Anatomy Chapter 4, 5 and 25 STUDY
inorganic substances that perform many vital functions in the body
minerals
Electrolytes
minerals dissolved in body fluids
(m) connective tissue with formed elements suspended in liquid matrix called plasma
(1) blood
(k) tissue that forms the internal framework of the body and works with skeletal muscles to generate movement
(10) bone (osseous tissue)
(l) tissue that contains a network of elastic fibers, providing strength elasticity, and maintenance of shape; located in external ear.
(12) elastic cartilage
(d) a loose connective tissue specialized for triglyceride storage
(13) adipose tissue
(i) tissue that provides strength and rigidity and is strongest of the three types of cartilage.
(2) fibrocartilage
(a) The tissue from which all other connective tissues eventually arise
(3) mesenchyme
Fat Anabolic Reactions
1. lipogenesis
Write the overall equation of aerobic cellular respiration.
C6H12O6 + 6O2------6CO2 + 6H20 + 38 ATP GLUCOSE OXYGEN CARBON WATER ENERGYDIOXIDE
Carbohydrates Catabolism
C6H12O6--> 6CO2+6H2O+38 ATP 1. Glycolysis 2. Kreb Cycle 3. Electron Transport
Epithelial A. covering and lining B. glandular epithelium CLASSIFICATION: Classified by : (1) number of layers (2) shape of its cells
CHARACTERISTICS: a. Composed of sheets of cells and very little extracellular substances. b. Junctions holds the cell together. c. always has a fine surface exposed to the body?s external surface or the cavity of an internal organ. Those surface may contain microvilli or cilia. d. Does not contain blood vessels. e. Contains a basement membrane that reinforces it; prevents stretching and tearing. f. High regenerative capacity.
____ tissue is the Most abundant and wide spread of the tissues. Functions: (1) binding and support; (2) protection; (3) insulation; (4) transportation. All connective tissue arise from mesenchyme (an embryonic tissue derived from mesoderm); It can range from vascular to avascular.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
___ ____- produces ridges on the epidermis (finger prints).
Dermal Papillae
Melanin - range in color from yellow to black. It is most plentiful in mucus membranes, penis, nipples of the breast, space around the nipples, face, and extremities. Number of melanocytes is about the same in all races but the differences in skin color is due to the amount of the pigment the melanocytes produces. Tyrosine is the amino acid used by melanocytes to produce melanin.
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NAILS: plates of keratinized cells - form a clear covering over the dorsal surface of the fingers. The nail has several parts:
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Nail's free edge - part past distal end of the digits.
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Oxygen is required for the respiratory chain to function because it accepts the electrons at the end of the chain and the hydrogen atoms the electrons came from
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Respiratory chain is also called the electron transport system because electrons pass downhill through the chain to build up ATP. Respiratory chain consist of a series of cytochrome enzymes that pass electrons around so the electrons can give of energy that is used to bind ADP + P to make ATP.
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(g) tissue found in the lungs that is strong and can recoil back to its original shape after being stretched
(11) elastic connective tissue
(j) bundles of collagen arranged in parallel patterns; compose tendons and ligaments
(4) dense regular connective tissue
(b) connective tissue with a clear liquid matrix that flows in lymphatic vessels
(5) lymph
(h) tissue that affords flexibility at joints and reduces joint friction
(6) hyaline cartilage
(f) tissue with irregularly arranged collagen fibers found in the dermis of the skin
(7) dense irregular connective tissue
(c) Connective tissue consisting of several kinds of cells, containing all three fiber types randomly arranged and found in the subcutaneous layer deep to the skin
(8) areolar connective tissue
(e) tissue that contains reticular fibers and reticular cells and forms the stroma of certain organs such as the spleen
(9) reticular connective tissue
Cellular Respiration
A common fuel molecule for cellular respiration is glucose, a six-carbon sugar with the formula C6H12O6. Here is the overall equation for what happens to glucose during cellular respiration.
