American Presidency Exam 1

What is the significance of the election's results for purposes of governing? What are alternative views of the election results as producing a mandate for presidential government?

1) Election results prove the legitimacy of our democratic process, and provide for a smooth and peaceful transition of power 2) Serve as political capital

What are the factors that shape presidential campaign strategy? Illustrate your answer by reference to recent campaigns. What were the major features of the campaign strategies of the significant candidates in recent years? How does the Electoral College system affect campaign strategy?

1) The electorate can be divided into three groups: the candidate's base, the opponent's base, and the undecided voters. 2) Past election results and survey research make it possible to determine which people fall into each of the above mentioned groups. 3) It isn't possible, nor is it necessary, to get everyone's vote to win an election. 4) Once a strategy has been identified, campaigns should direct resources to key groups of potential voters and nowhere else, in order not to waste time or money. Recent campaign strategies: Obama pursued a fifty-state strategy in 2008 while concentrating resources on the crucial target states. Outlier: Trump pursued the unconventional strategy of relying heavily on social media (his supporters loved his Twitter messages) and large rallies where he made controversial statements that attracted blanket media coverage. The Electoral College heavily affects campaign strategy. The Electoral College gives candidates a goal to work towards—270 electoral votes are needed to win the election. Strategy usually revolves around a certain number of states that will get the candidates past that 270-seat mark, and candidates focus their attention and funding on the states that are most cost-effective in that light. Candidates must decide whether to target states that usually lean toward their political party in order to ensure their support, or to "play offense" and campaign hard in states that usually swing towards the opponent's political party. In general, however, the realities of the Electoral College focus a large amount of attention on a very small handful of states.

What are some important aspects of public attitudes toward the presidency? What kinds of psychological needs of citizens do presidents meet?

3 Important aspects: (1) the political community of which they are a part; (2) the regime, or formal and informal "rules of the game" followed in the constitutional system; and (3) the authorities, the public officials who hold positions in the government structure. Psychological Role: Fred Greenstein has suggested that presidents meet a variety of psychological needs of the citizenry. As a cognitive aid, the president can make government and politics comprehensible. By focusing on the president's activities, citizens simplify a distant and complex world. The president also provides an outlet for feelings experienced by supporters and opponents, giving citizens the opportunity to develop and express emotions about politics. On the subconscious level, some citizens may seek vicarious participation, a desire to identify with a powerful political figure much as people do with fictional figures and entertainment personalities. Presidents, at least historically, symbolized national unity as well as stability and predictability, providing citizens with psychologically satisfying feelings that may meet fundamental needs for membership and reassurance. Finally, presidents serve as lightning rods within the political system—figures to blame for bad times and to credit for good times.13 Because presidents play a central role in the nightly dramas communicated on every news platform—television, Internet, social media of all stripes, and around-the-clock cable outlets such as CNN, Fox News, and MSNBC—their importance as objects of psychological feelings may be greater today than ever before. Now they are not just on our television screens but also on the smartphone screens in our pockets.

What are some of the most significant factors in selecting the vice-presidential candidate? Generally, what is the impact of the vice-presidential candidate on the campaign? Provide examples of notable successes and/or failures.

5 Significant factors: a candidate whose strengths compensate for any weaknesses on the part of the main candidate; a candidate who can carry an important state or region; a candidate who can carry a specific interest or demographic group; a candidate who can heal wounds within the political party; a candidate who reinforces the image the campaign is trying to convey. Impact of VP: (answer later)

What are the leading theories about the president's constitutional powers? What are some leading constitutional issues associated with the historic and contemporary presidency? What is the unitary theory of the presidency?

