Anatomy ch. 3

Serous Membranes

-Line thoracic and abdominal cavities -Made of epithelium and loose fibrous connective tissue -Secrete watery fluid for lubrication -Carry specific names according to location •Pleurae - lines thoracic cavity and lungs •Pericardium - encloses heart •Peritoneum- lines abdominal cavity and covers organs -Mesentery supports abdominal organs and attaches them to abdominal wall Serous membranes are made simple squamous epithelial tissue that lies on top of a thin layer of areolar connective tissue.

Cartilage is

A connective tissue that is more flexible than bone and that protects the ends of bones and keeps them from rubbing together. Rubbery matrix. Chondroblasts - cells that secret cartilage matrix, until it covers itself making a... Lacunae - small cavity of cartilage secreted out, once enclosed they are called Chondrocytes - cartilage cells in lacunae. Avascular Three types: hyaline , elastic, and fibrocartilage. Allows bones to slide against one another in joints.

Classification of Epithelial tissues

All epithelial tissues have two names. Named after: 1. Number of cell layers 2. Shape of cells

The loose connective tissues include____

Areolar tissue and reticular tissue.

Connective tissue functions

Binding of organs. Support. Physical protection. Immune protection. Movement. Storage. Heat protection. Transport.

Connective tissue

Binds organs together. Provides support and protection. Fills spaces. Produces blood cells. Stores fat. Most abundant primary tissue. Highly vascular (rich in blood vessels)

______ is a fluid connective tissue that travels through tubular blood vessels.

Blood. The matrix (plasma) is not made by the cells. Plasma -55% of volume (variety of inorganic and organic substances dissolved or suspended in water) Formed elements-45% of volume (red blood cells {erythrocytes}; white blood cells{leukocytes}; platelets{thrombocytes})

______ or________, is a hard calcified connective tissue that composed the skeleton.

Bone-osseous tissue The most rigid connective tissue. Extremely hard matrix formed: (calcium salts deposited around collagen fibers {give bone rigidity}; protein fibers (provide elasticity and strength)

Composition of non fluid matrix (connective tissue) fibers:

Collagen. Elastic. Reticular.

Two types of bone tissue:

Compact: Forms shafts or long bones. Consists of of cylindrical structures called osteons. Central canal of each osteon surrounded by rings of hard matrix. Oscteocytes located in spaces called lacunae. Spongy: Contains many bony bars and plates, separated by irregular spaces. Found on end of long bones. Though lighter still designed for strength.

Specialized contacts(epithelial tissue feature)

Covering and lining epithelial tissues fit closely together (form continuous sheets). Specialized contacts bond adjacent cells (lateral contacts {tight junctions}).

The dermis

Deeper blue= Reticular layer of dermis Blue near purple = Papillary layer Purple= epithelium (epidermis)

The dense tissues (category of fibrous{proper} connective tissue) includes____

Dense regular and dense irregular.

X

Description : Two or more layers of cells; surface cells roughly square or round. Function: Contributes to sweat secretion; secret ovarian hormones; produces sperm. Location: egg-producing vesicles (follicles) of ovaries; sperm-producing ducts Stratified cuboidal epithelium

X

Description: Looks multilayered; some cells do not reach free surface but all cells reach basement membrane; nuclei at several levels in deeper half of epithelium; often with gobble cells; often ciliated. Function: Secrets and propels mucus. Location: Respiratory tract from nasal cavity to bronchi; portions of male urethra.Psuedostratified columnar epithelium

X

Description: Multiple cell layers with cells becoming increasingly flat and scale toward surface; surface covered with a layer of compact dead cells without nuclei; nasal cells may be cuboidal to columnar. Function: Resists abrasions; retards water loss through skin. Location: Epidermis, palms and soles are especially heavily keratinized. Stratified squamous epithelium (keratinized)

X

Description: Multiple cell layers with cells becoming increasingly flat and scaly toward the surface; basal cells may be cuboidal to columnar. Function: Resists abrasions and penetration by pathogenic organisms. Location: Tongue, esophagus. Stratified squamous epithelium (nonkeratinized)

X

Description: RBC's appear as pale pink disc with light centers and no nuclei; WBC's are slightly larger, are much fewer, and have variously shaped nuclei, which usually stain violet; platelets are cell fragments with no nuclei, about one-quarter the diameter of erythrocytes. Location: contained in heart and blood vessels. Functions: transport gases, nutrients, waste, chemical signals and heat throughout the body; provides defensive WBC's; contains clotting agents to minimize bleeding; platelets secret growth factors that promote tissue maintenance and repair. Blood

