American Foreign Policy
3) According to Adams, what is America's contribution to the world? What should America not do according to Adams?
Adams said that the US greatest contribution to the world was her "honest friendship equal freedom and generous reciprocity" He also says America respects the freedom and independence of other countries. He also says America will give moral support and prayers to any friend of the US who has their rights or liberties threatened. He says America should not get involved in other countries' affairs. He was concerned that if the US got involved in these affairs the US would become sort of a dictates to the rest of the world which is bad for America.
What is international institutionalism?
International Institutionalist believe that there are conflicts between countries but they cooperation between nations more possible and more beneficial than Realists do. To them pursuing cooperation is not naïve or dangerous but a rational way to reduce risks and make gains that even the most powerful state could not do on its own. Argue cooperation is a rational way to reduce risks and make political and economic gains for all nations. They put a strong emphasis on diplomatic action over military action. Believe diplomatic institutions are the key in facilitating cooperation. 5 principle types of international institutions Global-The United Nations Economic- World Bank. International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organization etc. International Legal- World Court Policy Area-NATO Regional- European Union (EU) Association of Southeast Asian Countries (ASEAN) African Union (AU) Arab League
What are reciprocal trade agreements?
International commercial treaty in which two or more nations grant equally advantageous trade concessions to each other. EX: a state may grant another state a special schedule of tariffs concessions in exchange for equivalent advantages.
What is NATO? Why was it formed? What year was it formed?
NATO is the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and it was created on April 4, 1949 and was the first peacetime military alliance in American history. NATO was military commitment to keep troops in Europe and the defense pledge to defend our European Allies if they were being attacked. The pledge also included the commitment to use nuclear weapons against the USSR even of their attack on Europe was not directly on the US. Today NATO forces are used in an international crisis for peacekeeping operations.
What is the falling domino principle in regards to the Cold War and Vietnam?
The falling domino principle is when a country makes a decision neighboring countries will make the same decision. If you knock down the first domino the last will surely fall. This was used in the Cold War as a way to use force and other resources in an effort to prevent countries from accepting the communist doctrine. Idea was if one country accepted communism another would follow. This is how US justified Vietnam, couldn't let Vietnam fall to communism because then other nations in that region would follow.
2) What are the concepts which underlie the Soviet worldview? How do they affect Soviet foreign policy?
• Innate antagonism between capitalism and socialism. This means that there can never really be cooperation between the two sides. Moscow assumes that the aims of capitalism are always antagonistic towards communism • The infallibility of the Kremlin. There is no organization outside of the party and, therefore, the party is the sole repository of truth. The communist party is always right. These 2 concepts give the party an unshakeable stubbornness and steadfastness in its orientation. Only the Kremlin has the power to change policy. Once it changes the policy it must be followed by all subordinates without question. This allows for inflexible policy that can change on a leaders whim.
According to Bush, what are the proliferation challenges facing the US?
• Iran has violated the non-proliferation treaty • North Korea continues to destabilize the region and is building a small nuclear program • Terrorists associated with Al-Qaida continue to pursue WMD • Part of the worlds supply of fissile material is not secure • Advances in technology provide greater opportunities for state (and non state actors) to acquire dangerous pathogens and equipment
According to Bush, what are the lessons to be learned from the Iraq War in regards to proliferation?
3 lessons to be learned from war in Iraq: • Intelligence must improve. US intelligence must be more organized in order to take a unified approach to counter-terrorists measures. More Cohesive strategy and agencies must share information and resources. • Always be some amount of uncertainty when dealing with proliferated groups. • The US must show commitment to deterrence and remove those in power that fail to comply with UN regulations over nuclear programs. Dictators must know there are large consequences from the repeated disregard of warnings.
According to Johnson, why should the US fight in Vietnam? What are the reasons he outlines for why the US is in Vietnam?
3 main reasons: • Many presidents have promised to help South Vietnamese he intends to keep those promises • Strengthens world order. By leaving Vietnam faith in US commitments could be shaken • Great stakes in the balance-retreat from Vietnam would not end the conflict aggression would continues to spread.
Why did the US lose the Vietnam War? Why was America's loss in the Vietnam War a failure of America's foreign policy strategy (Be sure to address Power, Peace, Principles, and Prosperity)?
5 reasons US lost Vietnam war • Underestimating the uniting and motivation power of nationalism among the Vietnamese • Misjudgments and ignorance about allied and enemy leaders • Limitations of modern high-tech military equipment against motivated peoples' movements • Failure to debate pros and cons of military involvement with Congress and American people • Failure in dealing with high costs and high casualties over a long period of time • It was a failure of foreign policy because the goal was to contain communism and the US jumped straight into force to show that they were powerful. The failure weakened the global perception of US power related to their ability to contain communism. Abuse and massacre of civilians violated the principles of civil rights and peace. Prosperity and economic condition worsened in US and the deficit grew because of Lyndon B Johnson's of keeping war and domestic spending up
What are ABC democrats? Why did the US adopt this approach? How is Vietnam an example of this approach?
ABC Democrat is an Anything But Communist government that is not a democracy at all. Most of the countries that had ABC Democrats were dictatorships and tyrannies and very harsh towards their citizens. The US supported these countries not because of their democratic tendencies but because of their pro-American beliefs. An example is the alliance with Nicaragua. The dictator of Nicaragua said that the alliance was an alliance for free governments and although America did not support free governments they saw any government as better than the communist government. South Vietnam is a good example of ABC Democrats because we did not support the South Vietnam leader, Ho Chi Minh, because he was communist. We supported anyone against Ho Chi Minh even a catholic nationalist man, Ngo Dinh Diem, who used a authoritarian rule to suppress all Buddhists in Vietnam. The Diem rule got so bad that the US had to be apart of bringing him down. This is an example of how the US supported anyone against Ho Chi Minh no matter how bad they were because they were not communist like Ho.
What was the Cold War consensus? What were its "three fundamental components"? How was the President dominant in war powers, covert action, and international commitments? What is the NSC?