Based around the ambiguity of the first sentence of Article 2 "powers herein granted" Traditional views hold that presidential power was relatively limited and Congress was the primary policymaker Modern views characterized by presidential dominance in the policymaking process and a significant expansion of the president's powers and resources Unitary executive theory- because the president alone possesses the executive power, the president must have absolute control over the executive branch and its administration, including the ability to control all subordinates and to veto or nullify their exercise of discretionary executive power Constitutional theory- only have those powers either enumerated in the Constitution or granted by Congress under its constitutional powers (Taft: no "residuum of power") Stewardship theory- president can do anything not explicitly forbidden by the Constitution or by laws passed by Congress under its constitutional power (Theodore Roosevelt) Prerogative theory- most expansive of the three theories, the president can do anything that is not forbidden but also can do things that are explicitly forbidden when in the national interest Lincoln stretched powers of the executive all throughout the civil war up until emancipation Nixon pointed to these actions to justify illegal covert actions he had authorized as president, basically said if you do something illegal as president but it's in the interest of the country it becomes legal

What are some of the most significant struggles and changes within the major political parties since 1960, including ideological divisions and what has been the impact of these on American politics?

Beginning in the 1960s, the republicans became more bureaucratized, whereas the democrats became more factionalized. (finish later)

Explain how holding the office of presidency or vice-presidency affects the campaign, from the perspectives of both incumbent and challenger

Benefit the incumbent: service in the job provides experience no one else can claim. Incumbency provides concrete advantages: An incumbent already has national campaign experience (true for all incumbents except Ford, who had been appointed to the vice presidency), can obtain media coverage more easily, and has considerable discretion in allocating federal benefits. Benefit the challeger: if service in the presidency coincides with negative economic conditions, such as a recession and high inflation or an unresolved foreign crisis for which a president is blamed, even if erroneously. Experience in the job, then, is not a political plus if a sitting president's record is considered weak or national conditions seem to have deteriorated under the incumbent's stewardship. Many voters vote retrospectively instead of prospectively.

To what extent have the Obama and Bush presidencies been alike in their approach to the War on Terror? Have they differed in substantial ways?

Both presidents claimed prerogative war power as a legitimate reason to keep Guantánamo Bay open. Obama's critics claimed that his use of prerogative power was at least as expansive as Bush's. For example, Obama waged a seven-month air war in Libya in 2011 relying only on his power as commander in chief. On the domestic front, he made aggressive use of executive orders and prosecutorial discretion regarding such issues as immigration, deportation, and the environment, Obama ended out conflict in Afganistan

How has the presidential nominating process developed since the beginning of the 20th century to the system we have now? What are the fundamental ways in which the presidential nominating process has changed through the 20th century to today? Evaluate the consequence of these changes, particularly over the last fifty years for the political system. You should be specific and refer especially to the arguments presented in your reading and class presentation and discussion. On the whole, do you find these changes have been good for the political system? What recommendations for reform of the system have been proposed?

Changes in the nomination process: Reduced the influence of party leaders, encouraged participation by rank-and-file Democrats, and expanded convention representation of previously underrepresented groups, particularly youth, women, and African Americans. Primaries were introduced 1968. Over the course of the century, the primaries gradually became a far more important part of the process, though the party leadership still controlled the route to nomination through the convention system. This has changed in recent decades, and now a majority of the delegates are chosen through primary elections, and the party conventions themselves are little more than a widely publicized rubber-stamping event. One consequence of the change is that candidates announce that they're running much earlier. ". For one, the campaign season has grown longer and more costly. In 1960, John F. Kennedy declared his intention to run for the presidency just eleven months before the general election. Compare this to Hillary Clinton, who announced her intention to run nearly two years before the 2008 general election. Today's long campaign seasons are seasoned with a seemingly ever-increasing number of debates among contenders for the nomination." Additionally, the role of the media has increased, which has lead to front-loading

What are some major roles the president must play? Which of these roles are derived explicitly from the Constitution?