How electron transport drives ATP synthase machines
A simplified view of how energy previously stored in NADH can now be used to generate ATP. 1) NADH transfer electrons to an electron transport chain. 2) The electron transport chain uses this energy supply to pump H+ across the inner mitochondrial membrane. 3) Oxygen pulls electrons down the transport chain. 4) The H+ concentrated on one side of the membrane rushes back "downhill" through an ATP synthase. 5) The rotation activates parts of the synthase molecule that attach phosphate groups to ADP molecules to generate ATP.
Producer and Consumer
A squirrel (consumer) eating fruit produced by a photosynthetic plant (producer).
____ - found in the skin of the axilla, pubic region and areolae of the breasts. They become activated at puberty and produce a more viscous secretion. They are stimulated during emotion, stress, and sexual excitement. (produces musky odor)
Apocrine
Loose connective tissues ____ (small open space) - a semifluid ground substance; all three fiber types; fibroblast is the major cell type. It may also contain macrophages, fat cells, and mast cells.
Areolar
Epithelial tissue tends to be classified according to two criteria:
Arrangement of cells in layers Cell shape
___ ___ ___ - composed of smooth muscle is attached to the side of the hair follicle. It's contraction causes the hair to stand on one end. It contracts due to fright/cold/emotions.
Arrector Pili Muscle
____ - is connective tissue because it consists of cells surrounded by a non-living fluid matrix called plasma. Plasma contains fibers which are soluble proteins that become visible during blood clotting. Blood transport nutrients, gases and ions in the body. The cell types in blood are erythrocytes(red blood cells) which transport nutrients about the body, Leukocytes (white blood cells) which fight infections in the body, and Thrombocytes(platelets)which are involved in blood clotting.
BLOOD
____ tissue (Osseous tissue)- support and protect softer tissues. Matrix - similar to cartilage but more rigid due to mineral salts and collagen. The major cell type in bone tissue is the osteocyte. The osteocyte is found in cavities called Lacunae in the matrix and contains cytoplasmic extensions called Canaliculi that connect them to the blood supply. Bone tissue has a good blood supply. Location- skeleton
BONE
___ ___ - Consist of the skin and its derivatives such as hair, nails, glands, and nerve endings. The skin is the largest organ in the body in surface area and weight. The adult skin measures 22 sq. ft. and weighs 10 - 12 lbs.
Integumentary System
____ ____ Connective Tissue: Fibroblast and ground substance the same as dense regular connective tissue. Contains bundles of collagen fibers that are interior. They run in several different directions. Example: dermis, covering around some organs like kidneys
Irregular dense
___ ___ is also called the citric acid cycle. It is a series of chemical reactions that turn in a circle and goes back to the beginning point. It is called citric acid because the first molecule produce in the cycle is citric acid. The cycle begins when active acetate from the transition reaction binds with oxaloacetic acid to produce citric acid
KREB cycle
____ - process where newly formed cells in the basal layer undergo a developmental process as they are pushed to the surface. As the cells move upward they become filled with keratin. Cytoplasm, nucleus, and organelles disappear and the cell dies. The keratinized cells eventually slough off and are replaced by underlying cells that in turn become keratinized
Keratinization
3. ___ Cells - cells that are derived from bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis. They interact with helper T-cells in the immune responses and are easily damaged by U.V. radiation.
Langerhans
___ (age) spots - patches of melanocytes.
Liver
Connective Tissue Proper - has two subdivisions. A. ___ Connective Tissue (areolar) - adipose; reticular B. ___ Connective - dense regular; dense irregular; elastic
Loose, Dense
___ - whitish semilunar part at the proximal end
Lunula
___ Gland - modified sweat gland that produces milk.
Mammary
A hair has three layers: ___ - 2-3 rows of cells that have granules. ___ - major portion of hair that contain pigment in dark hair and air in white hair. ___ - outer layer; consist of a layer of keratinized cells that overlap one another
Medulla, cortex and cuticle
____ ___ - nerve ending that is sensitive to touch.
Meissner's Corpulses
(j) striated
Muscular
NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE
NAD
(KREB Cycle) The substrates in this part of the pathway is oxidized both by ___ AND ___. The citric acid is oxidized to ketoglutaric acid-------succinic acid-------fumaric acid-------oxaloacetic acid.