According to Jentleson it was a name to describe the support of the foreign policies of the Democratic President Harry Truman by the Republican Congress. The Cold War Consensus refers to American foreign policy the early years of the Cold War. The consensus part derives from an early bipartisanship (two way treaty) between the President and the Legislative branch. This increased Presidential dominance and increased the office's individual powers which were abused at some points during this time. Has three fundamental components. First is Presidential dominance over Congress seen in Truman and Eisenhower administrations. Second was we needed to expand defense bureaucracy in the US. The new bureaucracy the president had a commanding say in day-to-day operations of the agencies. Third was an overwhelming public opinion against communism swept the country. President was dominant in war powers because Truman never asked Congress for a declaration of war during the Korean War he said the police powers of the UN didn't require him to check with Congress. Covert Action-The CIA was created as the first permanent intelligence agency in US History. Although Congress created the CIA and other defense agencies they were often seen solely as its protectors and not legislators who would check the powers. The President then had a wide authority. Finally the President would use executive agreements instead of treaties for establishing international relations. NSC is the National Security Council. Formed in 1974 to bring together Presidents primary foreign policy advisors. National Security Advisor and Secretary of Defense were given more power during this time in regard to foreign relations and policy decisions.
Based on these concepts, what should US foreign policy be generally and towards the Soviet Union according to X? why?
All manners with the soviets should be handled in a cool and collected manner. Using reasoning to decide that the Soviets were the weaker party X said that there may be deficiencies in the Soviets government and society where it shows their continued weakening. This would allow the US to adopt a policy of containment. This would confront Russia with force on any point where they show signs of encroaching on a peaceful and stable world. The overall American foreign policy in regards to the Soviet Union "must be that of a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Soviet expansive tendencies".
How did Vietnam shatter the Cold War consensus? Specifically between the President and Congress?
American public became more involved in foreign policy during and after Vietnam. Protests and appeals to representatives having an effect on the US willingness to enter into conflict. End of war in Vietnam meant end to Congress automatically granting President approval to wage war. No more Presidential dominance over Congress.
According to Lake, what are America's core concepts? What are the four defining aspects of the post Cold War period?
Americas core concepts are democracy and market economies. Says democracy alone can produce justice but not the material goods necessary for individuals to thrive; markets can expand wealth but not the sense of justice without which civilize societies perish 4 defining aspects of cold war era • Democracy and market economies • America is the worlds dominant power • Explosion of ethnic conflicts within the nations • Technology has accelerated the pace of human events
According to Bush, what is the first objective in regards to nuclear proliferation? What policies are proposed and why?
Bush says the first objective is to close a loophole in the Non-Proliferation Treaty that permits regimes to produce fissile material that can be used to make nuclear weapons under the guise of a civil nuclear program. Proposes a system in which the worlds largest nuclear exporters would provide fuel for any nuclear reactors (at a reasonable cost) to any state that maintains a transparent nuclear program. (Transparent means US or UN may inspect nuclear programs to ensure they are not being used to develop WMD'S). With this Unstable countries will have no reason to make fissile materials but will still be able to consume it.
What did Carter emphasize in his foreign policy?
Carter put a large emphasis on human rights and believed it was America's responsibility to not support governments who violate the human rights of citizens so he abandoned the ABC democrats. He also tried direct contact with people of the Soviet Union by meeting with the Soviet author and prison camp refugee Aleksander Slozhenitsyn. He was forced to change his views when Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979. 1980 released a doctrine similar to that of Monroe and said that the US would use force against any country that threatened the oil rich Persian Gulf, Carter thought they would go there next. He also refuse SALT II negotiations and stopped exporting grain to soviets
Has the US always pursued a "principled" foreign policy? What are examples of when the US has and has not?
Claimed to be a nation in pursuit of a principled policy however always in pursuit of national policy. With ideals of exceptionalism and manifest destiny US went to war with Mexico that led to the annexation of Texas. Instances like this caused people to question whether this was for the US or the countries that the US claimed to be assisting. Mexico did not see it as us liberating Texas. Later such ideal invoked the Spanish-American War. Spread of democracy influenced US involvement in WW1. FDR said reason we were in WW2 was because of something he called the 4 freedoms. Another contradiction to US foreign policy is that of racism this can be seen in slave trade and Mexican War. US took control of Philippines said they were un-fit for self government, in many case the "principles" were used to cover up other objectives throughout US foreign policy.
What was Reagan's policy towards Nicaragua?
Defended Nicaragua against invasion. Provided them with intense military and CIA assistance. Needed a way to prove credibility to the international community. Knew they would question the ability to come to their aid if their borders were being attacked.
What is détente? What led to Détente? What are the major components of détente? What is MAD? SALT? Why are they significant?
Détente is referred to as the relaxation of tensions. Term was coined during 1970s to describe relations b/w US and Soviet Union. Basis was US and Soviet Union both wanted peace and reduction of nuclear weapons close call of Cuban Missile Crisis made this apparent.
What is American exceptionalism? Manifest destiny? How did these two concepts affect America's foreign policy?
Exceptionalism is the idea that America holds a special place in the world because it is the worlds first working representative democracy. Manifest Destiny was the idea that the US had the "divine right" to expand its territory. Both of these had a role in America's foreign policy; they were used together to defend expansions made throughout the Western continent and then beyond it.
What is fast track authority?
Fast track authority was for trade agreements that the President could negotiate and present to Congress. Congress had 90 days to look over the proposal and could vote yes or no with no amendments allowed. Congress had protection because they didn't have to think about lobbyists instead concerns became the liability of the President. This was used to help pass Tokyo Round which intended to promote free trade. Before fast track was subject to whatever Congress chose to delegate.
What was Reagan's approach to America's foreign policy in terms of peace, power, principles, and prosperity? What was the Reagan doctrine? The Weinberg criteria?
