Anatomy and Physiology II

BCOP and CHP oppose each other. In the example CPH is higher so will get net filtration = lose water/fluid

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Total Filtration pressure = 55-15-30 = 10 mmHg. If BP increases and nothing else changes, GFR will Increase ie 65-15-30 = 20

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Vasoconstriction of the afferent arteriole increases resistance and decreases renal blood flow, capillary blood pressure, and GFR

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Thymus shrinks with age from

70g in infants to 3g in old age

NE and receptors: α1 receptors = Β2 receptors =

= smooth muscle contraction = smooth muscle relaxation And...β2 receptors are located on smooth muscle in skeletal muscle arteries and the bronchial tree!

A patient excretes a large volume of very dilute urine on a continuing basis. This is may be due to A) excessive ADH secretion. B) absence of ADH. C) hematuric oliguria. D) overproduction of aldosterone. E) dilation of the afferent arterioles.

B) absence of ADH.

= amount of filtrate formed in all the renal corpuscles of both kidneys each minute

Glomerular filtration rate = GFR - More protein, more water will tend to enter and thus oppose GFR more. More proteins = increases COP - If I decrease the amount of proteins, less water would move into cell and GFR would be increased.

Glomerular Filtration - Angiotensin II - potent vasoconstrictor Atrial natriuretic peptide - stretching of atria causes release

Hormonal regulation

= Blood pressure "Pushes" water and solutes out of capillaries and into interstitial fluid

Hydrostatic Pressure

Describe respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis.

Hyperventilate: H+ + HCO3- ↔ CO2 + H2O and the CO2 can be exhaled

Describe respiratory compensation for metabolic alkalosis.

Hypoventilate: Keep CO2: CO2 + H2O ↔ H+ + HCO3-. The H+ will help to bring pH back down to normal. The HCO3- will be used in bicarbonate sink

: are located between the cells of the capillary endothelium and the podocytes - Modified smooth muscle cells - Connected to cells of afferent arteriole via gap junctions

Mesangial cells - complex cells

is due to protrons

Metabolic acidosis

Control of the GFR / Autoregulation - occurs when stretching triggers contraction of smooth muscle cells in afferent arterioles - reduces GFR

Myogenic mechanism

Relaxation = vasodilation Contraction = vasoconstriction

Myogenic regulation

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) Respond to excessive diastolic stretching = increase EDV Effect of Natriuretic peptides is to lower blood volume and blood pressure Reduce stress on heart

Natriuretic Peptides

= GC = 30 mmHg Is the osmotic pressure resulting from the presence of suspended proteins = Opposes GFR = tends to "suck' fluid back into blood

Colloid osmotic pressure More protein = more water will tend to enter and thus oppose GFR more. More proteins = increases COP

The process of filtration occurs at A) the proximal convoluted tubule. B) the distal convoluted tubule. C) the collecting duct. D) the nephron loop (loop of Henle). E) the glomerular (Bowman's) capsule.

E) the glomerular (Bowman's) capsule.

= afferent arteriole = "see" blood pressure Blood pressure in glomerular capillaries - Tends to push water and solute molecules out of plasma and into the filtrate

Glomerular Hydrostatic pressure

= 55 mmHg Is blood pressure in glomerular capillaries = Favours GFR = pushes fluid and molecules out of blood

Glomerular Hydrostatic pressure (blood pressure)

Control of the GFR / Autoregulation - macula densa provides feedback to glomerulus, inhibits release of NO causing afferent arterioles to constrict and decreasing GFR

Tubuloglomerular mechanism

Regulation of GFR - If BP ^

smooth muscle in vascular wall of afferent arteriole is stretched = these are mechanoreceptors stretch sensitive ion channels open muscle depolarizes muscle contracts > vasoconstriction > decrease in flow > decrease in hydraulic pressure > return of GFR to normal

Is the osmotic pressure resulting from the presence of suspended proteins Tends to draw water out of filtrate and into plasma

Colloid osmotic pressure

- Medulla of lymph nodes - - More mature

- B cells, antibody producing plasma cells from cortex, and macrophages - T cells migrate here from cortex

Secretion of renin is controlled in three ways

- Baroreceptors in juxtaglomerular cells release renin in response to low BP. Juxtaglomoruler cells are in contact with afferent arteriole - Sympathetic neurons in the cardiovascular control center of the medulla oblongata trigger renin secretion in response to low BP - Macula densa cells in the distal tubule respond to decreases in flow by releasing a paracrine signal that induces juxtaglomerular cells to release renin. The parocrine signal in NO = hydrophobic ***study***

: maintain blood flow to brain : monitor start of systemic circuit = just outside heart : monitors end of systemic circuit

- Carotid sinuses - Aortic sinuses - Right atrium

: increases resistance Phosphorylate myosin via myosin light chain kinase (MLCK). Also need calmodulin and calcium ions When calcium is high in the cell, the smooth muscle ___________. More calcium more ___________.