Chief of state The President as ceremonial head of the United States Chief executive The President as the holder of the executive power of the United States Chief administrator The President as the leader of the executive branch of the federal government Chief diplomat The President as the main architect of American foreign policy and the nation's chief spokesperson to other countries Commander in chief The top person in charge of the nation's armed forces Chief legislator The President as the main author of public policy Chief of party The President as the leader of his or her political party Chief citizen The President as the representative of all the people MILITARY POWER The founders saw the importance of a strong military to protect the country and its citizens, but they named the President, a civilian, the "COMMANDER IN CHIEF" of the armed services. They were ever mindful of checking and balancing power, and they did not want a military general to seize the government. DIPLOMATIC POWER The President was given the power to make treaties with foreign nations, but not without the "advice and consent" of the Senate. Two-thirds of the senators must agree to a treaty the President signs, and if they do not, the treaty is not valid. The Constitution also provides that the President "shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers," which includes the duty of recognizing new nations, representing the United States to other countries, and performing related ceremonial duties. APPOINTMENT POWER The Constitution gives the President the responsibility to appoint "Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the Supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States." Again, the Senate gives its "advice and consent," so that all appointments must be confirmed by a majority of the Senators voting. LEGISLATIVE POWER The President was given the power to veto legislation. Every bill that passes both houses of Congress must be submitted to the President, although Congress can get around the President in several ways. If the President fails to sign the bill within ten days, it becomes law anyway. Also, Congress may override a presidential veto by a vote of two-thirds of each house.

What role does the party convention play today? What have been some of the most significant party conventions of the past fifty years?

Contemporary role: Contemporary conventions are now used more to gain attention from the media and the people and to gain support for the nominees, who are almost always obvious long before the convention is held. Significant party conventions: Iowa caucuses became important in 1972, when Democrats held them in January. In 1976, Jimmy Carter won the most votes of any Democratic candidate in Iowa and used this to boost his campaign as he headed to New Hampshire.

What are some other sources of the expansion of the presidential role and presidential power?

Expansion through statute (congress): serving as nations economic manager forced by congress. Compelled president to take active role in fiscal policy. Expansion through custom and practice: Serve as leaders of their parties. Adapted through customs. Teddy Roosevelt's attempt attempt to mediate labor management. Response of presidents in emergency situations become accepted precedent for successors, Thomas Jefferson set the precedent for the Institutional Sources of change: modern presidency is not a one person job. The number of White House staffers has grown exponentially. "Institutional presidency" is result of changing customs and practices but also furthered by statutes.

How have conceptions of the presidential office changed over the course of American history, especially since the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt? What have been some reasons for these changes?

FDR: New Deal and World War II, US became a world power→ vast expansion of governmental influence, turning point into the modern era President became principal source of policy initiative Most visible landscape in political landscape Isolationism to globalization Woodrow Wilson: linked rhetoric to a broad program of action

What different approaches and/or strategies do candidates take to gaining the nomination? What is the invisible primary? What is front loading?

Front-loading: the recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar in order to capitalize on media attention Invisible Primary: early attempts to raise money, line up campaign consultants, generate media attention, and get commitments for support even before candidates announce they are running Strategies: They must decide whether they have the resources to surmount the primaries—some of which occur on the same day—before they even decide how to divide their resources. Then, candidates must decide which primaries to try and win and which to spend less time and money on. Many candidates try to win early primaries and caucuses in order to gain momentum, while others focus on winning a larger group of primaries in order to show generally broad support. In both cases, however, candidates must always also consider what states they have a good chance of winning in the first place, as there is only so much they can do to sway their constituents.

What qualities are most significant in evaluating presidential effectiveness?

Greenstein argues: (1) public communicator, (2) organizational capacity, meaning his ability to rally his colleagues and structure their activities effectively, (3) political skill, meaning the extent to which his skill is harnessed to (4) a vision of public policy, (5) Cognitive style with which the president processes info that comes his way, (6) emotional intelligence, meaning the president's ability to manage his emotions and turn them to constructive purposes

What is the role of presidential- press interaction in reaching the public?