Foreign policy has to be reassert on all four dimensions of national interest. Peace-Détente failed to bring peace and Reagan believed that the Soviets had never changed and that they used détente as a cover up for the traditional aggression strategy. Democrats like Carter and even Republicans like Nixon Ford and Kissinger were deluding themselves and endangering the country to think that the Soviets had changed. Peace was only going to be achieved through strength Power-Reagan wanted to reassert US power. Gave military aid, weapons and covert action for the Afghan maujahideen who were fighting the Soviets and the Nicaraguan contras who were fighting the Sandinistas. Secretary of Defense Weinberg set higher standard as to when US military should be used to intervene in foreign conflicts. Reagan increased defense spending and increased nuclear weapon arsenal. Principle-Communists were focus of evil and headed for ash bin of history. Said US was shining city on a hill and last hope of mankind. These claims justified ABC democrats and said that communist leaders were far more repressive than other leaders. View was contradictory because of the US support for military regime in El Salvador that promoted mass murder of citizens. Congress despite objections from Reagan administration attached human rights to US aid in El Salvador. Prosperity-The early 80s were marked as greatest recession since Great Depression, but they began to prosper under Reagan. Inflation tamed, economic growth rate boomed, and increase in defense rates played positive role in prosperity. Economic recovery and revived to prosperity key to Reagan reelection. Reagan Doctrine was an attempt to oppose Soviet Union influence. US provided overt and covert aid to anti communist guerillas and resistance movements in attempt to rollback Soviet governments in Asia Africa and Latin America. Also wanted to potentially open door to liberal democracy and capitalism in Soviet-supported socialist governments Weinberger criteria were response to failure of American military in Vietnam and Lebanon. Six criteria needed to be met before US sent troops to respond to international issue. 1) Must be vital to our interest or that of our allies. 2) If it is in interest we commit wholeheartedly enough troops to clearly win the struggle. 3) If we commit must have political and military goals for troops to accomplish. 4) Once committed must continually reassess troops that are committed based on the goals left to accomplish and change troop levels based on current demands. 5) Before troops are committed must be reasonable approval from Congress and American people that they support this use of force. 6)Use of troops should be last resort in all situations.
Why according to Lippman is containment unsuited for the United States?
He agreed Soviet power would expand unless confronted by American power but protested X's idea of containment because: • Government operates too slowly. By the time we have talks about Russian encroachment they will have already encroached • US economy would not deal with economic policy directed by state department o US economy is too free to be used by diplomatic planners to wage a shifting economic war on the Soviets • Says military is not designed for containment, waiting for enemy, designed for more of an offensive force. Says US military should not be used to rearrange the balance of power.
1) What was Washington's view of what US foreign policy ought to be? Why did he argue that nations should avoid antipathies and passionate attachments toward other nations? What should guide US foreign policy? Why? He believed that the United States should have good relations with all countries but they should have not attachment to said countries. He believed that attachment to other countries would draw them into a war that they had no common interest being involved in. Antipathies also led to more frequent collisions and conflicts which is what the US did not want. Becoming friends with a stronger nation meant the weaker nation would become a satellite for the stronger one. In this case the US would be the weaker country and therefore the satellite. Promote trade and a commercial relationship but keep political connection at a minimum. The US was weak at this time militarily and economically they had just been freed from British colonial control and needed trade only at this time
He believed that the United States should have good relations with all countries but they should have not attachment to said countries. He believed that attachment to other countries would draw them into a war that they had no common interest being involved in. Antipathies also led to more frequent collisions and conflicts which is what the US did not want. Becoming friends with a stronger nation meant the weaker nation would become a satellite for the stronger one. In this case the US would be the weaker country and therefore the satellite. Promote trade and a commercial relationship but keep political connection at a minimum. The US was weak at this time militarily and economically they had just been freed from British colonial control and needed trade only at this time
According to Bush, what are US deterrence and defense policies in regards to nuclear proliferation?
He expands the meaning of nuclear deterrence beyond attack prevention through fear and includes building up arms at home and a preemptive strike. He includes this because he believes we cannot stand by as grave danger grows. Also mentions: develop improved conventional and nuclear offensive systems, missile defense systems and changes in US infrastructure and intelligence systems. He does make it clear that US preferred nuclear defense is through diplomacy to solve these matters peacefully
What is isolationism? What is internationalism?
Isolationism is a foreign policy that seeks to minimize the ability of foreign powers and events to influence domestic policy. This is brought on by using non-interventionism in which politicians do not want alliances with other countries and their resulting wars unless it is in self-defense. Also uses protectionism which involves legal barriers like tariffs to control trade. Limit cultural exchanges with other states. US used isolationism with focus on non-interventionism prior to WWI. Internationalism is a foreign policy that says the US should take an active role in foreign affairs. Internationalists believe in policies of containment where the US tried to stop the spread of Communism by aiding countries financially and militarily so the Soviet Union did not take them over. Example of Internationalism vs Isolationism is on the brink of WWII when FDR said wanted the US to get involved in world affairs because he believed there were threats to the country and if we did not do anything about it they would reach and threaten the country. FDR had internationalist point of view because he wanted to get involved in foreign affairs to protect country.
What does a policy of containment threaten relations with European states? Why is this a danger for the US?
It threatens relations with European states, our natural allies, by alienating them because we are trying to develop unnatural alliances. Lippman said US would recruit satellites, clients, dependents, and puppets that would either plunge the US into crises or compel them (array of satellites clients etc.) to abandon them and rick charges of appeasement or "sell out." Basically the unnatural alliances can't be trusted. X says we need unassailable borders near Soviet Union which would be an unnatural alliance for us. Lippman said that X's doctrine of containment failed the test of realism. Did not recognize limits of American power and would get the US involved in dangerous alliances and would deplete American will and morale when the policy didn't bring victory.
What is the War Powers Resolution? What does it do?
Joint resolution that came from Congress in 1973. Keeps the president in check. President can only send forces abroad with approval of Congress or if we are attacked. This way he can't lead our country into a war the people do not support. Requires President to consult with Congress in the event of use of military force. Cannot stay past 60 days unless there is a declaration of war.
What was Nixon's strategy for ending the Vietnam War?
Strategy was a gradual withdrawal there were important elements of this strategy; such as if the enemy violence towards US troops increased Nixon could increase US involvement. No specific timetable on withdrawal so it gave US flexibility on adjusting plans based on change in situation. US would focus on gradually turning conflict over to the South Vietnamese so they could handle it themselves. Did this by increasing training and equipment of South Vietnamese.
According to Lake, how should the US deal with "backlash states" like Iraq? Why is it important to define a strategy of enlargement?
Lake defines "backlash states" as any non-democratic state that does not have market economies and ensures by the use of force that neither democracy or a liberalized economy will ever exist. Lake says the US should deal with backlash states by limiting the threat to democracy and market economies in other states, specifically by isolating them diplomatically, economically, militarily, and technologically. Emphasis will be put on intelligence, counter terrorism, multilateral export controls, adhering to the rules applying to WMD and the enforcement of these rules to further minimize the ability of backlash states to disrupt democracy and a market economy. Lake thought that backlash states should be dealt with anytime they threaten our vital interests, forces and people or citizens. A strategy of enlargement suggest that we should strengthen our democratic core in North America, Europe and Japan; consolidating and enlarge our democracy and market economies in key places; and addressing backlash states like Iran and Iraq.