- Contraction = vasoconstriction - contracts - constriction

Increased Cyclic GMP induces smooth muscle relaxation by:

- Inhibits calcium entry into the cell and decreases intracellular calcium concentrations - Activates K+ channels, more K+ out = cell more negative = which leads to hyperpolarization and relaxation - Stimulates a cGMP-dependent protein kinase that activates myosin light chain phosphatase, the enzyme that dephosphorylates myosin light chains, which leads to smooth muscle relaxation. Taking away phosphate deactivates protein = myosin

- Physical Barriers - Phagocytes - Immunological Surveillance - Interferons - Complement (C) Proteins - Inflammation - Fever

- Keep hazardous materials outside the body - Attack and remove dangerous microorganisms - Constantly monitors normal tissues - proteins made and released by lymphocytes - Complement the action of antibodies - Triggers a complex inflammatory response - A high body temperature

: Dilate coronary vessels and Increase coronary blood flow : Dilates coronary vessels and increases heart rate and force of contraction

- Lactic acid and low O2 levels - Epinephrine

Where do we find Lymphoid Nodules?

- Lymph nodes - Spleen - Tonsils = lymphoid nodules in the walls of pharynx - Along digestive and urinary tracts

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP)

- Produced by cells in right atrium - Produced by ventricular muscle cells

- recovers useful materials from filtrate = occurs via Diffusion Osmosis Channel-mediated diffusion Carrier-mediated transport - ejects waste products, toxins and other undesirable solutes

- Reabsorption - Secretion

Lymphatic vessels differ from blood capillaries in four ways

- Start as pockets rather than tubes - Have larger diameters - Have thinner walls - Flat or irregular in section

-In a normal kidney, which of the following would increase GFR? Chose all that apply. You should understand the why when answering. A. Constriction of afferent arteriole? B. Decrease in hydrostatic pressure: C) Constriction of efferent arteriole? D) Increase in colloid osmotic pressure?

- This would decrease GFR - This would decrease GFR = reflects BP - This would increase GFR - This would decrease GFR because more water would enter blood vessel and thus this would oppose GFR more

Lungs - regulated by O2 levels in alveoli High O2 content Low O2 content

- Vessels dilate - Vessels constrict Purpose of lungs is to take up O2. So if O2 is high --- vasodilate to take in more. If O2 low - vasoconstrict because lungs don't need to work as 'hard.' The constriction leads to redistribution of blood flow to better-ventilated areas of the lung, which increases the total area involved in gaseous exchange.

At __________ of capillary, fluid moves out of capillary and into interstitial fluid =

- arterial end = net filtration

Cardiac centers: cardioacceleratory center: cardioinhibitory center:

- increases cardiac output - reduces cardiac output

Glomerular Filtration - hormonal regulation When blood pressure is low = _______ is released. ____________ = systemic vasoconstriction and sodium and water retention = constricts both afferent and efferent arterioles: How does this affect GFR? Stimulates reabsorption of sodium ions and water Stimulates secretion of aldosterone by suprarenal (adrenal) cortex = keep Na+ Stimulates thirst Triggers release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) = stimulates reabsorption of water Increases sympathetic motor tone = Peripheral vasoconstriction

- renin - The Renin-Angiotensin System

At ____________ of capillary, fluid moves into capillary and out of interstitial fluid =

- venous end - net reabsorption

A fluid similar to plasma but does not have plasma proteins.

-Lymph

The cells that perform immunological surveillance are the ________ cells. A) NK B) plasma C) B D) helper T E) suppressor T

A) NK

The urinary system does all of the following, except: A) excretes excess albumen molecules. B) regulates blood volume. C) contributes to stabilizing blood pH. D) eliminates organic waste products. E) regulates plasma concentrations of electrolytes.