NAD AND FAD
____ and ____ are coenzymes that are called dehydrogenases. A dehydrogenase is a chemical that removes hydrogen?s from a substrate (substance). Both ___ ____ are synthesized from B vitamins.
NAD and FAD
Electron Transport
NADH and FADH2 (separately)--> H2O+34 ATP
Selenium
Needed for synthesis of thyroid hormones, sperm motility, and proper functioning of the immune system. Also functions as an antioxidant. Prevents chromosome breakage and may play a role in preventing certain birth defects, miscarriage, prostate cancer, and coronary artery disease.
(c) neuroglia
Nervous
(k) generated action potentials
Nervous
____ Tissue - Make up nervous system; conducts impulses to and from various body organs. There are two types of cells in nervous tissue. Neuron - major cell type that generates and conducts impulses. Neuroglia - supporting cells - do not conduct impulses they support, insulate, and protect neurons.
Nervous
(o) excitable
Nervous & Muscle
____ ___ - composed of areolar connective tissue and fine elastic fibers. The surface area is greatly increased by small fringe like projections called Dermal Papillae. These nipple shaped structures contain loops of capillaries and some contain receptors called Meissner's Corpuscles.
Papillary Layer
6. ___ ___ - the dermis of the skin contain blood vessels that transport 8-10% of total blood flow in a resting adult
Blood reservoir
Vitamin K
Function- Coenzyme essential for synthesis of several clotting factors by liver, including prothrombin
If the lining of an organ produces and releases mucus, which of the following cells would likely be found in the tissue lining the organ?
(a) Goblet cells
The type of exocrine gland that forms its secretory product and simply releases it from the cell by exocytosis is the ____________.
(b) Merocrine gland
Why does damaged cartilage heal slowly?
(c) Cartilage is avascular so materials needed for repair must diffuse from surrounding tissue.
What type of cell junction would be required for cells to communicate with one another?
(c) gap junction
3. ____ - skin contains nerve endings that detect stimulation related to temperature, pain, touch, and pressure
Sensation
____ membranes - moist membrane in the ventral cavity. Squamous epithelium and loose connective tissue. Parietal layer and visceral layer.
Serous
Tissue changes that occur with aging can be due to ________.
(d) Cross links forming between glucose and proteins, decreased blood supply, and improper nutrition.
Which of the following tissues is avascular?
(e) Adipose
Which of the following muscle tissues can be voluntarily controlled?
(e) Skeletal
Which of the following is true concerning serous membranes?
(e) The serous membrane covering the lungs is known as the pleura.
GLANDS: Several types of glands associated with skin Stem cells; (1) Sebaceous glands, (2) Sudoriferous glands, (3) Ceruminous glands, (4) Mammary glands
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___ - enlarged layered structure at the base of the follicle, contains areolar tissue and blood vessels and germinal matrix. The cells of the germinal matrix produce the hair.
Bulb
: ___ - found on most of the skin; produces watery secretion, regulate body temperature
Eccrine
Sudoriferous (soo-dor-if-er-us) or sweat glands - empty secretions on the body's surface. Two types: ___ and ___
Eccrine and Apocrine
____ Connective Tissue: Composed of almost all Elastin fibers. It can stretch and recoil to its original position. example: vocal cords
Elastic
___ ____ - nearly identical to hyaline except it has many elastic fibers which make the tissue appear yellow. (flexible cartilage)Location: External ear auditory tubes, epiglottis.
Elastic Cartilage
How many hydrogens are removed during the kreb cycle?
6
how many hydrogens are removed by NAD during kreb cycle?
6
7. Synthesis of Vitamin D - Vitamin D is a group of closely related compounds. Its synthesis begins with cholesterol and ultra violet light. The liver and kidney modify the molecule to calcitrol, (the most active form of Vitamin D). Calcitrol contributes to the homeostasis of body fluids by aiding in the absorption of Ca++ in foods. Vitamin D is a hormone, since it is produced in one location in the body, transported by the blood to another location where it exerts its effect.