What is Lippman's policy advice for how the US should deal with the Soviets? Why does he think this will work?
Lippman's strategy called for the withdrawal from Germany (and eventually Europe) the forces of the United States and Soviet Union. This would reduce tensions and allow many occupied territories to regain their independence Lippman argued. Said we need to use diplomacy to settle this, for a diplomat to think that rival powers cannot be brought to a settlement is to forget what diplomacy is all about. He believed this would redress the balance of power because the Red Army has met the power of the British and American armies. He said the meeting of the military forces is what caused the division of the boundary line between the east and west. He believes the Red Army is most at fault for the war.
What is MAD? SALT? Why are they significant?
MAD is mutually assured destruction. Was seen as potentially stabilizing because neither country would fire the first nuclear weapon in fear of getting one in return. Was stabilizing because each side recognized the destruction that would come to being the first to fire nuclear weapons. Significant because it allowed relationships between the US and Soviet Union to improve through détente. SALT is the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Agreement, also known as Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, was signed by the US and Soviet Union in 1972. SALT froze the number of ballistic missile launchers at the existing levels and provided for the addition of new submarine launched based missile (SLBM) launchers only after the same numbers of older intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) and SLBM had been dismantled. Soviets allowed larger quantity of missiles because technology of US allowed them to put more missiles on each site. Discouraged anti-ballistic missile (ABM) defense systems because this limited the effect of MAD because each side recognized they could protect themselves. SALT was significant because it was a diplomatic approach to reducing the fear of nuclear attack hopes of making the world more stable.
What was massive retaliation? Why was it potentially flawed?
Massive Retaliation was a doctrine passed by the Eisenhower administration in accordance with the nuclear deterrence doctrine. It said that the US would resort to nuclear weapons to stop and Soviet challenge anywhere of any kind. This was flawed because if a threat were made and delivered on there would be a nuclear war, but if a threat were made and not delivered then credibility would be undermined.
What was the Vietnamtrauma?
Term used for massive break in Cold War consensus. Public saw the Vietnam War as a big mistake. Cost US in power and prosperity but the worst was the 60,000 lives lost. Sparked widespread civil unrest at home. Information given by leaders contradicted that of images given by media causing people to lose faith in government.
What is the Monroe Doctrine? What is the Roosevelt Corollary?
Monroe doctrine was used to keep Europeans from colonizing in America. Any efforts to colonize would be met with force. US also said that they would not interfere with European colonies or meddle in European affairs as well. The Roosevelt Corollary claimed for the US the "international police power" to intervene in conflicts between European nations and Latin America. Basically the US issued the Monroe doctrine that only applied to independent governments not any colonies at the time. After the Spanish American War the US started to intervene in Cuba Nicaragua Haiti etc. so the Roosevelt Corollary says that the US can intervene in Latin America but European colonization was still forbidden.
What was NSC-68? How did it change America's foreign policy strategy?
NSC-68 was a seminal security planning paper developed in early 1950s by President Truman's National Security Council, called fro 3 important shifts in US policy. Never ratified or approved by congress still had large impact on US's approach towards global communism. The first goal of NSC-68 was globalization of containment, the US had specific areas in which they were trying to stop the spread of communism like Turkey and Greece but this new policy was containment of communism regardless of location. The second objective put more emphasis on the militarization of containment. This put real weight behind global containment and showed that the US was serious about stopping communism. The third objective of NSC-68 was the focus on the intense development of the hydrogen bomb. After the Soviets developed the atomic bomb the US recognized the need for a more intimidating weapon in their arsenal. This changed US foreign policy drastically. Prior to WW2 the US had shown apprehension about getting involved in foreign affairs. With these goals grouped with the Truman doctrine and the Marshall plan the US shed its old beliefs and said they would interfere wherever they felt necessary.
What is the tension between national security and individual rights? What are historical examples when the US has limited rights for national security purposes?
National security is used to advocate and protect a public interest. National security doctrine generally requires the sacrifice of individual rights to increase a government's ability to maintain safety and order. One example of national security over individual rights is the internment of 110,000-200,000 Japanese soldiers during WW2. Another example comes from the 1940s and early 1950s during the Cold War consensus Jentleson says that consensus taken too far, can breed intolerance, suspicion and repression. The way in which early Cold War anti communism was pursued took a toll on civil liberties and created an unfriendliness to the openness of a democratic society.
What is the Nixon Doctrine (three principles)? How was the Nixon Doctrine supposed to end the Vietnam War (i.e. What was the Vietnamization of the Vietnam conflict)?
Nixon Doctrine 3 principles: • US will keep all treaty commitments • US would provide a shield if a nuclear power threatened the freedom of a nation allied with the US or of a nation whose survival we consider vital to national security • US will provide military and economic assistance when requested in accordance with our treaty commitments. We shall look at the nation and assume the main responsibility for providing man power His policy was designed to assist nations in defending their freedom by helping with the war effort rather than fighting the war for them. Vietnamization of Vietnam was training Vietnam troops and ultimately turning the conflict over to them and withdrawing American troops.
Historically, which industries, regions, and parties have been in favor of tariffs? Which have been against? Why?
Northern industrialists seeking protection from foreign competition for their "infant industries" and northern and western farmers who produce mainly for the domestic market were in favor of high tariffs on imported goods. Northeastern merchants whose business lied in the import export business and Southern plantation owners, whose cotton and tobacco products were in high demand in Europe, favored low tariffs. In the 19th century tariff decided the democrats from the republicans. Democrats were primarily in favor of free trade (low tariffs) and the Republicans were very protectionist (high tariffs)
What is nuclear deterrence? What is containment?
Nuclear deterrence is the prevention of attack through fear of retaliation. On one hand it is more than the capacity to defends oneself to sufficiently prevent defeat. On the other had it is less than "compelance" or getting a state to take an action it otherwise wouldn't. Containment is a doctrine developed during the Cold War to stop the spread of Communism. Idea was to stop communism to protect economic interest and maintain national security and influence abroad. Involved use of military action in Korea and Vietnam, founding of NATO, use of deterrence, and use of diplomatic and economic strategies.
What is OPEC? What caused the OPEC shocks of 1973 and 1979? What effect did they have on America?
