of the colony. Unfortunately, the revolutionaries soon lost power and slavery was reinstated. In response, Toussaint continued the fight for freedom in Saint Dominique but was met with great opposition by Napoleon and his army. Toussaint was arrested and died while incarcerated but his fight for freedom carried on and Saint Dominique gained independence a year later. Dubois uses Toussaint the Savior as an example of a true revolutionary who fought for equality and would not stand for anything else unlike Washington.

William Wells-Brown

Towards the middle of his essay, DuBois uses abolitionist and novelist William Wells-Brown as an example of an African American icon who ushered in "a new period of self-assertion and self-development" ("Of Booker T. Washington and Others", DuBois). He is mentioned along with contemporaries William Cooper Nell and Frederick Douglass, who Wells-Brown publicly feuded with for much of his career. A prolific writer whose work spanned a multitude of genres and styles, he is credited with writing what is considered the first novel written by an African American. In the 1853 work, Clotel, he tells a fictional story about Thomas Jefferson's illegitimate slave children (Clotel, Wells-Brown). He published the book from London, where he fled to avoid slave catchers after the 1850 Fugitive Slave Act. DuBois namedrops Wells-Brown as an example of a true African American intellectual, someone DuBois may have considered himself as the modern equivalent of.

mulatto immigrants from the West Indies

W.E.B Dubois, the son of an immigrant from the West Indies himself, claimed that around 1830, when slavery seemed more engrained in the South than ever, free blacks living in the North were inspired by mulatto immigrants from the West Indies. Dubois says that freemen in the North acknowledged that slaves were slaves, but they themselves were free and sought for amalgamation and assimilation because of the influence of the immigrants from the West Indies. Both the North and South were populated with Caribbean immigrants. In the North, Prince Hall from Barbados established a black freemasonry and was a leader of the African-American community in Boston during the eighteenth century. In the South, Denmark Vessey, who was born in Saint Thomas, organized an elaborate slave revolt in 1822, but it ended up being uncovered. John B. Russwurm from Jamaica started Freedom's Journal, the first newspaper owned and operated by a black person in the United States, with an African-American colleague. This determination for freedom and acceptance found in immigrants from the West Indies caused freemen in the North to be more ambitious in their demands. Dubois mentioned the immigrants from the West Indies to name explicitly the cause of the shift in the base of demands of freemen in the North.

Songs of Phillis

W.E.B. Dubois mentions the songs of Phyllis, also spelled "Phillis," for Phillis Wheatley, as an example of when, in the late 1700s, there was a push for kind relations between white and black Americans. The songs of Phyllis express the then popular desire for blacks to assimilate into white American culture. Phillis Wheatley became one of the most well known poets of the eighteenth century even though she was a slave imported from Africa. She was anti slavery and her poetry reflected that belief. Her desire to assimilate is voiced in her most well known poem, "On Being Brought from Africa to America." In this work Wheatley reminds followers of the Great Awakening that Africans in America must be included in the Christian stream. Wheatley's goal to assimilate into white culture contradicts Booker T. Washington's economic plan, which Dubois vehemently opposed, and is why he referenced the songs of Phyllis.

J.W.E. Bowen

Was a man who was born into slavery in the mid 1800s. He saw the end of the civil war and slavery. He began attending school and excelled at it. He attended the University of New Orleans and began teaching at the University of Tennessee. His academic career was very long with many prestigious awards. He had a hand in many Civil Rights affairs as well sitting in the middle between DuBois and Washington. The way DuBois alludes to Bowen, is by bringing up his somewhat neutral stance between Booker T. Washington and DuBois.

Mr. Thomas Nelson Page

Was famous for short stories and novels about the Old South. He depicted the south in a very good manner never looking down upon it. He depicted slaves to be happy with their work and that all southerners were proud and good people who did the right thing. Later in his life he served as the ambassador of Italy under Woodrow Wilson. After his short time in politics he came back to writing about how wonderful the South was before the Civil War. DuBois only brings up Page when speaking about influential individuals who are racist and are looking to turn the world back to a time before the Civil War.

Chicago celebration of the Spanish-American War

While many were attracted to hearing about the Spanish-American war and its victories because of the influence of yellow journalism, people also wanted to celebrate peace when the war was over. Chicago had the greatest celebrations for peace because President McKinley and most of his cabinet went to Chicago for the celebrations. In October of 1898, just a few months after the war ended, Booker T Washington spoke at the "Jubilee Week" in Chicago, where the President, many important officials, and tens of thousands of people watched him speak. He discussed the role of the black man in American history, referencing things like Crispus Attucks and the Boston Massacre, the Battle of New Orleans, and free blacks in the Union in the Civil War. He said that America has been able to fix all problems it has faced except for racial conflicts, and that the present peace time that was beginning should be used to try and fix that. He suggests that more people should consider giving blacks better treatment, given all they have done for the country. DuBois references this speech because it was one of few times where Washington received such intense and violent backlash to his comments, probably because they were usually more submissive in language (i.e. Atlanta Compromise) than they were in this speech.

Nell -- self assertion and self-development

William Cooper Nell was an African American writer and activist for abolition during the Civil War. He wrote for The North Star and The Liberator, and wrote the first studies on African Americans to be published. He frequently wrote of how important the social and intellectual advancement of African Americans was and of the need for integration, going as far as to reject and dismantle organizations specifically for African Americans. These sentiments are echoed throughout DuBois' essay, and he is referenced specifically as a model leader of abolition for his writings on self-development and assertion.

Du Bois of New Haven:

William Edward Burghardt Du Bois, better known as W.E.B. Du Bois, was an African American writer, civil rights activist, pan- african, and sociologist throughout the early 20th century. Du Bois was one of the first of his race to be educated at top universities, including Harvard University and Fisk University. He is credited for his tireless efforts in asserting the rights of his people and helping in the founding of the NAACP, as well publishing several literary works. Du Bois references himself in "Of Booker T. Washington and Others" along with other people he found to be crucial in creating a movement of people of color instead of just African Americans. He writes of social reformers with whom he shared common principles, such as Forten, Purvis, and Shad, who sought unity and assimilation between whites and (free) blacks, despite slavery in America. Du Bois includes himself in this list as a way of validating his ideas and showing that others believed in them as well. African American freemen and leaders were longing for cooperation between the two races, even before the abolitionist movement, but were refused recognition and robbed of their rights.

Political demands of the Cuffes

were a series of petitions by two brothers against the Massachusetts government. They demanded that Native Americans and African Americans alike should be given the right to vote. If they are not given the right to vote then they should not be taxed. It did not get put into action but it set a standard for the 1783 Massachusetts constitution, in which all males can vote. DuBois alludes to this when he began listing different ways people had approached fixing black and white relations.