Historically, the most important link between the president and the American public has been the press.

What have been some important points in the 20th century development of presidential-press relations? Which presidents have been most successful in this aspect of the presidency?

In the twentieth century, several media took their place beside newspapers as important channels between the president and the people. Radio became a dominant force in communications in the 1920s, as did television in the 1950s. By the end of the century, cable and satellite technology had dramatically increased the number of potential sources of news and commentary, and the Internet had revolutionized the way people communicate and gather information. The emergence of broadcast technology, coupled with the array of new media (cable, satellite technology, and the Internet) by now, allow presidents to communicate messages directly to the people rather than having their messages relayed (and interpreted) by journalists. President Trump's early reliance on Twitter, though seemingly not always coordinated with broader White House communications, is one such method of direct communication.

What conclusions and "lessons" are suggested by the 2016 nominating process and election? What seems to have been the impact of recent elections for governing?

Lessons and Conclusions: Trump's selection is only the most recent effort by voters fed up with Washington to secure change. Over a period of four decades, beginning with the election of 1976, American voters have repeatedly asked "outsiders" to change Washington. Governors Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush traveled from state capitals to the national capital based on promises to tell the truth, tame big government, restore hope, and restore personal integrity to the office of president. Barack Obama barely had time to learn the ways of Washington as a senator—just two years—before he launched his presidential campaign pursuing "change you can believe in." Effect on governing: instead of prompting the policy changes that Trump had promised, his chaotic and unpredictable style seemed to thwart them. The White House did a poor job coordinating action on several of the president's high-profile executive orders and often proved to be unable to provide clear explanations of the administration's policy positions or even how it reached policy decisions. Contradictory White House messages, often in the same week and sometimes on the same day, became the norm. This seemed to reflect the president's own capriciousness, which he often displayed in early morning tweets that reversed or challenged earlier administration positions.

What are some strengths and weaknesses we may associate with the modern presidency?

Modern presidents have lacked good communication skills Even more so they lack the capacity to design effective institutional arrangements Former workers of the Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Ford, and George H. W. Bush presidencies praise their bosses Most Johnson, Carter, and Clintons workers emerged from the white house with mixed feelings Rhetorically gifted presidents have had the capacity to inspire Many modern presidents lack emotional intelligence

What is the modern "rhetorical presidency"? How does contemporary presidential interaction with the public differ from the 18th and 19th century interpretations of the "constitutional order"? How does the Clinton-Obama nominating struggle reflect these issues in a contemporary setting?

New: The modern rhetorical presidency is the use of the president's "bully pulpit" to push forth legislation. Appeals for public support are now a routine part of presidential governance. Presidents use that support as a bargaining chip with Congress—a way to persuade (or coerce) it to follow their leads. Old: eighteenth- and nineteenth-century presidential speeches had an overall character very different from presidential speeches given today: They were largely ceremonial and usually devoid of policy content. They were also much less frequent. Tulis calculated that, from George Washington through William McKinley, presidents averaged thirteen public speeches a year—80 percent or more of them very brief "thank you" remarks. The first eleven presidents averaged three public speeches a year. (Clinton-Obama nominating scandal???)

What force do presidential signing statements have on the rule of law and the separation of powers?

Presidential signing statements eliminate the rule of law and muddy the separation of powers. While presidents such as President Clinton used signing statements to highlight unconstitutional provisions, but stated that he would enforce the provision until it was struck down by a court, President Bush used signing statements to centralize his power and ignore the rule of law. Bush used signing statements routinely to state his intent not to enforce specific provisions of legislation.

How do presidential surrogates help the president in reaching the public? How do presidents "target" their public appeals?