OPEC stands for the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. It was founded in Baghdad by 5 of the worlds major exporting countries of petroleum- Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela and Kuwait. It was formed to ensure fair and stable petroleum prices as well as maintaining supply to nations and a fair return on investment capital. The shocks of 73 and 79 were a result of the member states decision to cut oil production to increase revenues and decrease international support for Israel. This effected American economy because oil was a necessity for American industry. Besides hurting companies this hurt the American people because gas was a necessity for everyday life and gas was now rationed and people were forced to wait in line that would be a fast line for gas.
What is the North South conflict? What is the NIEO? What did it call for? How is it different than the LIEO (Be specific)?
OPEC stands for the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. It was founded in Baghdad by 5 of the worlds major exporting countries of petroleum- Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela and Kuwait. It was formed to ensure fair and stable petroleum prices as well as maintaining supply to nations and a fair return on investment capital. The shocks of 73 and 79 were a result of the member states decision to cut oil production to increase revenues and decrease international support for Israel. This effected American economy because oil was a necessity for American industry. Besides hurting companies this hurt the American people because gas was a necessity for everyday life and gas was now rationed and people were forced to wait in line that would be a fast line for gas.
What were Ball's objections to escalation of the Vietnam War by Johnson? Why did he argue it is more favorable to let Vietnam fall under communist control?
Objected it because of ability to be long. Said US could get caught in a winless battle with no escape. Would leave large financial mark on the US. An escalation would only lead to future necessary increases in troops. Said it was more favorable to let Vietnam fall under communist control so US could cut its losses instead of being defeated by North Vietnamese. Formulated argument by saying if US had let communist take control rather than lose the battle, it would preserve the US image as a strong dependable power.
How did it affect public opinion?
People were not supporting the foreign policy that political elites were pursuing. Belief in internationalism went down and belief in isolationism went up. Americans saw strategic interests in allies as less important.
What led to the Bay of Bigs fiasco?
Plan based on false assumptions. Cuban people not against Castro or Communism. CIA Intelligence failure. Knew it would fail and did not tell the president. Planned under Eisenhower executed under Kennedy.
How did it attempt to limit presidential power?
President would have to withdraw US troops after 60 days unless approved by Congress. This was an attempt to make Congress more assertive and less differential
Prior to the Cold War, what has the relationship been between the Executive branch and Congress in regards to going to war?
Prior to the Cold War the US foreign policy was that of isolationism that dated all the way back to Washington's farewell address. There were Presidents that cam along whose views were that of internationalism (i.e. Monroe Doctrine) but this conflicted with Congress' constant view that they wanted to remain isolationists. The Presidents wanted to get involved in foreign affairs like Madison, and FDR but Congress would not approve. The only time they did declare war was on Japan after the attacks on Pearl Harbor. They wanted to only mobilize under self defense and demobilize after. This lasted into the 20th century it wasn't until the Cold War that the President had dominance over Congress. They disagreed on whether or not they should get involved in foreign affairs.
What is the mobilization-demobilization pattern of the US military prior to the Cold War? Why did this pattern occur?
Prior to the Cold War whenever America entered a conflict the would reactivate old troops and spike the quotas for troops and officer corps personnel.(They would mobilize when they got into conflicts). When they exited conflicts they would greatly decrease the military force to a size that was able to defend the country.(demobilize when conflict was done) This was done to decrease the time a soldier would spend away from home or their domestic profession. Government would take money that was invested into the military during the conflict and put it into the economy after the conflict. After WW2 the US did demobilize but the Soviets were still on the horizon and the US still had its largest standing army after a way. The Truman and Eisenhower administrations each had rapid mobilization of America military. Military got a lot of money and this led to the largest army we had ever seen. Put into effect in case the Soviets made a move. Idea was to build up nuclear arsenal and military power so that if the Soviets made a move they couldn't keep up. This led to the creation of the CIA and NSC etc. Changed from old pattern to new because of the threat communism and the Soviets were seen as.
What problems prevented the War Powers Resolution from being successful? How is the language of the War Powers Resolution ambiguous?
Problems: often ignored by Presidents (Lebanon and Reagan 82-84 or 83 invasion of Grenada) ran against institutionally rooted powers for both branches. Threat to executive power so President's ignored it. Ambiguous language was fundamental problem. Doesn't distinguish between small skirmishes and serious hostiles. Example 87-88 Persian gulf US navy protecting oil tankers, Iran attacked, US counter-attacked. Congress cited War Powers Resolution Reagan said incidents were not hostilities so he didn't have to get permission from Congress.
What was the Iran Contra Scandal? What happened? Why was it illegal?
Reagan Administration was trading weapons for hostages. Trying to get hostages free by supporting contra's. Supporting Iran Contra's in order to get them to free the hostages that were being held in Lebanon. Some of the Money from weapons sales would be given to Nicaragua which aid for had been outlawed by Us Bowland amendments. They were not only illegal because they violated international law (Iran had a weapons importation embargo in effect at the time) but just like Watergate officials went to great lengths to cover up their actions.
What are critiques of the LIEO?
That is reinforced American economic dominance or economic hegemony. As largest capital contributor the US had the most voting rights in the IMF and World Bank and American positions prevailed more often than not in the GATT. The LIEO fit the laissez-faire economic ideology which allowed the US to dominate the world economy while Europe and Japan were rebuilding from WWII Another critique is that it drove US policy. The revisionists reference this when talking about the origins of the Cold War. The overthrowing of the Iranian president is used as an example. The US knew that if they helped to overthrow Mossadegh and restore the shah he would return property to them that was nationalized under Mossadegh. Another example is the Marshall Plan, it can be seen as a way to rebuild European markets to generate a demand for American exports and investments which would solve the over production-under consumption problem to avert a depression in the interests of private corporations big banks and other captains of global capitalism.
What are Revisionist and Gorbachev leadership theories of why the Cold War ended peacefully (Be sure to know all of them)? How do they explain the peaceful end of the Cold War?