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Sebaceous glands (oil glands) - are usually connected to hair follicles. Secretion portion is located in the dermis and open into the hair follicle. Secrete Sebum - An oily secretion that keeps hair and skin moist and inhibits certain bacterial growth. Black head - result from excessive sebum. Pimples and boils often result because sebum is nutritive to certain bacteria.
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The binding of oxygen, electrons and hydrogen produces water as the end point for the respiratory chain. The electrons that enter the chain come from the hydrogen?s that were removed by NAD and FAD in glycolysis, transition reaction, and the kreb cycle
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The kreb cycle turns twice per glucose molecules so the result of the kreb cycle is 6 NADH, 2FADH, 2 ATP, 4 CO2
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These electrons provide enough energy to build up 34 of the 38 molecules of ATP produced during aerobic respiration. Every H removed by NAD generates 3ATP. Every H removed by FAD generates 2 ATP
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describe the following
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nails are composed of tightly packed hard keratinized cells of the epidermis that form a clear solid covering over the dorsal surface of the terminal end of digits. the free edge of the nail is white due to the absence of capillaries. nails help us grasp and manipulate small objects. nails protect the end of digits from trauma
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to expose underlying tissues in the bottom of the foot, a foot surgeon must first cut through the skin in this order; stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum then the stratum basale
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write a function for each of the following
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cilia
...movement
Aerobic cellular respiration is an example of a metabolic pathway. A metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions occurring one after the other. The rate a which these reactions occur is controlled by enzymes, so metabolic pathways are dependent upon enzymes.
1 2 3 4 1-4 are enzymes A------------------ B------------ C-------- D----------- E BEGINNING INTERMEDIATE PRODUCTS END PRODUCTSUBSTANCE example: COENZYMES GLUCOSE + OXYGEN-------------------CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER + ENERGY NAD FAD
if core body temperatures rises above normal, which of the following would occur to cool the body? (1) dilation of vessels in the skin, (2) increased radiation and conduction of heat to the environment, (3) increased metabolic rate (4) evaporation of perspiration, (5) increased secretion of thyroid hormones
1,2,4
during glycolysis (1) a 6-carbon glucose is split into two 3-carbon pyruvic acids (2) there is a net gain of two ATP molecules, (3) two NADH molecules are oxidized, (4) moderately high levels of oxygen are needed, (5) the activity of phosphofructokinase determines the rate of the chemical reactions.
1,2,5
NAD+ and FAD (1) are both derivatives of B vitamins, (2) are used to carry hydrogen atoms released during oxidation reactions, (3) become NADH and FADH2 in teir reduced forms, (4) act as coenzymes in the Krebs cycle (5) are the final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain
1-4
primarily anabolic (absorptive state)
1. blood glucose used for glycolysis 2. excess glucose used for glycogenesis and lipogenesis 3. fats used for lipogenesis 4. amino acids used for protein synthesis
Protein Catabolism
1. gluconeogenesis 2. deamination 3. decarboxylation
Carbohydrate Anabolism
1. glycongenesis 2. glycongenolysis 3. gluconeogenesis
exclusively catabolic (post-absorptive state)
1. glycongenolysis 2. lipolysis 3. protein catabolism
if body temperature drops, heat-producing center causes:
1. increased thyroxine release 2. increased sympathetic stimulation 3. increased shivering 4. vasoconstriction of blood to body surface
Fat Catabolic Reactions
1. lipolysis 2. gluconeogenesis 3. beta oxidation
Catabolism
1. oxidation- remove an electron (H+) from a molecule 2. reduction- add an electron (H+) to a molecule
if body temperature rises, heat-loss center causes:
1. reduction of metabolism 2. decreased shivering 3. increased perspiration 4. vasodilation of blood to body surface
obesity
10-20% above normal body weight hypertrophic hyperplastic
How many ATP is produced during glycolysis?
2
How many ATP is produced during the kreb cycle?
