American History To 1865

Blue and Gray

The Union and Confederate armies in the Civil War. The Union Army wore blue uniforms; the confederate army wore gray.

John Wilkes Booth

The assassin of Abraham Lincoln. Booth, an actor, was fanatically devoted to the Confederate cause in the Civil War. While Lincoln was attending a play, Booth stole into his theater box and shot him in the head at pointblank range. He then leaped down to the stage, breaking his leg, and escaped. Cornered later in a barn, he died of gunshot wounds, possibly inflicted by himself

abolitionism

The belief that slavery should be abolished. In the early nineteenth century, increasing numbers of people in the northern United States held that the nation's slaves should be freed immediately, without compensation to slave owners. John Brown, Frederick W. Douglass, William Lloyd Garrison, Sojourner Truth, and Harriet Tubman were well-known abolitionists *Abolitionism in the United States was an important factor leading to the Civil War

Fourth of July

The day on which the Declaration of Independence was adopted by the Continental Congress in 1776; Independence Day

Washinton's Farewell Address

The final address by George Washington to his fellow citizens as he was leaving the presidency. He wrote the address in 1796 but never delivered it. Washington discussed the dangers of divisive party politics and warned strongly against permanent alliances between the United States and other countries

Federalist party

The first American political party. The Federalist party developed during the presidency of George Washington and was led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams. Federalists believed in a strong federal government and advocated economic policies that would strengthen the federal government, such as the creation of a national bank. The opposition to the Federalists was led by Thomas Jefferson

First Amendment

The first article of the Bill of Rights. It forbids Congress from tampering with the freedoms of religion, speech, assembly, and the press.

Battle of Bull Run

The first battle of the American Civil War, fought in Virginia near Washington D.C. The surprising victory of the Confederate Army humiliated the North and forced it to prepare for a long war. A year later the Confederacy won another victory near the same place. This battle is called the Second Battle of Bull Run. The South referred to these two encounters as the First and Second Battles of Manassas

Battle of Bunker Hill

The first great battle of the Revolutionary War; it was fought near Boston in June 1775. The British drove the Americans from their fort at Breed's Hill to Bunker Hill, but only after the Americans had run out of gunpowder. Before retreating, the Americans killed many British troops. *The Battle of Bunker Hill was an encouragement to the colonies; it proved that American forces, with sufficient supplies, could inflict heavy losses on the British *An American officer, William Prescott, is said to have ordered during the battle, "Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes"

Jamestown

The first permanent English settlement in North America, founded in 1607 in Virginia. Jamestown was named for King James I of England. It was destroyed later in the 17th century in an uprising of Virginians against the governor

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States. Among other provisions. they protect the freedoms of speech, religion, assembly, and the press; restrict governmental rights of search and seizure; and list several rights of persons accused of crimes *After the new Constitution was submitted to the states in 1787, several approved it only after being assured that it would have a bill of rights attached to it. Accordingly, these amendments were passed by the first Congress under the Constitution and were ratified by the states in 1791

Declaration of Independence

The fundamental document establishing the United States as a nation, adopted on July 4, 1776. The declaration was ordered and approved by the Continental Congress and written largely by Thomas Jefferson. It declared the thirteen colonies represented in the Continental Congress independent from Britain, offered reasons for the separation, and laid out the principles for which the Revolutionary War would be fought. The signers included John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John Hancock, and Jefferson. The declaration begins: ""When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,--That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness." *The day of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence is now commemorated as the Fourth of July, or Independence Day.