Revisionist theory says US played smaller role in end of cold war than what the US triumphalism says. Gorbachev policies like glasnost and perestroika were significant role. Revisionists argue against Reagan's "tough foreign policy" and say that such a change was only in Gorbachev's hands he was different than his predecessors. Because he was different this is why he went after reformed policies in Soviet government. Perestroika allowed for open markets and private investments Gorbachev also sought new thinking based on mutual security and avoiding unneeded competition. US Triumphalism will say Reagan's policy forced him to but Revisionist point out examples where Gorbachev could have gone with old soviet policies but instead did not (example: when Soviet bloc governments began falling to revolution he did not use military action on USSR's behalf) Gorbachev received Nobel Peace Prize which further points to the role he had in the peaceful cold war ending. Revisionists give credit to American and European peace movements for having a role in scaling back Reagans tough foreign policy. Said this brought Reagan closer to center and made it easier for negotiation. Peace movements built and maintained peace intellectual and creative relationships with Western and Eastern Countries. Therefore if the countries did not get along the citizenry would be able to cultivate a bond based on peace learning and betterment of society. Last group Revisionist give credit to is various group of world leaders. Worked to rise up against Soviet infractions on human rights. Finally hangs on 2 other points: first, nuclear deterrence did little to solve the Cold War. Said Nuclear Weapons and the arm race they incited were a large part of the problems with the Cold War. Second is assessment of victory of cold war needs to be more nuanced (subtle) both America and USSR suffered defeats during this time and still celebrated triumphs during this time.
What does Lippman find problematic with X's analysis of the Soviet Union?
Said X misunderstood the sources of Soviet behavior. Much more skeptical that a policy of containment will work. Said we should prepare for the worst (i.e. they are strong) rather than the best (i.e. they are weak)
According to Bush, what is the second objective in regards to nuclear proliferation? What policies are proposed and why?
Second objective is to keep fissile materials out of the hands of rogue states and terrorists. To do this there are many policies proposed: Global Threat Reduction Initiative (GTRI) locates tracks and reduces existing stockpile of nuclear material, Leading international efforts to shut down the trafficking of WMD's by target air transportation and transshipment routes and by also and by cutting off proliferators from financial resources that supports their activities.
Why might one characterize the late 19th and early 20th century foreign policy of the US as imperialist? What does evidence from US foreign policy to Latin America indicate?
Seen as imperialist because of our change from isolationism to internationalism- as a part of Manifest Destiny. By pushing out the "Old Powers" of Europe from the Western Hemisphere the us became the leader of the region. This helped them out in matters of money because the US could expand markets beyond their borders but not out of view. Kept a tight leash on Latin America and all of Western Hemisphere. Imperialism is defined as "policy of extending the rule or authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries...or holding colonies and dependencies" and that perfectly described the US at this time. US liberated Cuba and most of Latin America from Spanish control after Spanish American War. US was sole power in western hemisphere and this gave them the power to expand their markets. America had investments, plantations, mining, manufacturing etc. in Latin America and in order to protect Americans and their money treaties were made. Platt amendment allowed US to intervene in Cuba if their investments were in danger. US was allowed to veto any treaties Cuba had with any other countries in order to protect investments and protect against competition. This all suggests the US was using an imperialistic foreign policy.
What two events in 1949 made the US escalate the Cold War?
Soviet union was able to acquire nuclear weapons. Seen as threat to US, US nuclear monopoly was broken and nuclear deterrence must be recalculated. People's Republic of China was proclaimed by the Chinese communists had won the Chinese Civil War. This expanded the Cold War from Europe to Asia and meant the worlds most populous country (China) and the worlds largest country (Soviet Union) were both communist regimes.
Why did détente fail?
Still competition between Soviet Union and US. They still wanted power more than peace. Never really trusted each other. Détente came to an end when Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979. Détente was a failure because it was an insufficient means to ease tensions and competition between the US and Soviet Union and it did not succeed.
What was the Bay of Pigs Invasion? Why was it launched?
The Bay of Pigs was a CIA plan to overthrow the Cuban communist government led by Fidel Castro. Eisenhower saw a threat on the border. This began in 1960 led by the Kennedy Administration the CIA began training exiles that had fled from Cuba. The idea was to train these exiles and then have them inspire a revolution through the Cuban people. The US thought the Cuban people wanted to overthrow Castro and communism, but this was not the case. The operation was very unsuccessful Cuban military defeated the exiles sent by the CIA and the troops were killed or captured within a few days. Great example of failed American foreign policy. Led people to question the Kennedy administration as to why the invasion occurred. CIA inspector general knew it would fail but went along with it. Bad assumption that Cuba wanted Castro gone. Outcome of Bay of Pigs left Castro very uncertain of the US and so he sought help from the Soviet Union. Led Khrushchev to expect Kennedy will back down in times of crisis escalation and ultimately led to the Cuban Missile Crisis.
What was the Liberal Economic International Order? What were its three principle components? What were the goals of the GATT? IMF? And World Bank?
The LIEO is apart of the US economic policy enforced after WWII. It was designed to promote a market-based free trade system that would prevent results of the 1920s and 30s protectionism that led to decline in global prosperity and contributed to the cause of WWII. It is made up of three principle components: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), International Monetary Fund(IMF), and the World Bank. The goal of the GATT is to sustain a global free trade system although there are pockets of protectionism concerning agriculture and industries like shoes and textiles. The IMF was created to fix the imbalances in the global monetary competition by setting fixed exchange rates backed by gold standard. The World Bank was created to provide developmental aid to countries and governments in need. In the early stages most of its aid went to European countries recovering from WWII but from the 50s on it has more or less gone to Third World countries.
2) What is the central theme of the Monroe Doctrine? How did Monroe justify this policy?
The Monroe Doctrine is a policy issued by the US that forbid European colonization in US states. Any interference with any US states would be viewed as an act of aggression and require the US to intervene. IT said that the Western Hemisphere will be left alone from European colonization and that the US would not interfere with existing European colonies nor meddle in concerns of European countries. It was justified because the US had not and would not interfere with existing European colonies nor would they meddle in the internal concerns of European countries. The US would defend fellow independent nations that they recognized in Latin America from European intervention and control (ensuring US dominance).
What was the Nixon shock? Why was it significant?
The Nixon shock was a series of economic measures taken by Nixon in 1971 that included canceling the backing of the US dollar by gold which essentially ended the Bretton Woods system that had previously been used. In 1971 the dollar had reached its lowest amount since WWII. August 5 1971 President Nixon said the US would unilaterally devalue the dollar suspend its convertibility to gold and impose a 10% tariff on imports. Jentleson said this was significant for 3 reasons: The economies of Europe and Japan had become competitive unlike the previous 25 years and the US had taken greater economic concessions in order to rebuild Europe and Japan. This was apart of the containment policy. Second the move to go off of gold standard caused the world to be in limbo on how currency evaluation would be figured. Third the reforms caused a political debate about free trade or protectionism with the latter seemingly winning out.
What is the orthodox explanation for the Cold War? The revisionist explanation?