X

Description: Single layer of square or round cells; in glands, cells often pyramidal and arranged like segments of an orange around a central space; spherical, centrally placed nuclei; often with a brush border of microvilli in some kidney tubules; ciliated in brochures of lung. Location: Liver; thyroid. Function: Absorption and secretion; production and movement of respiratory mucus. Simple cuboidal epithelium

X

Description: Single layer of tall narrow cells; oval or sausage shaped nuclei, vertical oriented usually in basal half of cell; apical portion of the cell often show secretory vesicles visible with the transmission electron microscope (TEM); often shows a brush border of microvilli; ciliated in some organs; may possess goblet cells. Location: Inner lining of stomach, intestines. Function: Absorption, section of mucus and other products; movement of egg and embryo in uterine tube. Simple columnar epithelium

X

Description: Single layer of thin cells, shaped like fried eggs with bulge where nucleus is located; nucleus flattened in the plane of the cell, like an egg yolk; cytoplasm may be so thin it is hard to see in tissue sections; in surface view cells have angular contours and nuclei appear round. Location: Air sacs (alveoli) of lungs; glomerular capsules of kidneys; some kidney tubules. Function: Allows rapid diffusion or transport of substances through membranes; secrets lubricating serous fluid. Simple squamous epithelium

X

Description: Somewhat resembles stratified squamous epithelium, but surface cells are rounded, not flattened, and often bulge above surface; usually five or six cells thick when relaxed, two or three cells thick when stretched; cells may be flatter or thinner when epithelium is stretched (as in distended bladder); some cells have two nuclei.Function: Stretches to allow filling of urinary tract. Location: Urinary tract- part of kidney, ureter, bladder. Transitional epithelium

X

Description: calcified matrix arranged in concentric lamellae around central canals; osteocytes occupy lacunae between adjacent lamellae; lacunae interconnected by delicate canaliculi. Location: skeleton Function: physical support of body; leverage for muscle action; protective enclosure of viscera.

X

Description: clear, glassy matrix, often stained light blue, violet, or pink in tissue sections; fine, dispersed, collagen fibers, not usually visible; chondrocytes often in small clusters of three or four cells (cell nests), enclosed in lacunae; usually covered by perichondrium. Locations: forms a thin articular cartilage, lacking perichondrium, over the ends of bones at moveable joints; forms supportive rings and plates around trachea and bronchi. Functions: eases joint movements; holds airways open during respiration. Hyaline Cartilage!

X

Description: densely packed collagen fibers running in random directions; scanty open space (ground substance); few visible cells; long fibers in the tissue appear as short, chopped up pieces in thin histological sections. Location: deeper portion of dermis of skin; capsules around viscera such as liver, kidney, spleen; fibrous sheaths around muscles, nerves, cartilage and bones. Functions: durable, hard to tear; variable orientation of fibers withstands stresses applied in unpredictable directions. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue!

X

Description: densely packed, parallel ,often wavy collagen fibers; slender fibroblast nuclei compressed between collagen bundles; scant open space (ground substance); scarcity of blood vessels. Locations: tendons and ligaments. Functions: ligaments tightly bond bones together and resist stress; tendons attach muscle to bone and move the bones when the muscles contrast. Dense Regular Connective Tissue!

X

Description: dominated by adipocytes-large, empty-looking cell with thin margins and nucleus pressed against inside of plasma membrane; cell's usually shriveled by historical fixative; tissue sections often pale because of scarcity of stained cytoplasm; blood vessels often visible. Location: subcutaneous fat beneath skin; breast. Function: energy storage; thermal insulation. Adipose Tissue (fat)

X

Description: elastic fibers form weblike mesh amid lacunae; always covered by perichondrium. Locations: external ear; epiglottis Functions: provides flexible elastic support. Elastic Cartilage

X

Description: long, threadlike, unbranched cells(fiber), relatively parallel in longitudinal tissue sections; striations; multiple nuclei per cell, plasma membrane. Locations: skeletal muscles, mostly attached to bones but also including voluntary sphincters of the eyelids, urethra, and anus; diaphragm; tongue; some muscles of esophagus. Functions: body movements, facial expression, posture , breaching, speech, swallowing, control of urination and defecation, and childbirth; under voluntary control. Skeletal Muscle!