2
in which of the following siturations would the metabolic rate increase? (1) sleep, (2) after ingesting food (3) increased secretion of thyroid hormones, (4) parasympathetic nervous system stimulation, (5)
2,3,5
if lucose is not needed for immediate ATP production, it can be used for (1) vitamin synthesis (2) amino acid synthesis, (3) gluconeogenesis, (4) lipogenesis
2,4,5
Merocrine glands- Secrete their products by exocytosis shortly after they are produced. Examples: Pancreas, Sweat, Salivary glands. Holocrine glands- They accumulate their products within them until they rupture. Example: Sebaceous glands. Apocrine glands- They accumulate their product beneath the cell surface, eventually the apex pinches off and the secretion released. Example: Mammary glands.
3 TYPES OF EXOCRINE GLANDS
How many ATP is produced by the respiratory chain?
38
how many Co2 molecules are released during kreb cycle
4
how many major tissue types are make up the body?
4
15. Write Tissues for the following: A.______________ is a tissue located in the hypodermis(subcutaneous) layer. B.________________ is the tissue located in tendons and ligaments. C.__________________ is the tissue lining the urinary bladder. D.___________________is a tissue that binds internal organs together. E.___________________is a tissue located in the intervertebral disc. F.___________________ is the tissue located in the kidney tubules. G.___________________ is the type of tissue that forms the epidermis. H. __________________is the type of tissue found in the wall of the aorta. I. __________________ is the type of tissue found in the ducts of sweat glands. J.______________________ is the type of tissue that lines the digestive tract. K.______________________ is the tissue located in the lymph nodes and spleen. L._______________________ is the tissue that lines blood capillaries and alveoli M._______________________ is the tissue lining the fallopian tubes. N._______________________ is the tissue found in the embryonic skeleton. O._______________________ is the tissue found in the male urethra. P._______________________ is the tissue located in the adult skeleton. Q. ______________________ is the cell that carry oxygen in the blood. R. _______________________ is the tissue located in the auricle. S. _______________________ is the tissue that forms the dermis. T._________________________ is the tissue found in our internal organs. U.__________________________ is the tissue that lines the respiratory tract
A._adipose is a tissue located in the hypodermis(subcutaneous) layer. B._dense connective is the tissue located in tendons and ligaments. C._transitional epithelium is the tissue lining the urinary bladder. D._areolar_is a tissue that binds internal organs together. E.__fibro cartilage____is a tissue located in the intervertebral disc. F.__simple cuboidal____ is the tissue located in the kidney tubules. G.__stratified cuboidal___ is the type of tissue that forms the epidermis. H. _elastic connective__is the type of tissue found in the wall of the aorta. I. _stratified cuboidal_ is the type of tissue found in the ducts of sweat glands. J._??????___ is the type of tissue that lines the digestive tract. K._reticular__ is the tissue located in the lymph nodes and spleen. L._simple squamous_ is the tissue that lines blood capillaries and alveoli M._simple ciliated columnar__ is the tissue lining the fallopian tubes. N._hyaline cartilage_ is the tissue found in the embryonic skeleton. O._stratified columnar_ is the tissue found in the male urethra. P___bone tissue_ is the tissue located in the adult skeleton. Q. _blood__ is the cell that carry oxygen in the blood. R. _elastic cartilage___ is the tissue located in the auricle. S. _irregular dense connective_ is the tissue that forms the dermis. T._adipose_ is the tissue found in our internal organs. U._pseudostratified ciliated columnar_ is the tissue that lines the respiratory tract
______ _____ _____- requires oxygen and can be broken down into four subpathways: (1) glycolysis (2) transition reaction (3) kreb cycle (4) respiratory chain. The majority of this process occurs in the mitochondria and is the reason the mitochondria is called the powerhouse of the cell. Glycolysis is the only part of this process that is not in the mitochondria. It occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell.
AEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION
NADH travels to the kreb cycle to build up ___ and CO2 is released from the cell as waste
ATP
the energy-transferring molecule of the body
ATP
Metabolic Physiology
Absorptive state Body heat
____ - a modified areolar tissue where adipocytes (fat cells) predominate. Fat fills the cytoplasm displacing the nucleus. Adipose tissue usually accumulate in subcutaneous layer (beneath the skin). It acts as a shock absorber and as insulation.
Adipose
____ - the inability of a person to produce melanin
Albinism
A simple redox reaction
An all-at-once redox reaction, such as the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to form water, releases a burst of energy.