A) excretes excess albumen molecules.

Antidiuretic hormone A) increases the permeability of the collecting ducts to water. B) is secreted in response to low potassium ion in the blood. C) causes the kidneys to produce a larger volume of very dilute urine. D) is secreted by the anterior pituitary. E) release is insensitive to the osmolarity of interstitial fluid.

A) increases the permeability of the collecting ducts to water.

_____ controls whether dilute or concentrated urine is formed Absent or low _____ = dilute urine Higher levels = more concentrated urine through increased water reabsorption Mammals have a loop of Henle = allows to concentrate urine ie keep more water

ADH Even though your fluid intake can be highly variable, total fluid volume in your body remains stable Depends in large part on the kidneys to regulate the rate of water loss in urine

"Pulls" water and solutes into a capillary from interstitial fluid

Colloid Osmotic Pressure Hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressure oppose each other and whichever is higher will win

A peptide hormone (antidiuretic hormone - ADH) produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland Increases water reabsorption by the collecting duct by increasing the number of aquaporins Release: increasing plasma osmolarity detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus Inhibition: increasing blood pressure detected by stretch receptors in the atria and baroreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies .Has a 2nd messanger system (cAMP)

ADH = Vasopressin

Regulation of GFR

Accomplished by altering the hydrostatic pressure gradient across glomerulus

= decrease in pH, increase in H+.

Acidosis

= blood vessel going to Glomerulus = structure where filtration happens = blood vessel leaving Glomerulus

Afferent arteriole Efferent arteriole

Why would a decrease in albumin increase GFR?

Albumin is a plasma protein. It contributes to the colloid osmotic pressure (COP). If there is less protein, the COP is decreased = less water will enter. COP opposes filtration ie GFR and thus if this pressure is less, GFR is increased.

A steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex. Hydrophobic Targets cells in the distal tubule and collecting ducts Stimulates Na+ reabsorption (and secondarily water recovery from the urine)

Aldosterone

= increase in pH, decrease in H+

Alkalosis

Lymphatic Capillaries : Endothelial cells loosely bound together with overlap → Overlap acts as one-way valve =

Allows fluids, solutes, viruses and bacteria to enter but prevents return to intercellular space

= Released when blood pressure is decreased Stimulates: Aldosterone production = keep Na+ ADH production = keep water Thirst = drink water Cardiac output = increase Q Peripheral vasoconstriction = increase R Net effect BP will go back up to normal Recall BP = Q*R

Angiotensin II

released when Low blood volume; High plasma osmotic concentration

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH; vasopressin)

Glomerular Filtration - Mostly consists of sympathetic postganglionic fibers Sympathetic activation Constricts afferent arterioles → Decreases GFR

Autonomic (ANS) regulation of the GFR

Glomerular Filtration - Kidney blood vessels supplied by sympathetic ANS fibers that release norepinephrine causing vasoconstriction

Autonomic regulation (by sympathetic division of ANS)

- is local blood flow regulation. - The intrinsic ability (don't need external input) of an organ to maintain a constant blood flow despite changes in perfusion pressure - Adjusted by peripheral resistance while cardiac output stays the same

Autoregulation

Control of the GFR - = will automatically adjust Maintains GFR despite changes in local blood pressure and blood flow How? The change in resistance occurs in the afferent arterioles.

Autoregulation (local level)

Two autoregulatory mechanisms maintain normal GFR. Describe how each of them can increase or decrease GFR:

Autoregulation is done at the afferent arteriole and ensures that GFR does NOT change even when BP has increased. Myogenic mechanism = Myo = muscle. The smooth muscle would automatically constrict back to normal after being stretched (due to mechanoreceptors). Constriction is due to an increase in Ca2+, Ca2+ binds to troponin C etc etc. Tubuloglomerular feedback = Macula densa will sense the increase in pressure. Here the release of NO is inhibited. NO is a potent vasodilator. By inhibiting it, the blood vessel will constrict back to normal

- Outer cortex of lymph nodes - aggregates of B cells. Germinal center = - Outer cortex composed of - Immature T cells migrate here from - Dendritic cells derived from monocytes assist in - Macrophages

B cells proliferate and differentiate into plasma cells (produce antibodies) and memory B cells - large number of T cells - red bone marrow - T cell maturation - clear out dead and dying cells

Blood leaves the glomerulus through a blood vessel called the A) afferent arteriole. B) efferent arteriole. C) vasa recta. D) interlobular arteriole. E) renal vein.