Constitution

The fundamental law of the United States, drafted in Philadelphia in 1787, ratified in 1788, and put into effect in 1789. It established a strong central government in place of the Articles of Confederation

Constitutional Convention

The gathering that drafted the Constitution of the United States in 1787; all states were invited to send delegates. The convention, meeting in Philadelphia, designed a government with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. It established Congress as a lawmaking body with two houses: each state is given two representatives in the Senate, whereas representation in the House of Representatives is based on population

Battle of Gettysburg

The greatest battle of the Civil War, fought in south-central Pennsylvania in 1863. It ended in major victory for the North and is usually considered the turning point of the war

John C. Calhoun

The leading southern politician of the early nineteenth century; he served as vice president under both John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson and then was elected senator from South Carolina. Calhoun championed slavery and states' rights. During the early 1830s, he led the nullification movement, which maintained that when a state found a federal law unacceptable, the state had the right to declare the law null, or inoperative, within its borders. Nullification was aimed particularly at the high protective tariff of 1828; Calhoun opposed protective tariffs. A man of powerful intellect, Calhoun increasingly became obsessed with the South's minority status and with finding ways to protect slavery. Although he died in 1850, his influence helped point the South toward secession and the Civil War

California Gold Rush

The movement of great numbers of people to California after gold was discovered there in 1848

Harpers Ferry

The place now in West Virginia where the militant abolitionist John Brown was captured in 1859, after he seized a federal arsenal there

Independence Day

The primary national holiday in the United States, celebrated every July 4th; the anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Customary festivities include picnics; parades; band concerts; decorations in red, white, and blue; and nighttime fireworks displays

Civil War

The war fought in the United States between northern (Union) and southern (Confederate_ states from 1861 to 1865, in which the Confederacy sought to establish itself as a separate nation. The Civil War is also known as the War for Southern Independence and as the War between the States. The war grew out of deep-seated differences between the social structure and economy of North and South, most notably over slavery; generations of political maneuvers had been unable to overcome these differences. The secession of the southern states began in late 1860, after Abraham Lincoln was elected president. The Confederacy was formed in early 1861. The fighting began with the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter. Most of the battles took place in the South. but one extremely crucial episode, The Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the North. The war ended with the surrender of General Robert E. Lee to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House *The Civil War has been the most serious test yet of the ability of the United States to remain one nation

"Stonewall" Jackson

Thomas J. Jackson, a general in the Confederate army during the Civil War. He got his nickname at the First Battle of Bull Run, where he and his men "stood like a stone wall." He and General Robert E. Lee led the South to victory at the Battle of Chancellorsville. In the evening after the battle was won, however, Jackson was fatally shot by Confederate troops who mistook him and his staff for Union officers *In the poem "Barbara Frietchie", by John Greenleaf Whittier, Stonewall Jackson orders his men not to harm Barbara Frietchie or the Union flags she is holding *Jackson's dying words, "Let us cross the river and rest in the shade of the trees", are much remembered

forty-niners

Those who flocked to California in 1849 in search of gold, which had been discovered there in 1848. Reportedly, there were about eighty thousand of them

I cannot tell a lie

Words George Washington spoke as a boy, according to a biographer of Washington

I have not yet begun to fight

Words attributed to the 18th century naval hero John Paul Jones. He was doing battle with a British ship when his own ship was badly damaged, and the British commander called over to ask whether Jones had surrendered. He answered, "I have not yet begun to fight". He and his crew then captured the British ship. His own ship later sank.

First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen

Words from a eulogy for George Washington adopted by Congress immediately after Washington's death. The eulogy was written by Henry Lee, a soldier and political leader from Washington's home state of Virginia

Give me liberty of give me death

Words from a speech by Patrick Henry urging the American colonies to revolt against England. Henry spoke only a few weeks before the Revolutionary War began: "Gentlemen may cry Peace. Peace, but there is no peace. The war is actually begun. The next gale that sweeps from the north will bring to our ears the clash or resounding arms. Our brethren are already in the field . . . is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, almighty God! I know not what course other may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!"

government of the people, by the people, and for the people

Words from the Gettysburg Address of Abraham Lincoln, often quoted as a definition of democracy

I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country

Words spoken by patriot Nathan Hale, who was executed as a spy by the British in 1776

Dorothea Dix

19th century reformer who protested the practice of confining the mentally ill in prisons and whose laborers led to the expansion and improvement of mental hospitals