Nutrient Metabolism
Carbohydrates Fats Proteins Vitamins and Minerals
____ Muscle - found in walls of the heart; striated; cells have one nucleus and is joined at junctions called intercalated disc.
Cardiac
___ - yellow-orange pigments that gives carrots and egg yolks their color. It is a precursor of Vitamin A which is used to synthesize pigments for vision (Rhodesian). Asian Ancestry - is found in stratum corneum and dermis and hypodermis. Caucasians - epidermis is translucent because little melanin is present. The skin appears pink or red depending on the amount of blood moving through the capillaries.
Carotene
___ Gland - modified sweat gland that produces wax. Sebum and wax produce cerumen.
Ceruminous
Redox reactions
Chemical reactions that transfer electrons from one substance to another substance are called oxidation-reduction reactions, or redox reactions for short.
____ (called ductless glands) They produce regulatory chemicals called hormones, which they secrete intothe extracellular space. The hormones then enter blood and lymphatic fluid. Examples: pancreas, thymus gland
Endocrine glands
Fibers - three types of fibers found in the matrix of connective tissue. ____ Fibers - composed of the protein collagen. They are extremely tough and provide high tensile strength. ____Fibers - Formed from the fibrous protein called elastin. It can stretch and recoil like a rubberband which makes the matrix rubbery or resilient. ____ Fibers (basement membrane) - fine collagen fibers that branch extensively producing delicate networks.
Collagen, Elastic, Reticular
Folic Acid
Component of enzyme systems synthesizing nitrogenous bases of DNA and RNA. Essential for normal production of red and white blood cells
(a) binds, supports
Connective
(e) may contain fibroblasts
Connective
(i) contains extracellular matrix
Connective
(m) ground substance
Connective
Link between glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
Conversion of pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA. Remember that one molecule of glucose is split into two molecules of pyruvic acid. Therefore, the process shown here occurs twice.
____ membranes (skin) - stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis) attached to dense irregular connective tissue (dermis).
Cutaneous
___: Second principal part of the skin. It is composed of irregular dense connective tissue that contain elastic and collagen fibers. Cells in the epidermis include fibroblasts, macrophages, and fat cells.
DERMIS
____ Connective Tissue Regular Dense Connective Tissue Irregular dense Connective Tissue Elastic Connective Tissue cartilage
Dense
Road Map for Cellular Respiration
During glycolysis, a molecule of glucose is split into two molecules of a compound gluclose is split into two molecules of a compound called pyruvic acid. The enzymes for glycolysis are located in the cytoplasm. The citric acid cycle completes the breakdown of glucose all the way to CO2, one of the waste products in cellular respiration. The third stage of cellular respiration is electron transport.
____: Composed of stratified squamous epithelium and contains four principal types of cells.
EPIDERMIS
Energy Flow
Energy flows through an ecosystem, entering as sunlight and exiting as heat.
____ - outer thin part composed of epithelial tissue. ____ - thicker part of the skin composed of connective tissue. It is joined to the epidermis by the basement membrane
Epidermis and Dermis
(d) avascular
Epithelial
(f) tightly packed cells
Epithelial
(h) Goblet cells
Epithelial
(l) cilia
Epithelial
(n) apical surface
Epithelial
____ membranes - continuous multicellular sheet composed of two tissue types. Epithelial tissue bound to connective tissue
Epithelial
FOUR MAJOR TISSUE TYPES IN THE BODY
Epithelial Tissue - covering & lining tissue for the bodies cavities, surfaces, and organs. Connective Tissue - binds, supports, protects, insulates and Transport certain substances in the body Muscular Tissue - responsible for body movement Nervous Tissue - conducts impulses to and from major body parts
The four types of tissues are _______, _______, _______, and _______.
Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nerve
___ (cuticle) - narrow band of epidermis that extends from the nail wall and is adhered to it. (Stratum corneum)
Eponychium
4. ____ - besides removing heat the skin removes water, salt, and some organic compounds.