B) efferent arteriole.

The cells responsible for the production of circulating anitbodies are ________ cells. A) NK B) plasma C) helper T D) thymus E) liver

B) plasma

Defense of the body against a particular pathogen is provided by A) nonspecific immunity. B) specific immunity. C) immunological surveillance. D) skin defenses. E) fever.

B) specific immunity.

The lymphoid system is composed of all of the following, except A) lymphatic vessels. B) the venae cavae. C) the spleen. D) lymph nodes. E) lymph.

B) the venae cavae.

(measure pressure) are stretch-sensitive mechanoreceptors located in the walls of major blood vessels = if blood vessels get stretched, these receptors will change shape = radius will change

Baroreceptors Baroreceptor reflex regulates MAP. Reflex = will automatically happen

Basal lamina of glomerulus : prevents filtration of larger proteins

Basal lamina of glomerulus

caused by suspended blood proteins that are too large to cross capillary walls

Blood colloid osmotic pressure

In the glomerulus the liquid components of the blood escape into

Bowman's capsule; blood cells and large macromolecules are not filtered Glomerular capillaries are very leaky

The primary function of the lymphoid system is A) circulation of nutrients. B) the transport of hormones. C) defending the body against both environmental hazards and internal threats. D) the production and distribution of plasma proteins. E) both B and D

C) defending the body against both environmental hazards and internal threats.

Which of the following is not an important function of the kidney? A) control of total body water B) control of the electrolyte composition of the blood C) excretion of excess albumen D) control of production of red blood cells by bone marrow E) regulation of blood pressure

C) excretion of excess albumen

Areas of the spleen that contain large aggregations of lymphocytes are known as A) Peyer patches. B) adenoids. C) white pulp. D) red pulp. E) lymph nodes.

C) white pulp.

- Forces water out of solution

Capillary Hydrostatic pressure

= 15 mmHg Opposes glomerular hydrostatic pressure = Opposes GFR = opposes above ie 55-15

Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure

Opposes glomerular hydrostatic pressure Pushes water and solutes out of filtrate and into plasma

Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure

Cardiovascular (CV) centers of the Medulla Oblongata

Cardiac centers Vasomotor center

:below medulla oblongata - Monitor cerebrospinal fluid - Control respiratory function - Control blood flow to brain

Central chemoreceptors

Glomerular Filtration - Autoregulation Hormonal regulation Autonomic regulation (by sympathetic division of ANS)

Control of the GFR Can regulate GFR by changing the diameter of the afferent arteriole Can regulate GFR by changing the diameter of the efferent arteriole

When the level of ADH (antidiuretic hormone) decreases, A) more urine is produced. B) less urine is produced. C) the osmolarity of the urine decreases. D) both A and C E) both B and C

D) both A and C

Each of the following is a physical barrier to infection, except A) body hair. B) epithelium. C) secretions. D) complement. E) basement membranes.

D) complement.

A sample of John's blood shows a high level of pyrogens. This would indicate that John A) is feeling achy. B) is producing T lymphocytes. C) has a sore throat. D) is running a fever. E) has swollen lymph nodes.

D) is running a fever.

The first line of cellular defense against pathogens are the A) T cells. B) B cells. C) NK cells. D) phagocytes. E) plasma cells.

D) phagocytes.

In response to increased levels of aldosterone, the kidneys produce A) a larger volume of urine. B) urine with a higher concentration of sodium ions. C) urine with a lower concentration of potassium ions. D) urine with a lower concentration of sodium ions. E) urine with less glucose.

D) urine with a lower concentration of sodium ions.