X

Description: loose arrangement of collagenous and elastic fibers; scattered cells of various types; abundant ground substance; numerous blood vessels. Locations: underlying nearly all epithelia; sounding blood vessels , nerves, esophagus and trachea (fasciae between muscles; mesenteries visceral layers of pericardium and pleura Functions: loosely binds epithelia to deeper tissues; allows passage of nerves and blood vessels through other tissues; an arena for immune defense; provides nutrients and waste removal for overlying epithelia. Areolar Tissue (loose connective tissue)

X

Description: loose network of reticular fibers and cells, infiltrated with numerous lymphocytes and other blood cells. Location: lymph nodes, spleen. Functions: supportive stroma (framework) for lymphatic organ. Reticular Tissue (loose connective tissue)

X

Description: most sections show a few large neurons, usually with rounded or stellate cell bodies(neurosomas) and fibrous processes (axon and dendrites) extending from the neurosomas; neurons are surrounded by greater number much smaller glial cells, which lack densities and axons. Location: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia. Functions: internal communication Nerve tissues

X

Description: parallel collagen fibers similar to those of tendons; rows of chondrocytes in lacunae between collagen fibers; never has a perichondrium. Contains strong collagen fibers. Location: pubic symphysis (anterior joint between two halves of pelvic girdle); intervertebral discs that separate bones of spinal column. Functions: resists compression and absorbed shock in some joints; often a transitional tissue between dense connective tissue and hyaline cartilage. Fibrocartilage

X

Description: several cell layers; basal cells usually cuboidal; superficial cells elongated and columnar.Function: protection and secretion. Location:Small areas of the pharynx, epiglottis. stratified columnar epithelium

X

Description: short branches cells(myocytes); less parallel appearance than other muscle types in tissue sections; striations; intercalated discs; one nucleus per cell, centrally located and often surrounded by a light zone. Location: heart Functions: pumping of blood; under involuntary control. Cardiac Muscle

X

Description: short fusiform cells overlapping each other; nonstriated; one nucleus per cell, centrally located. Locations: usually found as sheets of tissue in walls of viscera and blood vessels; also in iris and associated with hair follicles. Function: swallowing; contractions of stomach and intestines; expulsion of feces and urine. Smooth Muscle

Regeneration a characteristic of Epithelial tissues.

High regenerative capacity. Regeneration triggered by loss of apical-basal polarity and lateral contacts (including friction and hostile substances). Regeneration (replacement of cells by mitosis) requires adequate amounts of nutrients.

Fibroblasts

In connective tissue. Cells that produce the fiber and ground substance that form matrix

Epithelial tissue (epithelium)

Is a sheet of tissue composed of one or more layers of closely cells, usually serving as the interval lining of a hollow organ our body cannot or the external surface of an organ. Covers. Form boundaries. One or more layers. Closely sheered cells. Form surfaces. Avascular. Basement membrane. Basal and apical surfaces.

White blood cells or_____

Leukocytes: Larger cells with a nucleus. Fight infection in different ways (by phagocytosis or adaptive immunity, which includes antibody production)

Body membranes

Line outside and the cavities and internal spaces of organs and tubes that open to the outside

Multicellular exocrine glands maintain ____

Maintain their contact with the surface by way of a soft duct, an epithelial tone that conveys their secretion to the surface. May be released into the body surface (sweat, mammary glands, tear glands) but more often released into the lumen (cavity) of another organ-mouth ,intestines.

Even mature tissue is not static_______

Metaplasia

Simple epithelial includes ____

Simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudo stratified columnar(goblet cell's)

Loose fibrous connective tissue

Supports epithelium and many internal organs. Forms a protective covering enclosing many internal organs (muscles, blood vessels, and nerves). Found in the lungs, arteries, and urinary bladder.

Columnar cell's

Tall narrow cells

Extracellular matrix

The chemical substances located between connective tissue cells.

Fibrous connective tissue is____. The cells of fibrous connective tissue include:

The most diverse type of connective tissue. It is fibroconnective tissue or connective tissue proper. •fibroblasts (produce fibers and ground substance) •macrophages (eat bacteria and debris.) •leukocytes (white blood cells{such as neutropils and lymphocytes}that help in body defense) •plasma cells (secret heparin and histamine) •adipocytes (fat cell)

cutaneous membrane

The skin; composed of epidermal and dermal layers. It is composed of stratified squamous epithelial tissue(epidermis) that overlies Connective Tissue.

Endocrine glands lose _____

Their contact with the surface epithelium and have no ducts. They do however have a high density of blood capillaries and secrete their products directly into the blood.

Histological sections

Thin tissues prepared for viewing under the microscope.

Connective tissue fiber. Reticular fiber.

Thin, highly branched fibers that form supporting network.

Platelets or______

Thrombocytes: Cell fragments involved with blood clotting. (help to form a plug that seals damaged blood vessels. Injured tissues release molecules to stimulate the clotting process.)

May grow or shrink ____

Tissue at different life stages or in response to injury.