Presidential surrogates, ranging from the vice president and members of the cabinet to party officials and political consultants, also promote the president's agenda through speaking tours, satellite interviews with local media outlets, and nationwide television appearances on the Sunday morning talk shows and cable outlets such as CNN, MSNBC, and Fox News. Nixon was one of the first presidents to aggressively choreograph the use of these surrogates as part of a broader strategy of going public. He sought to build, as his chief of staff, H. R. Haldeman, put it, "a stable of television personalities from within the Administration." Presidents use both surrogates and interest groups to target their public appeals

What are the primary social and political paths that have led to the presidency? What seems to have been the impact of these different backgrounds on presidential performance? What is the primary recruitment pool from which presidential candidates are drawn? Do you see any cycles in which some avenues have been more prominent than others?

Primary political paths: Senatorship or Governorship Social Paths: Race, Gender, and religion until 2008, the main social path came from being a white christian man. Recruitment pool: People who entertain presidential ambitions must have political availability, the political experiences and personal characteristics that make them attractive to political activists and to the general voting public. Potential candidates accumulate these credentials through personal and career decisions made long before the election year, but there is no explicit checklist of informal qualifications for the presidency. One method to determine what particular political experiences and personal characteristics put an individual in line for a nomination is to look at past candidates, but the attitudes of political leaders and the public change over time, as was evident in 2016, as Trump was not a candidate from a conventional political pool

What is the impact of public opinion polls on a presidency? What are some influences on polls

Public opinion polls can influence a president to tailor policy to fit the latest poll results. Job approval ratings of presidents almost always decline as their administration progresses events that "dramatize conflict in the nation," even if the president has taken no action to trigger them, are likely to reduce support. Events that "unify the nation around its symbols" are likely to increase support.

What are some short terms and long term influences on voting behavior in presidential elections?

Short term: candidates' personality, character traits, issues, Issues are only relevant to voting behavior if three conditions are present: (1) the voter is aware that an issue or a number of issues exist, (2) issues are of some personal concern to the voter, and (3) the voter perceives that one party represents his or her position better than the other party does. Today's presidential elections are heavily candidate centered, but not in the way we typically think of them. Voters are casting ballots less on the basis of candidates' personal qualities than on candidate-centered issues, those that the nominee has chosen to stress during the campaign. Long-term: Partisan loyalty (still important but on the decline), Social Group membership,

Explain how the presidency has expanded through American history and significant individual presidencies.

Teddy Roosevelt helped the US become a world power He attended to the rapid industrialization of America, was extremely pro-worker and issued almost as many executive orders as his predecessors combined Considered himself a steward of the people and saw the office as a "bully pulpit" from which the incumbent should set the tone of American life Popularized the presidency after 30 years of lackluster presidents Broad discretionary authority in peace time and in crisis Woodrow Wilson linked inspirational rhetoric to a broad program of action in an effort to address domestic and foreign affairs Skilled speaker, first president to give his state of the union to Congress since John Adams Powerful party chief who worked through congressional leaders and Dem. caucus to influence legislation Took his case to the people Went to Congress during World War I to obtain authority to control the economic and military aspects of the war However, would not accept any reservations proposed by the Senate for the League of Nations and ended up not participating in it at all FDR began a program of action and innovation unmatched by any chief executive in US history New Deal: established the concept of the "positive state" in America, a government that has the obligation to take the lead in providing for the welfare of all the people Effective legislative leader and also a skilled administrator responsible for a thorough reorganization of the executive branch including the creation of the Executive Office of the President One of the most effective molders of public opinion though fireside chats and presidential press conference

What has been the role of debates in presidential campaigns? How would you change the system we have?

Televised debates enable even the least engaged citizen to develop an impression of the major-party contenders. I think that if we are going to have an effective debate, strict rules have to be imposed to deter grandstanding by candidates. While the public may now expect more than just a polite exchange of policy challenges, the point of these debates is to educate the public on the policies and positions of those who wish to serve them.

Examine the question of the proper division of war powers in the contemporary presidency.