Microorganisms and other foreign substances are filtered from lymph by lymph nodes and from blood by spleen

Defense

A drug that inhibits angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) may lead to A) less secretion of aldosterone. B) increased urinary loss of sodium. C) reduction of blood pressure. D) B and C only E) A, B, and C

E) A, B, and C

The role of antigen-presenting cells in immunity is to A) activate T cells. B) display antigen fragments. C) process antigens. D) produce antibodies. E) A, B, and C

E) A, B, and C

Characteristics of specific defenses include A) versatility. B) tolerance. C) memory. D) specificity. E) all of the above

E) all of the above

Functions of the urinary system include A) regulation of blood volume and blood pressure. B) regulation of plasma concentration of certain ions. C) helping to stabilize blood pH. D) conservation of valuable nutrients. E) all of the above

E) all of the above

Inflammation produces localized A) swelling. B) redness. C) heat. D) pain. E) all of the above

E) all of the above

Lymphocytes may be found in which of the following tissues or organs? A) tonsils B) spleen C) lymph nodes D) thymus E) all of the above

E) all of the above

The kidneys not only remove waste products from the blood, they also assist in the regulation of A) blood volume. B) blood pH. C) blood pressure. D) blood ion levels. E) all of the above

E) all of the above

The body's nonspecific defenses include all of the following, except A) the skin. B) complement. C) interferon. D) inflammation. E) antibodies.

E) antibodies.

Immunity that is genetically determined and present at birth is called ________ immunity. A) active B) natural passive C) passive D) auto E) innate

E) innate

bind to receptors and cause Ca2+ efflux from the endoplasmic reticulum into the cytoplasm.

Endogenous vasodilators (acetylcholine and bradykinin)

Released at kidneys Responds to low blood pressure, low O2 content in blood Stimulates red blood cell production.

Erythropoietin (EPO)

: prevents filtration of blood cells but allows all components of blood plasma to pass through

Fenestration (pore) of glomerular endothelial cell

- Regulates blood volume and blood pressure: by adjusting volume of water lost in urine and releasing erythropoietin and renin - Regulates plasma ion concentrations: by controlling quantities lost in urine; Calcium ion levels (through synthesis of calcitriol) - Helps stabilize blood pH: by controlling loss of hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions in urine - Conserves valuable nutrients: by preventing excretion while excreting organic waste products - Assists liver in detoxifying poisons

Five Homeostatic Functions of Urinary System

Excess interstitial fluid enters lymphatic capillaries and becomes lymph

Fluid balance

- Removal of abnormal blood cells and other blood components by phagocytosis - Storage of iron recycled from red blood cells - Initiation of immune responses by B cells and T cells

Functions of the Spleen

- Excretion: Removal of organic wastes from body fluids - Elimination: Discharge of waste products - Homeostatic regulation: Of blood plasma volume and solute concentration

Functions of the Urinary System

Glomerular Hydrostatic pressure Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure Colloid osmotic pressure Glomerular Hydrostatic pressure (blood pressure) Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure Colloid osmotic pressure

Glomerular Filtration pressures

= an endocrine structure that secretes = making RBC when O2 is low = important for blood pressure homeostasis

Juxtaglomerular Complex Hormone erythropoietin Enzyme renin "See" blood pressure at afferent arteriole

____________ helps regulate blood pressure in kidney

Juxtaglomerular appraratus Juxtaglomerular cells - cells of afferent and efferent arterioles contain modified smooth muscle fibers = can contract and relax

Juxtaglomerular cells sense the BP has dropped below normal

Juxtaglomeruler cells secrete the enzyme renin Converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I Enzyme ACE from epithelia of blood vessels converts angiotensin I to Angiotensin II

= Are special lymphatic capillaries in small intestine = Transport lipids from digestive tract

Lacteals

: decrease blood flow to tissues Prostaglandins and thromboxanes (facilitates platelet aggregation) = released by damaged tissues = constrict precapillary sphincters

Local vasoconstrictors

: increase blood flow to tissue. Higher activity = need more ATP = need more oxygenlow O2 or high CO2 levels low pH (acids) = due to ATP hydrolysis = H+ produced nitric oxide (NO) = potent vasodilator high K+ (due to cell damage) or H+ concentrations. High H+, pH decreased chemicals released by inflammation (histamine) = increase blood flow elevated local temperature = hydrolyze ATP = get hot = most of the energy released as heat

Local vasodilators

Lymph Flow =

Lymphatic vessels travel with veins

type of white blood cell

Lymphocytes

Areolar tissue (connective tissue in which fibers are loosely arranged in a net or meshwork) with densely packed lymphocytes

Lymphoid Nodule

Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT) is

Lymphoid tissues associated with the digestive system

Autoregulation ...