General forms (epilepsy tissue)

Two main types by location. Covering and lining epithelial (on external and internal surfaces). Glandular epithelia (sector tissue in glands)

stratified epithelial tissue

Two or more layers(2-20 generally). Classified by cell shape in apical (top) layer.

A gland is _______

a cell or organ that secrets substances for use elsewhere in the body or for elimination as waste.

goblet cells

a column-shaped cell found in the respiratory and intestinal tracts, which secretes the main component of mucus.

Mesenchyme

a loosely organized, mainly mesodermal embryonic tissue that develops into connective and skeletal tissues, including blood and lymph.

Secretion

a process by which substances are produced and discharged from a cell, gland, or organ for a particular function in the organism or for excretion.

Adipose tissue (fat) is dominated by____

adipocytes, which are full of droplets of lipid.

White fat is

adult fat

In the epithelial tissue the basal surface ____

attached to the basement membrane while the apical surface faces away from it.

Cartilage has few ____

blood vessels and the cells rely on nutrients that diffuse slowly through the thick matrix, therefore slow healing.

osseous tissue is the major component of____

bones that are in reality organs composed of several tissues.

All tissues consist of

cells and matrix.

Epithelial tissue is avascular,and ____

cells in lower layers rely on blood vessels in the underlying connective tissue to supply nutrients and carry away waste.

Blood is produced by___

connective tissues of the bone marrow and lymphatic organs. It's ground substance is plasma. The cells and cell fragments are called formed elements

Muscular tissue is specialized to _____

contract when it is stimulated, and thus to exert a physical force on other tissues, organs, or fluids.

Glands are broadly classified as____

endocrine or exocrine. Both types originate as invaginations of a surface epithelium.

Glands are predominantly composed of _______, but usually have a supportive________and_______

epithelial tissue / connective tissue framework / capsule

Glands are made primarily of____

epithelial tissue from which they originate in the embryo.

Nervous and muscular tissues are highly____

excitable. They respond rapidly to stimuli as a result of a difference in electrical charge across the plasma membrane, the membrane potential.

The study of tissues is

histology

The secretions of endocrine glands, called _____

hormones, function as chemical messengers to stimulate cells elsewhere in the body. Hi

Adipocytes typically store energy____

in the form of triglycerides.

Connective tissue cells are separated by ____

matrix, non cellular material that varies on consistency. (solid, semisolid, or liquid)

stratified squamous epithelium is the ___

most widespread tissue in the entire body.

Mucous gland form a thicker, sticky product due to the presence of____

mucin, a glycoprotein that forms mucus in the presence of water.

Internal membranes may be either _____ or_____

mucous or serous

Nerve tissue contains____

neurons (nerve cells) and is present in the brain and spinal cord

Mature adipocytes do____

not undergo mitosis

General functions (epithelium)

protection of underlying tissues, secretion, absorption, diffusion, filtration, sensory reception, excretion.

Novelist glands are ____

secretory cells found in an epithelium that is predominantly nonsecretory

Multicellular exocrine glands are classified _____ if they have a_______ and _______if they have a ______. If the duct and secretory portion are off uniform diameter the gland is called _____. Of the secretory form a dilated sac, the gland is called ______. A gland in which both the acini and tubules secret product is called a _____

simple-single unbranched duct / compound-b branched duct / tubular-acinar sac is (alveolus) / tubuloalveolar

Types of muscle tissue

skeletal: striated due to alternating light and dark bands. Contraction is under voluntary control. cardiac: found only in the walls of the heart. Not under voluntary control. Has branching striated cells each with a single nucleus. Cells are separate and individual but are bound end to end at intercalated disks. smooth: cells lack striations; smooth appearance. Occurs in blood vessels and viscera. Cells are spindle-shaped, with a single nucleus. Not under voluntary control.

Cuboidal cells

squarish or round cells.

Multicellular exocrine glands are a_______found in such organs as the ___________. Most glands are enclosed in a _______.

structural arrangement / mammary gland, pancreas, and salivary glands / capsule

Epithelial tissue cells are so tightly bound____

that there is hardly any extracellular material

Squamous cells

thin scaly cells.

A neuron is a specialized cell with____

three structures. •Dendrites - processes that conduct signals toward the cell body •Cell body - contains the cytoplasm and nucleus •Axon - a process that conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body -May have myelin sheath to increase speed Neurosoma

Fibrous connective tissue can be broken down into _____

two broad categories: loose and dense connective tissue

In stratified epithelial tissue the deepest layers_____

undergo rapid mitosis, ensuring rapid repair of surface tissue that is lost or damaged. The cells at the top layers of the tissue are more squamous, closely glued together, and die and flake off (exfoliation)

Ground substance

unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains the fibers

Cardiac muscle cells are joined via_____

visible lines called intercalated discs (which consist of desmosomes that holds the cells tightly together, and gap functions that facilitate the passage of electrical signals from one cell to the next.