Charles Cornwallis

A British nobleman and general who commanded British forces in the Revolutionary War. The surrender of Lord Cornwallis to George Washington at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781 ended the hostilities of the revolution

Cherokees

A Native American tribe who lived in the southeastern United States in the early 19th century; the Cherokees were known as one of the "civilized tribes" because they built schools and published a newspaper. In the 1830s, the United States government forcibly removed most of the tribe to reservations west of the Mississippi River

Francisco Coronado

A Spanish explorer of the 16th century. Coronado traveled through much of what is now the southwestern United States searching for the legendary "seven gold cities of Cibola" but found no treasure. One of his men was the first European to discover the Grand Canyon.

Henry Clay

A Whig political leader of the early nineteenth century known for his efforts to keep the United States one nation despite sharp controversy among Americans over slavery. Clay represented Kentucky, first in the House of Representatives and then in the Senate. He was known as the "Great Pacificator" because of his prominent role in producing the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850 *Clay ran unsuccessfully for president three times. He once said in a speech. "I would rather be right than be president"

Crispus Attucks

A black sailor killed in the Boston Massacre *It is said that he was among the first Americans to die in the struggle for liberty

Boston Massacre

A clash between British troops and townspeople in Boston in 1770, before the Revolutionary War. The British fired into a crowd that was threatening them, killing five, including Crispus Attucks. The soldiers had been sent to help the government maintain order and were resented even before this incident. The killings increased the colonists' inclination toward revolution

Iroquois League

A confederacy of Native American tribes in upper New York state, dating to the 16th century

Dred Scott decision

A controversial ruling made by the Supreme Court in 1857, shortly before the outbreak of the Civil War. Dred Scott, a slave, sought to be declared a free man on the basis that he had lived for a time in a "free" territory with his master. The Court decided that, under the Constitution, Scott was his master's property and was not a citizen of the United States. The Court also declared that the Missouri Compromise, which prohibited slavery in certain areas, unconstitutionally deprived people of property - their slaves. The Dred Scott decision was a serious blow to abolitionists.

antebellum

A descriptive term for objects and institutions, especially houses, that originated three or four decades before the Civil War. "Antebellum" is Latin for "before the war"

Confederate

A descriptive term for the institutions and people of the confederacy

Burr-Hamilton duel

A duel fought in 1804 between Aaron Burr, vice president of the United States, and Alexander Hamilton, former secretary of the treasury. The two had been bitter political opponents for years. Burr shot and killed Hamilton

Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes

A famous command attributed to William Prescott, an American officer, at the Battle of Bunker Hill in the Revolutionary War. Prescott may have said "color" rather than "whites" *Prescott's command has become a proverb, meaning "Don't act before you have some chance of success"

Go west, young man

A favorite saying of the 19th century journalist Horace Greeley, referring to opportunities on the frontier. Another writer, John Soule, apparently originated it.

Alamo

A fort, once a chapel, in San Antonio, Texas, where a group of Americans made a heroic stand against a much larger Mexican force in 1836, during the war for Texan independence from Mexico. The Mexicans, under General Santa Anna, besieged the Alamo and eventually killed all of the defenders, including Davy Crockett *Rallying under the cry "Remember the Alamo", Texans later forced the Mexicans to recognize the independence of the Republic of Texas

Davy Crockett

A frontier settler and political leader of the 19th century. Crockett was born in Tennessee and was killed at the Alamo by Mexican troops in 1836. Although he cultivated the image of a rough man of the bush, Crockett was politically ambitious and served in Congress *Crockett's trademark was a coonskin cap *Crockett served in the army under Andrew Jackson. He opposed Jackson's policies, however, when Jackson was president and Crockett was in Congress

Ulysses S. Grant

A general and political leader of the 19th century. Grant became commanding general of the Union army during the Civil War. He accepted the unconditional surrender of the commanding general of the main confederate army, Robert E. Lee, at Appomattox Court House. A Republican, he later became president.