Maintain GFR over wide ranges of MAP (mean arterial pressure) Changes = Focus on high BP for exam

perfusion pressure seen by organs in the body. Is determined by blood volume, effectiveness of heart as a pump (cardiac output), resistance of the system to blood flow, relative distribution of blood between arterial and venous blood vessels

Mean arterial pressure (MAP)

__________ control blood pressure and filtration within the glomerulus

Mesangial cells

- Modulates glomerular filtration by its smooth muscle activity - Is target site for constrictor and vasorelaxant agents - Generates vasoactive agents, e.g., renin, prostaglandin - Handles macromolecules, including immune complexes - Is production and target site for regulators of cell proliferation, e.g., interleukin 1 and platelet-derived growth factor - Modulates glomerular injury

Mesangial cells - complex cells

Glomerular Filtration - = released when BP high = stretch heart (Atria and Ventricles more) Are released by the heart in response to stretching walls due to increased blood volume or pressure

Natriuretic Peptides Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is released by atria Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) is released by ventricles → Elevates glomerular pressures and increases GFR = lose more fluid/water → Lower blood pressure and plasma volume Also: Reduce thirst, Block release of ADH and aldosterone, Cause diuresis = pee more

Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors are used to treat high blood pressure. Explain why these drugs are helpful to treat high blood pressure. Hint: Renin-Angiotensin system and actions.

No ACE means no Angiotensin II. Angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstrictor. It also will be released to increase BP back to normal. ANG II does this by stimulating release of ADH (keep water), Aldosterone (keep Na+ and water follows), making us feel thirsty (drink water) and increasing R via constriction (BP = Q*R and thus BP increases). So if we inhibit the release of ANGII, we will prevent or minimize any of its actions and thus reduce BP ☺

Against any type of invading agent

Nonspecific Defenses

Physical Barriers Phagocytes Immunological Surveillance (eg NK cells) Interferons Complement (C) Proteins Fever

Nonspecific Defenses

Describe urinary system compensation for respiratory acidosis.

Pee out H+ and keep HCO3-

Describe urinary system compensation for respiratory alkalosis.

Pee out HCO3- and keep H+

in carotid bodies and aortic bodies monitor blood

Peripheral chemoreceptors

Fetal shunts (foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus) bypass nonfunctional lungs Ductus venosus bypasses the liver Umbilical arteries and veins circulate blood to and from the placenta Ductus venosus empties into inferior vena cava

Placental Blood Supply Embryonic lungs and digestive tract nonfunctional Respiratory functions and nutrition provided by placenta

_________ with foot processes form the filtration structure

Podocytes

= receptors (proteins) for antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and aldosterone

Principal cells

- red blood cells, macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells and granulocytes - Macrophages remove ruptured, worn out or defective blood cells - Storage of up to 1/3 of body's platelet supply

Red pulp of spleen:

: decreases resistance Via myosin phosphatase = dephosphorylates myosin And need to remove calcium. R will decrease

Relaxation = vasodilation

- Baroreceptors in juxtaglomerular cells release renin in response to low BP. Juxtaglomoruler cells are in contact with afferent arteriole - Sympathetic neurons in the cardiovascular control center of the medulla oblongata trigger renin secretion in response to low BP - Macula densa cells in the distal tubule respond to decreases in flow by releasing a paracrine signal that induces juxtaglomerular cells to release renin. The parocrine signal in NO = hydrophobic ***study***

Renin secretion

Secondary lymphatic organs (= Lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic nodules) are

Sites where most immune response occurs

Primary lymphatic organs (= Red bone marrow and thymus) are

Sites where stem cells divide and become immunocompetent

: prevents filtration of medium sized proteins

Slit membrane between pedicels Proteins and RBC are not filtered in the kidneys

Protect against specific pathogens

Specific Defenses

Stretch receptors in walls of Carotid sinuses: maintain blood flow to brain Aortic sinuses: monitor start of systemic circuit = just outside heart Right atrium: monitors end of systemic circuit

Stretch receptors in walls of

The functional unit of the kidney

The Nephron

- Myogenic autoregulation = will automatically adjust to changes in activity - Tissue metabolic activity - Paracrine signaling molecules - Endocrine system = hormones - Nervous system

These regulate arterial diameter or resistance

Thymus produces four hormones = promote the maturation of T-cells and B-cells

Thymic factor; Thymosin; Thymic humoral factor, Thymopoietin.