The orthodox school places the responsibility of the Cold War on the Soviet Union and its expansion into Eastern Europe in the immediate postwar years. Specifically on Joseph Stalin said that the Cold War was inevitable because Stalin was in power. Orthodox says that Stalin violated the terms of the agreement at the Yalta Conference, imposed Soviet-dominated regimes on unwilling Eastern European populations, and conspired to spread communism throughout the world. The revisionist explanation plays partial blame of the Cold War on the United States. They claimed the US was in quest for power and prosperity by building its own empire. Said that US goal after WW2 was to make sure there was an "open door" for American trade and to do this the US government had to make sure countries remained capitalist. Truman is blamed for using 2 atomic bombs as an attempt to intimidate the Soviets according to revisionist theorists. Also say that US miscalculated the Soviets plan for postwar development as hostility to the capitalist world. Revisionists say that if the US had held a more confident foreign policy we could have avoided the Cold War.
How did the US integrate Japan and W. Germany into its Cold War alliances? What was the domino theory? What was the Eisenhower Doctrine?
The US integrated W Germany in its Cold War alliance by bringing them into the National Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). This was a way to strengthen their alliance but also keep the German military from growing to the size it was in WWI and WWII. Japan was integrated after the US troops that occupied Japan were removed in 1952. The US and Japan made agreements to have US military bases in Japan for containment in Asia. Japan got a new constitution that was essentially written by the US and made Japan a democracy. This helped turn 2 former enemies into allies and Japan and West Germany strengthened the opposition against the Soviet Union, China and the spread of communism. The domino theory was a foreign policy that was based on the "falling domino" principle. It speculates that any political event that happens in one country will cause similar events in the neighboring countries. For example, if a country was controlled by communism then the neighboring countries would follow in a domino effect. The US used this to judge when there needed to be American intervention around the world. The original focus of the domino effect was Vietnam but American concern was not just with Vietnam. As we became more involved in Vietnam it lead to the Southeast Asia Treat Organizations (SEATO) much like NATO and was the Asia link to the chain of alliances that Eisenhower. The Baghdad Pact was set up in 1955, which then developed into the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO). In accordance with the domino theory the Eisenhower Doctrine stated the US was willing to provide military support to any state in the Middle East who was being threatened by any nation that was controlled by international communism. This was especially referring to the Soviet Union.
According to Lake, what is a policy of enlargement? Why should that policy replace containment? What are the four components of enlargement? Why is each component important to enlargement?
The US was containing the threat to market democracies but they needed to enlarge the reach of the market democracies. That is what the policy of enlargement is. Four components: • The strengthening of the community of market economies and democracies around the world. • Fostering and consolidating new democracies and market economies, where possible, especially in places of special significance and opportunity. • Countering aggression and liberalization of countries who do not accept the markets and democracy • Be more humanitarian not only by providing aid, but also help democracy and market economies take root in regions of greatest humanitarian concern Together they each contribute to a successful strategy of enlargement because they combine goals of fostering democracy and markets with our traditional geo strategic interests. Shows how to best expend our large, but limited, national security resources: financial, diplomatic and military.
According to Lippman, what is the difference between the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall approach? Why does Lippman favor the latter?
The difference is fundamental: The Truman Doctrine treats those that benefit by it as dependencies as instruments of American policy for containing Russia. The Marshall approach treats European governments as independent powers, who we must help but cannot presume to govern or use as instruments for American policy. Lippman favors the Marshall Plan because he believed the view of economic assistance was not a part of containment. He said that the division of Europe couldn't last forever. The way to reunite Europe is by a policy of settlement regarding the military evacuation of the country a policy of containment would freeze non-European armies in the heart of Europe.
What were the dangers of Cold War consensus especially from the media, interest group, and the public?
The media were cheerleaders for the official policy from WWII to the Cold War They shaped many opinions in the Cold War. Published things about the Bay of pigs that showed how the president "got caught" or looked bad for basing an invasion of an assumption. Interest groups were few in number and mostly supportive during the early Cold War. Some of the groups were more assertive and more anticommunism than the official policy. Kennedy tried for mini détente with Soviets and gave a speech about how we must focus on the task at hand and then had $250 million sale of grain to soviets and not even the agricultural interest groups could break their anticommunism (didn't agree). Public wanted internationalism and global containment. After war the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) launched investigations claiming Soviets had infiltrated American government and society. Violated civil liberties of citizens' accusations of people being communists thrown around at anyone.
Why did the UN end up being scaled back as compared to FDR's vision of it? What are examples of how the UN has been prevented from acquiring more influence?
The reason for the failure of FDR's vision was that it was highly idealistic and given the international distribution of power at the time has little chance of success. The world system was on the brink of a very large power struggle although the UN charter drew great support especially among Americans it became clear that the US would not comply with signing the UN Charter and become apart of the world's largest international institution. Jentleson gives many reasons for the scaled back reality that became the UN. Political ambivalence of its members creates a major problem. The inherent problem with creating this large of an International Organization is creating one that maintains the world peace that the UN wanted to create while maintaining the sovereignty of the member states and any state affected by the actions of the UN. For the US specifically, UN delegates could make all the promises they wanted as to signing treaties or commissioning of forces but the power to fund those decisions rests in the hands of US Congress. Jentleson says the greatest problem of FDR's UN vision was the onset of the Cold War. The Cold War power struggle between the US and SU caused high tension in the international community. The two countries were against each other on everything this created difficulties in peaceful negotiation
Why did the CIA help overthrow the Iranian Prime Minister in 1953?
There are two reasons: First Iranian Prime Minister (Mohammed Mossadegh) had started to nationalize foreign oil companies. Second he started to develop relations with the Soviet Union. US was trying to stop Soviet Union from spreading communism around the world. If Iran and SU became close Iran could become communist so CIA helped overthrow prime minister and return shah to power.
According to Bush, what is the threat posed by Iran and North Korea?
These countries either possess or are attempting to possess/ make nuclear weapons. Iran has hid its nuclear activity from the world for 20 years. The refuse to cooperate or negotiate with international organizations. Bush says Iran sponsors terrorism, threatens Israel disrupts peace in the Middle East and disrupts democracy in Iraq. Major threats to US and its interests/actions also security to our allies. North Korean regime is threat for many of the same reasons. The DPRK (Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea) has a nuclear arsenal and has failed to meet its ends of negotiations (Six-Party Talks) on ending nuclear program. Also mentions North Korea counterfeits US Currency, traffics narcotics, threatens South Korea (ROK) with its army and missiles a brutalizes and starves its people. Similar to Iran America sees these as not only threats to no just America and our allies security but also to democracy and freedom all over the world.