Andrew Jackson

A general and political leader of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. As a general in the War of 1812, he defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans. He was called "Old Hickory". Jackson was elected president after John Quincy Adams as a candidate of the common man, and his style of government came to be known as Jacksonian democracy. He rewarded his political supporters with positions once he became president. A democrat, Jackson was widely criticized for expanding the power of the presidency beyond what was customary before his time.

Founding Fathers

A general name for male American patriots during the Revolutionary War, especially the signers of the Declaration of Independence and those who drafted the Constitution. John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and George Washington were all Founding Fathers.

Horace Greeley

A journalist and political leader of the 19th century, known for his strong opinions. He ran unsuccessfully for president just before his death. A favorite phrase of his was "Go west, young man"

Fugitive Slave Act

A law passed as part of the Compromise of 1850, which provided southern slaveholders with legal weapons to capture slaves who had escaped to the free states. The law was highly unpopular in the North and helped to convert many previously indifferent northerners to antislavery

Homestead Act

A law passed in the 1860s that offered up to 160 acres of public land to any head of a family who paid a registration fee, lived on the land for five years, and cultivated it or built on it

Jacksonian democracy

A movement for more democracy in American government in the 1830s. Led by President Andrew Jackson, this movement championed greater rights for the common man and was opposed to any signs of aristocracy in the nation. Jacksonian democracy was aided by the strong spirit of equality among the people of the newer settlements in the South and West. It was also aided by the extension of the vote in eastern states to men without property; in the early days of the United States, many places had allowed only male property owners to vote

Jeffersonian democracy

A movement for more democracy in American government in the first decade of the nineteenth century. The movement was led by President Thomas Jefferson. Jeffersonian democracy was less radical than the later Jacksonian democracy. For example, where Jacksonian democracy held that the common citizen was the best judge of measures, Jeffersonian democracy stressed the need for leadership by those of greatest ability, who would be chosen by the people.

Common Sense (1776)

A pamphlet written by Thomas Paine that called for the United States to declare independence from Britain immediately. Written in a brisk and pungent style, Common Sense had a tremendous impact and helped to persuade many Americans that they could successfully wage a war for their independence

Benjamin Franklin

A patriot, diplomat, author, printer, scientist, and inventor in the 18th century; one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He was an important early researcher in electricity and proposed the modern model of electrical current. He also demonstrated that lightning was electricity by flying a kite in a thunderstorm and allowing it to be struck by lightning. Franklin used this discovery to invent the lightning rod. He produced other inventions as well, such as bifocal eyeglasses and the efficient Franklin stove. Particularly notable among his writings are "The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin" and "Poor Richard's Almanack". He was a signer of the Declaration of Independence and negotiated with France and Britain on behalf of the newly formed government of the United States. Toward the end of his life, he took part in the Constitutional Convention. *At the signing of the Declaration of Independence, Franklin warned his fellow patriots that their venture, if unsuccessful, could lead to their execution for treason: "We must all hang together, or we shall surely all hang separately."

indentured servant

A person under contract to work for another person for a definite period of time, usually without pay but in exchange for free passage to a new country. During the 17th century most of the white laborers in Maryland and Virginia came from England as indentured servants

entangling alliances with none

A phrase President Thomas Jefferson used in his first inaugural address in 1801, calling for a cautious, isolationist foreign policy *George Washington had given similar isolationist advice four years earlier in his Farewell Address: "It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world."

Samuel Adams

A political leader at the time of the American Revolutionary War. From the time of the Stamp Act to the Declaration of Independence, he was the most effective organizer in Massachusetts of opposition to British rule *Adams was a brewer and a cousin of John Adams

Patrick Henry

A political leader of the 18th century, known for his fiery oratory. He is especially remembered for saying, "Give me liberty or give me death."

John Hancock

A political leader of the 18th century. He was president of the Continental Congress when the Declaration of Independence was signed, and was the first to sign it, which he did with a large, flamboyant signature *A "John Hancock" is a signature

Stephen A. Douglas

A political leader of the 19th century, known for twice running against Abraham Lincoln - for a seat in the Senate from Illinois in 1858, which he won, and for the presidency in 1860, which he lost. The two engaged in the Lincoln-Douglas debates over slavery and other issues in 1858.