The 1973 War Powers Resolution says that presidents may not commit troops for more than sixty days without Congress authorizing the use of military force or formally declaring war. In fact, both before and after passage of the resolution, presidents have initiated the use of force far more frequently than they have awaited congressional authorization. The question is "does the use of Presidential War powers remove an important check of the house and senate?"

What is the "bully pulpit"? Which presidencies have been notably successful in utilizing this instrument of influence? Which have been notably unsuccessful?

The bully pulpit is the president's use of public speeches to garner support for legislation, or to influence congress by speaking directly to those they represent. Theodore Roosevelt, Obama, and Woodrow Wilson Trump's appeals have been largey ineffective

How does the Electoral College system work? Contrast its original purposes with the role that it plays today. What actual and potential problems does it pose for the system? Evaluate some recommendations for reform and weigh the relative advantages/disadvantages of the system.

The general election campaign is structured around the realities of the Electoral College, which has changed historically over the years through constitutional amendments. It currently consists of 587 seats that are broken up between states based on state population, and of which the winning candidate must win a majority. Because of this, the presidential election does not function as a popularity contest. Original purpose: The original purpose was to elect a popular presidential and vice presidential candidates. Electors received 2 ballots, the person who received the most votes was the president and the person who received the second most amount of votes was the vice president. The electoral college also nominated candidates, until the 12th amendment was ratified Purpose it plays today: Because of the winner-take-all style of votes in the Electoral College, many states' votes are usually already decided one way or the other before elections. The true campaigning takes places in a few battleground states in which the electoral seats are up for grabs by either the Democratic or Republican nominee Considering that we have grown accustomed to electing our president through the popular vote, the electoral college has become a relic of our system. There have been 4 times where the electoral college, instead of the people, elected our president, including the election of our current president. (add recommendations)

What was the ambivalence of the framers of the Constitution about presidential power? What were some of the other models of presidential power considered by the framers?

Trade-off between tyranny and effectiveness Feared the risks of a national executive, threatening like the British counterpart But others saw it essential for effective government Also considered a weak-executive model and a strong-executive model Weak-executive model:plural or single individual checked by council chosen by Congress or specified in Constitution, removal by congress, limited term, no chance for reelection, no veto power, limited powers delegated by Congress Strong-executive model: powers independent of Congress, single individual with no council or only advisory one chosen by means other than congressional selection, no limitation terms, broad powers not subject to congressional interference, veto over legislation passed by congress, appoint judicial and diplomatic officials and participate in foreign policy and warmaking powers Virginia Plan: national executive that would be elected by the legislature for an undetermined number of year, receive a fixed salary, ineligible for reelection, possess a general authority to execute the national laws, enjoy executive rights, form a council of revision with the power to veto all laws subject to override by a vote of the legislature

What are some major elements and concerns in the system of financing presidential campaigns?

With such high spending levels, today's candidates rely heavily on donors giving the maximum legal contribution to the candidates ($2,700 in 2016), but the era of "fat cats" is also back. Billionaire casino-owner Sheldon Adelson and his wife contributed an estimated $92.8 million to multiple groups supporting Romney and other Republican candidates in 2012 and another $82.5 million in 2016, including $20.4 million to pro-Trump groups.

What are some different ways that presidents appeal to the public? In what sense is the presidency a spectacle?

Using the bully pulpit Public Appearances

What is "spin control"? Provide examples of how the White House engages in it.

deflecting negative public attention.

What is the meaning of presidential culture?

he office of president quickly acquired mythic dimensions when it was filled by the country's first true hero In the process of contributing stability and identity to the new nation, Washington also endowed the presidential office with a special meaning that has become part of our collective heritage widely held meanings of the presidency, derived from selected episodes in the history of the institution and transmitted from one generation to the next by political socialization." Buchanan explains that families, teachers, and the media sustain this view of the presidency as an office with the ability to deliver the nation from danger as a result of its occupants' greatness has the potential to make extraordinary events happen