According to Nixon, why could the US not simply withdraw its troops from Vietnam?
Three reasons: • Believed a nation could not be great if it betrayed its allies and let down friends • US defeat and humiliation in South Vietnam would promote recklessness in the council's of those great powers who had not yet abandoned goals of world conquest • Withdraw from Vietnam would spark violence wherever US commitments to maintain peace (Middle East, Berlin and eventually Western Hemisphere) Nixon believed if US withdrew troops there would be more war not peace.
What was the Truman Doctrine? Marshall Plan? What was their historical significance?
Truman doctrine expressed 2 alternative ways of life nations had to choose from. First was based on representative democracy, free elections, guarantee of individual liberty, freedom of speech and religion, and freedom from political oppression. The second way relied upon terror and oppression, a controlled press and radio, and suppression of personal freedoms. The Truman Doctrine stated that the US must provide assistance to Greece and Turkey because they are defending democracy, free and fair elections, and liberty. Congress approved and sent $400 million to Greece and Turkey to stop the communist threat. No military was sent. Marshall Plan was similar to the Truman Doctrine except the recipients are the Western European Countries. Western European countries were struggling economically after WW2 and communist parties were capitalizing on the economic discontent. The Marshall Plan to defend against the threat pledged the equivalent of $60 Billion today to the countries of Western Europe. This began the first Cold War foreign aid program. Sec of State George Marshall said that it was in US best interest to provide aid to rebuilding nations to ensure that free institutions can exist and communist takeover can be stopped. The significance of both is that they shifted the foreign policy toward the Soviet Union to a policy of containment and start of Cold War.
How did post WW2 policy makers draw from the lessons of the League of Nations when crafting the UN? What is the Security Council? General Assembly? Which has more influence? Who are permanent members of the UN Security Council? What is Article 43?
Two flaws in the post WW2 International Institutionalist strategy: US non-membership and the UN should be a stronger institution than the League had been. Having the US as a member was a part of the new plan but so was the design of it. The League had given equal powers to its Assembly and its Council. The UN would give the Security Council much more power than the General Assembly. General Assembly is the only part of the UN where all member nations have equal representation. It is used to oversee the budget of the UN, appoint the non-permanent members to the Security Council, receive reports from other parts of the UN and make recommendations in the form of General Assembly Resolutions. The UN Security Council could order the use of military force, order the severance of diplomatic relations, impose economic sanctions and take other actions and make them binding on member states. The Security Council has more influence because they can veto anything, use military force, sever diplomatic ties etc. The permanent members of the UN Security Council are-the US Soviet Union Britain, France, and China. Could veto any Security Council action. Article 43 of the UN Charter said that all members had to make some military force available to the Security Council and the military force was to be controlled by the Military Staff Committee. This consisted of all of the Chiefs of staff of the Armed Forces for the 5 permanent members of the Security Council. No agreement was reached. UN has raised temporary military for missions like peacekeeping but has never had its own standing military.
According to Jentleson, why did the US expand into Asia? What is the history of US foreign policy to Japan and China prior to World War 2?
US expanded into Asia because of interest in trade and commerce. Upon further research the US expanded into Asia to gain power and to force American principles upon the continent. Wanted to bring freedom and democracy to the country because they saw the East as inferior and looked down on Asian culture. Prior to WW2 US enacted the "Open Door Policy" which opened up trade and influence in China. Said to be enacted to protect China from European colonial power but could also be viewed as US wanting to increase influence over and increase trade with china. The US annexation of Hawaii cause the relations between the US and Japan to be strained. Teddy Roosevelt mediated a Russo-Japan War Peace agreement in an attempt to help relations. Japan did not get what they want and relations got worse. Relations were subsided with the Root-Takahira agreement where each country recognized the status quo in the Asia-Pacific region.
What is the US triumphalism theory of why the Cold War ended peacefully? How does it explain the peaceful end of the Cold War?
US triumphalism theory states that the end of the cold war was because of the policy of containment and deterrence toward USSR and other communist governments. Credit is given to every Presidential administration back to Truman, especially Reagan for pursuing a strict foreign policy that lead to the Soviet Collapse. Explains peaceful end: Soviets could not match power of US could not keep up economically or technologically with Reagan's nuclear build up or the Strategic Defense Initiative. Soviets had to admit that they could not win an arms race with the US, pursued interest in Arms control. Led to Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty in 1987. Reduced number of Nuclear weapons. Reagan Doctrine with strict policy of containment and rollback stopped soviet gains in third world countries. Lastly Triumph of American principles, fall of communism was revolution from below brought on by people who wanted democracy and freedom. Capitalism and perceived promise of prosperity were appealing as well.
What was Washington's advice for America's foreign policy? Prior to the Cold War, when was the US isolationist? Internationalist? Why?
Washington said in his farewell address that we should adopt a policy of isolationism. He believed that America was unique because it was geographically separated from Europe and that its foreign policy should reflect that. He said that Europe was engage in a lot of controversies that do not concern us. Said we should not make permanent alliances with European powers, temporary alliances should only be tolerated under extraordinary emergencies. Washington thought that with this we would retain our liberty and grow economically without European interference. Prior to the Cold War the US was isolationist in WWI and WWII up until we joined those wars. We were also isolationists when Congress decided not to join the League of Nations. Examples of internationalist include manifest destiny, the "Open Door Policy" and the US role in the United Nations. Early in American history the US could remain isolationists without serious consequences. After WW2 the US foreign policy was mainly internationalist because isolationist would have had serious consequences in terms of peace power principles and prosperity. The US and Russia came out on top of WW2 and the new world super powers. Different ideals which cause the US to be involved internationally to stop the spread of communism and encourage their own ideals of capitalism and democracy.
1) According to X , what explains the perception of foreign antagonism by the Soviet leadership? What motivates their actions?
X says that the Soviets use foreign antagonism in order to maintain dictatorial power at home. Soviet leadership is motivated by three principles according to X: • The Party must be the supreme authority • The Party must remain the sole repository of truth • The Party is always right and has always been right since Stalin formalized his power in 1929 Soviet leaders operate to fulfill these three principles. Even when members of the party may be going through the motions of election, they are animated by the over brooding presence of the Party, rather than their own wills