Jefferson Davis

A political leader of the 19th century. He was a powerful cabinet officer in the 1850s. When his home state of Mississippi seceded from the Union, Davis left the Senate to join the government of the Confederacy. He served as president of the confederacy throughout his existence

John Quincy Adams

A political leader of the early nineteenth century. John Quincy Adams was the son of John Adams and was president of the United States from 1825 to 1829, between James Monroe and Andrew Jackson. The defeat of the scholarly Adams by the uneducated Jackson in the presidential election of 1828 is considered a turning point in the journey towards democracy in American politics

Thomas Jefferson

A political leader of the late 18th and early 19th centuries; one of the Founding Fathers; the leader of the Democratic-Republican Party. Jefferson was principal author of the Declaration of Independence and served as president fro 1801 to 1809, between John Adams and James Madison. He arranged for the Louisiana Purchase, founded the University of Virginia, and built the mansion Monticello. Jefferson is famed as a champion of political and religious freedom, but he was also a slaveholder

John Adams

A political leader of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries; one of the Founding Fathers. Adams was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. He was the second president, from 1797 to 1801, after George Washington. Washington and Adams were the only presidents from the Federalist Party. Adam's presidency was marked by diplomatic challenges, in which he avoided war with France. The Alien and Sedition Acts were passed while he was president

Aaron Burr

A political leader who served as vice president of the United States in the first term of Thomas Jefferson (1801-1805). After Burr killed Alexander Hamilton in the Burr-Hamilton duel his career declined. He was later involved in a bizarre conspiracy to sever the western states and territories from the Union. Burr was tried for treason but was acquitted

Democratic Party

A political party that arose in the 1820s from a split in the Democratic-Republican Party. Andrew Jackson was the first president elected from the Democratic party. The other Democratic presidents elected before the Civil War were Martin Van Buren, James K. Polk, Franklin Pierce, and James Buchanan. The party generally opposed the national bank, high protective tariffs, interference with slavery, and federal aid for internal improvements in the nation - all measures that the Whigs came to favor. The Democrats' greatest strength was with farmers, laborers, and people of the frontier

Emancipation Proclamation

A proclamation made by President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 that all slaves under the Confederacy were from then on "forever free" *In itself, the Emancipation Proclamation did not free any slaves, because it applied only to rebellious areas that the federal government did not then control. It did not affect the four slave states that stayed in the Union: Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. Yet when people say that Lincoln "freed the slaves" they are referring to the Emancipation Proclamation.

William Lloyd Garrison

A prominent abolitionist of the 19th century. In his newspaper, The Liberator, he called for immediate freedom for the slaves and for the end of all political ties between the northern and southern states

The Federalist Papers

A series of eighty-five essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay in the late 1780s to persuade the voters of New York to adopt the Constitution. The essays are considered a classic defense of the American system of government, as well as a classic practical application of political principles

Alien and Sedition Acts

A series of laws, passed during the presidency of John Adams at the end of the 18th century, that sought to restrict the public, activities of political radicals who sympathized with the French Revolution and criticized Adam's Federalist policies. In response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, James Madison and Thomas Jefferson wrote the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, which asserted states' rights

French and Indian War

A series of military engagements between Britain and France in North America between 1754 and 1763. The French and Indian War was the American phase of the Seven Years War, which was then underway in Europe. In a battle between British and French forces near Quebec City in Canada, the British gained control of all of Canada. *At the start of the war, several thousand French-speaking residents of Acadia (Nova Scotia and adjacent areas) who refused to swear allegiance to Britain were exiled. Many eventually made their way to southern Louisiana, where they developed the distinctive language and culture known as Cajun

"The American Crisis"

A series of pamphlets written by Thomas Paine during the Revolutionary War, in which Paine discussed issues of the revolution. The first pamphlet begins with a memorable statement: "These are the times that try men's souls"