Polarity a characteristic of Epithelial tissues

•Apical surface: ( faces away from the basement membrane, toward the internal cavity {lumen}). Upper, free. Exposed to exterior or cavity. Differs in structure and function from basal surface. May be smooth and slick. Most have microvilli (brush border of intestinal lining) which increase surface area. Some have cilia (lining of trachea) •Basal surface: lower, attached. Differs in structure and function from apical surface. Contains the basal lamina- secreted by epithelial cells. Separates epithelial and connective tissues. Contains collagen, glycoproteins, and other protein carbohydrate complexes. Anchors epithelium to connective tissues. Regulates exchange of materials between epithelium and tissues below. Selective filter. Scaffolding in cell migration in wound repair.

Tissue Growth and Development

•Growth -Hyperplasia - cell multiplication(through cell division) -Hypertrophy - enlargement of existing cells -Neoplasia - tumor development •Changes -Differentiation - specialization of form or function -Metaplasia - change from one tissue to another

Mucous membranes

•Line tubes of the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems •Made of an epithelium overlying loose fibrous connective tissue •Goblet cells produce mucus -Protective function

Tissue Repair and Death

•Repair -Regeneration - replacement of dead cells -Fibrosis - scar tissue development •Shrinkage and death -Atrophy - reduction in size or number (due to age or disease) -Necrosis - pathological death of tissue(due to trauma or disease) •Infarction - cut off blood supply (sudden death of tissue) •Gangrene - insufficient blood supply (necrosis) -Apoptosis - programmed cell death -Fibrosis - is the replacement of damaged tissue with scar tissue and does not restore function.

Types of Exocrine secretions:

•Serous glands: secret thin, watery fluids (perspiration, milk, tears, and digest. Juices) •Mucous glands: secrete muffin that absorbs water to form mucus. •Mixed glands: contain both serous and mucous cells and produce a mixture of the two types of secretions •Cytogenic glands: release whole cells (testes and ovaries)

Mature connective tissue fall within four broad categories:

Fibrous connective tissue Adipose tissue Supportive connective tissue Fluid tissue

Connective tissue fiber. Collagen fiber.

Protein that gives flexibility and strength.

Connective tissue fiber. Elastic fiber.

Protein that is not as strong as collagen, but more elastic.

Fibers

Proteins they give connective tissue unique structural characteristics and functional abilities.

Apocrine glands (exocrine gland classification)

Residual name. Mainly merocrine. Mammary and auxiliary glands.

Special characteristics of epithelium

1.polarity, 2.specialized contacts, 3.supported by connective tissue, 4.avascular but innervated, 5.regeneration.

Holocrine glands

Entire cell. Cells accumulate a product and then the entire cell disintegrates producing a particularly thick oily secretion. Oil producing glands of scalp and eyelid.

Supported by connective tissue a characteristic of Epithelial tissues.

Epithelial connective tissue support: Reticular lamina- deep to basal lamina. Network of collagen fibers. Basement membrane- between an epithelium and the underlying connective tissue. Epithelial connective tissue support. Basal lamina + reticular lamina. Reinforced epithelial sheet. Resists stretching and tearing. Defines epithelial boundary.

Avascular but not innervated a characteristic of Epithelial tissues.

Epithelial tissues lack blood vessels (nourished by diffusion from underlying connective tissues). Contains nerve fibers (innervated)

Red blood cells or______

Erythrocytes: Small, biconcave, disc-shaped cells that lack a nucleus. Contain hemoglobin for transport of oxygen.

merocrine glands (eccrine glands classification)

Exocytosis. Tear glands, pancreas, gastric glands.

The ground substance is comprised of

Extracellular fluid (that is not fibrous proteins)

The matrix consists of

Fibrous proteins and ground substance. Extracellular material that surrounds a cell

simple epithelial tissue

One layer of cells. Every cell on basement membrane.

Neuroglia (glial cells)

Outnumber neurons nine to one -Support and nourish neurons -Four types in the brain •Microglia: engulf bacterial and cellular debris •Astrocytes: provide nutrients •Oligodendrocytes: form myelin sheaths •Ependymal cells: line fluid-filled spaces of brain and spinal cord

Excretion

Process by which metabolic wastes are eliminated from the body

Brown fat cells (found primarily in fetuses infants and children)

Produce heat for the body