Is affected by - Cardiac output - discussed regulation previously ie heart rate and stroke volume - Blood pressure - Peripheral resistance. How? Radius!

Tissue Perfusion

Descending limp = relatively impermeable to solute but permeable to water = water moves out by osmosis → fluid in the tubule becomes hypertonic. Thin section of the ascending limp = impermeable to water, but permeable to solute, especially sodium and chloride ions = sodium and chloride ions move out down the concentration gradient Vasa Recta = acts with the loop of Henle to concentrate the urine by a complex mechanism of counter current exchange. Final concentration of urine depends upon the amount of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Water balance

lymphatic tissue = B cells and T cells carry out immune function

White pulp of spleen

Autoregulation of Blood Flow

Works by a negative feedback system

liver proteins released during the acute phase that act as opsonins and enhance the inflamatory response

acute phase proteins

proteins secreted by B lymphcytes that fight specific invaders

antibodies (immunoglobulins, gamma globulins)

stimulates pain receptors; vasodilator

bradykinin

opsonin that activates complement cascade

c-reactive protein

molecules that attract phagocytes to a site of infection

chemotaxins

plasma and cell membrane proteins that act as opsonins, cytolytic agents, and mediators

complement

proteins released by one cell that affect the growth or activity of another cell

cytokins

Absorption of fat from digestive tract

fat absorption

cytotoxic enzymes that initiate apoptosis

granzymes

an anticoagulant

heparin

vasodilator and bronchoconstrictor released by mast cells and basophils

histamine

proteins that inhibit viral replication and modulate the immune system

interferons

macrophage cytokine that mediates inflammatory response and induces fever

interleukin-1

plasma proteins that activate to form bradykinin

kinins

- Carry lymph from peripheral tissues to the venous system

lymphatic vessels

Excess fluid enters

lymphatic vessels

- Ensures constant plasma and interstitial fluid communication - Accelerates distribution of nutrients, hormones and dissolved gases through tissues - Transports insoluble lipids and tissue proteins that cannot cross capillary walls - Flushes bacterial toxins and chemicals to immune system tissues

lymphoid system

Water continuously moves out of capillaries and back into bloodstream via the

lymphoid system

an extracellular enzyme that attacks bacteria

lysozyme

Inner cortex of lymph nodes -

mainly T cells and dendritic cells

a family of membrane protein complexes involved in cell recognition

major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

a membrane pore protein made in the complement cascade; allows ions and water to enter pathogens

membrane attack complex

= Acidosis = increase in H+. Metabolic = body. Production of too many H+ from activity, hydrolysis of ATP, loss of HCO3-, ketosis, Kidney disease.

metabolic acidosis

= Alkalosis = decrease in H+. Metabolic = body. Loss of H+ due to vomiting ; dehydration, too many antacids. Kidney disease.

metabolic alkalosis

Proximal convoluted tubule cells have...

microvilli = increases surface area

Capillaries filter...

more than they reabsorb. In example, filter 24L/day and we are only reabsorping 20.4 L/day

Renal artery > segmental arteries > interlobular arteries > afferent arteries > glomerular capillaries > efferent arterioles > peritubular capillaries > interlobular veins > arcuate veins > interlobular veins > renal vein

path of blood flow

a membrane pore protein that allows granzymes to enter the cell; made by NK and cytolytic T cells

perforin

= Acidosis = increase in H+. Respiratory = lungs. Keeping CO2 inside by hypoventilating (due to wet lung, holding breath, constriction of respiratory tree); Keeping CO2 inside across lungs will cause an increase in H+ = acidosis.

respiratory acidosis

= Alkalosis = decrease in H+. Respiratory = lungs. Blowing off too much CO2 by hyperventilating (anxiety attack, high altitude); Blowing off too much CO2 will result in reduction of H+ = alkalosis

respiratory alkalosis

powerful oxidant in phagocyte lysosomes

superoxide anion (O-)

membrane receptors on T lymphocytes that recognize and bind antigen presented by MHV receptors

t-cell receptors

Four processes: Filtration Reabsorption Secretion Excretion

urine production

Vasomotor center:

vasoconstriction - controlled by adrenergic nerves (NE) Increasing sympathetic output = more electrical signals will constrict vessels Decreasing the sympathetic output = fewer signals will dilate vessels