Compromise of 1850

A set of laws, passed in the midst of fierce wrangling between groups favoring slavery and groups opposing it, that attempted to give something to both sides. The compromise admitted California to the United States as a "free" state but allowed some newly acquired territories to decide on slavery for themselves. Part of the compromise included the Fugitive Slave Act, which proved highly unpopular in the North. Senator Henry Clay was a force behind the passage of the compromise *The Compromise of 1850 shows how difficult it was to accommodate the two sides of the slavery question. It failed to prevent the Civil War, which broke out just over ten years later

Kit Carson

A skilled frontier trapper and guide of the 19th century, who helped open the territory of California to settlement from the United States. A general on the Union side in the Civil War, he moved a great number of Navajos by force in the 1860s; many died on the journey

Sally Hemings

A slave who was owned by Thomas Jefferson. Based on recent evidence from DNA and from the timing of Jefferson's visits to Monticello, most scholars now think it probable that Jefferson, a widower, was the father of one and possibly more of her four surviving children. *The allegation that Jefferson had a slave mistress circulated among his political opponents during his life and has long been voiced by many African-Americans. Until recently, most historians dismissed it because there was no corroborating evidence

Sam Houston

A soldier and political leader of the 19th century. Houston led the Texans in their struggle to win independence from Mexico. Later he served as president of the Republic of Texas. After Texas became a state, he represented it in the United States Senate. He was elected governor of Texas just before the Civil War, but when he opposed the state's decision for secession, he was removed from office.

Alexander Hamilton

A soldier and political leader of the late 18th and early 19th centuries; one of the founding fathers of the United States. Hamilton advised George Washington in the Revolutionary War, wrote most of the essays of the Federalist Papers, and was a leader in the drafting of the Constitution. He later served under Washington as the first secretary of the treasury in the new government. A federalist, he was opposed politically by Thomas Jefferson and both politically and personally by Aaron Burr. Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel, in which Burr killed him.

Gettysburg Address

A speech delivered by Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War. Lincoln was speaking at the dedication of a soldiers' cemetery at the site of the Battle of Gettysburg. The opening and closing lines are particularly memorable: "Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal . . . [We must] be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us - that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion - that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the Earth." *Lincoln surprised his audience at Gettysburg with the brevity of his speech. He delivered the Gettysburg Address, which lasted about three minutes, after a two hour speech by Edward Everett, one of the leading orators of his day.

"House Divided" speech

A speech made by Abraham Lincoln to the Illinois Republican convention in 1858. In the speech, Lincoln noted that conflict between North and South over slavery was intensifying. He asserted that the conflict would not stop until a crisis was reached and passed, for, in a biblical phrase Lincoln used, "A house divided against itself cannot stand". He continued, "I believe that this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved - I do not expect the house to fall - but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or the other."

father of his country

A title given to George Washington in recognition of his military leadership in the Revolutionary War and his service as first president under the Constitution.

covered wagon

A typical conveyance for settlers moving west with their belongings. It was driven by horses or oxen and equipped with a canvas cover, often supported by hoops, to keep off rain.

Appomattox Court House

A village in Virginia where General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant in April 1865, effectively ending the American Civil War

Intolerable Acts

Also known as the Coercive Acts; a series of British measures passed in 1774 and designed to punish the Massachusetts colonists for the Boston Tea Party. For example, one of the laws closed the port of Boston until the colonists paid for the tea that they had destroyed. Although the acts were intended to check colonial opposition to Britain, they only inflamed it

Benjamin Banneker

An African-American scientist of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Banneker taught himself calculus and trigonometry in order to make astronomical calculations for almanacs. He was hailed by abolitionists for proving that "the powers of the mind are disconnected from the colour of the skin"

Jonathan Edwards

An American clergyman of the 18th century; a leader in the religious revivals of the 1730s and 1740s known as the Great Awakening. Edwards, an emotional preacher, emphasized the absolute power of God. His most famous sermon, the harrowing "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God", compares sinners to spiders dangled over a flame

Johnny Appleseed

An American folk hero who established an apple tree nursery in Pennsylvania in the early 19th century. For decades, he traveled through Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, planting apple seeds and encouraging the settlers to start orchards. His real name was John Chapman

Daniel Boone

An American frontier settler of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, best known for his exploration and settlement of Kentucky

Benedict Arnold

An American general of the Revolutionary War. He performed notably in the early days of the war but became bitter over several setbacks to his career. After receiving command of the American fort at West Point, New York, Arnold plotted to betray it to the British. The plan was revealed when the American forces captured Major John Andre of the British Army, who was carrying messages between Arnold and the British. Arnold escaped to England and continued a military career, but he was widely scorned by the English. *Calling someone a "Benedict Arnold" is to label the person a traitor

Nathan Hale

An American soldier and spy of the 18th century, captured and hanged by the British during the Revolutionary War. He is said to have declared at his execution in 1776, "I only regret that I have one life to lose for my country."

Henry Hudson

An English explorer of the early 17th century. He discovered the Hudson River while in the service of the Netherlands.

Frederick W Douglass

An abolitionist of the 19th century. Douglass, an escaped slave, was an especially captivating speaker. His autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, tells of the violence he suffered because of his beliefs. Late in his life, he attacked Jim Crow laws

John Brown

An abolitionist of the nineteenth century who sought to free the slaves by military force. After leading several attacks in Kansas, he planned to start an uprising among the slaves. In 1859, he and a small band of followers took over a federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, in Virginia. A detachment of marines reclaimed the arsenal and captured Brown, who was tried for treason, convicted, and hanged *Robert E. Lee, soon to be commanding general of the main Confederate Army, led the marines who captured Brown. *In death, Brown became a martyr for abolitonists. "John Brown's Body", a popular song in the North during the Civil War, had this refrain: "John Brown's body lies a-mold'ring in the grave; His soul goes marching on"

Boston Tea Party

An act of defiance toward the British government by American colonists; it took place in 1773, before the Revolutionary War. The government in London had given a British company the right to sell tea directly to the colonies, thereby undercutting American merchants. A group of colonists found a ship in the harbor of Boston that was loaded with the company's tea. They dressed as Native Americans, boarded the ship, and threw hundreds of chests of tea overboard. The British government then tried to punish the colonists by closing the port of Boston, but this move only intensified American resistance to the rule of the king

David Farragut

An admiral in the Union navy in the Civil War who helped secure the Mississippi River for the Union. Once, when warned of mines, called torpedoes, in the water ahead, Farragut replied, "Damn the torpedoes!"

Articles of Confederation

An agreement among the thirteen original states, approved in 1781, that provided a loose federal government before the present Constitution went into effect in 1789. There was no chief executive or judiciary, and the legislature of the Confederation had no authority to collect taxes

Erie Canal

An artificial waterway built across New York state in the early 19th century, linking Lake Erie and the Hudson River. The canal opened trade between New York and the midwestern states and aided in the growth of of New York City as a port

Continental Congress

An assembly of delegates from the thirteen colonies. It governed during the Revolutionary War and under the Articles of Confederation. The Continental Congress first met in 1774, before the revolution. When it reconvened in 1775, it organized for war against Britain and eventually passed the Declaration of Independence

Damn the torpedoes

An exclamation by David Farragut, an officer in the Union navy in the Civil War. Warned of mines, called torpedoes, in the water ahead, Farragut said, "Damn the torpedoes! Captain Drayton, go ahead! Jouett, full speed!"

Battle of Chancellorsville

An important battle of the Civil War, fought in Virginia in 1863. The South, led by Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson, defeated a larger northern army, but Jackson was accidentally shot and killed by his own men after the battle.

Confederacy

The Confederate States of America; the government formed in 1861 by southern states that proclaimed their secession from the United States. Jefferson Davis was its president. The Confederacy was dissolved after the Civil War