Excretion
____ (contain ducts) Multicellular glands that secrete their products into ducts that carry them onto body surfaces or into body cavities. Exocrine glands are diverse. Example: sweat glands, oil glands, salivary glands, liver, pancreas, mammary and mucus glands, etc
Exocrine glands
FLAVIN ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE
FAD
Vitamins A B D and K are fat-soluble vitamins.
False
4 Cells that are in Connective Tissue ____ cell - major cell type in loose and dense connective tissues. ____ - major cell type in cartilage. ____- major cell type in bone. ____ - stem cell in the bone marrow that produces blood cells. There can be a variety of other types of cells in connective tissue depending on the connective tissue such as mast cells, macrophages, adipocytes and plasma cells.
Fibroblast cell, Chondrocyte, Osteocyte, Hemocytoblast
____ ____ - coarse collagen fibers that are in bundles and have chondrocytes between the bundles. Strong support and the ability to withstand pressure. Location: Intervertebral disc and spongy cartilage of the knee.
Fibrous Cartilage
___ - patches of melanocytes.
Freckles
Vitamin B12
Function- Coenzyme necessary for red blood cell formation, formation of the amino acid methionine, entrance of some amino acids into Kreb cycle, and manufacture of choline (used to synthesize acetylcholine)
Vitamin E
Function- Inhibits catabolism of certain fatty acids that help form cell structures, especially membranes. Involved in formation of DNA, RNA, and red blood cells. May promote wound healing, contribute to the normal structure and functioning of the nervous system, and prevent scarring. May help protect liver from toxic chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride. Acts as an antioxidant to inactivate free radicals.
Vitamin C
Function- Promotes protein synthesis including laying down of collagen in formation of connective tissue. As coenzyme, may combine with poisons, rendering them harmless until excreted. Works with antibodies, promotes wound healing, and functions as an antioxidant
Vitamin D
Function- essential for absorption of calcium and phosphorus from GI tract. Works with parathyroid hormone (PTH) to maintain Ca2+ homeostasis
Vitamin A
Function- maintains general health and vigor of epithelial cells. Beta-carotene acts as an antioxidant to inactive free radicals. Essential for formation of light-sensitive pigments in photoreceptors of retina. Aids in growth of bones and teeth by helping to regulate activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Sodium
Functions- strongly affects distribution of water through osmosis. Part of bicarbonate buffer system. Functions in nerver and muscle action potential conduction
____ - consist of one or more cells that make and secrete a particular product. Secretion ? product of a gland that is water based and contains proteins. Process where glandular cells obtain needed substances from the blood and transform them chemically into secretory product. Two types of glands 1. Endocrine 2. Exocrine
Gland Epithelium
_____ is the oxidation (breakdown) of glucose to pyruvic acid. It occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and can occur with or without oxygen. If it occurs without oxygen the end point is different from the endpoint when oxygen is available. The substrates of glycolysis are oxidized by NAD. If oxygen is available it results in 2 ATP molecules, 2 Pyruvic acid molecules, and 2 NADH molecules. 2 ATP are used for energy; 2Pyruvic acid molecules enter the transition reaction; 2 NADH molecules are taken to the respiratory chain so the electron from the hydrogen can be used to build up additional ATP
Glycolysis
Summary of ATP yield during cellular respiration
Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle each contribute 2 ATP by direct synthesis. All of the rest of the ATP molecules are produced by the ATP synthase machines, powered by the "fall" of electrons from food to oxygen. The electrons are carried from the organic fuel to electron transport chains by NADH and FADH2. Each electron pair "dropped" down a transport chain from NADH can power the synthesis of up to 3 ATP and FADH2 is worth up to 2 ATP.
ATP synthesis by direct phosphate transfer
Glycolysis generates ATP when enzymes transfer phosphate gropus directly from fuel molecules to ADP.
The role of oxygen in harvesting food energy
In cellular respiration, electrons (e-) "fall" in small steps from food to oxygen, producing water. NADH transfers electrons from food to an electron transport chain. Oxygen "pulls" the electrons down the chain.
Fermentation: Producing lactic acid
Glycolysis produces ATP even in the absence of O2. This process requires a continuous supply of NAD+ to accept electrons from glucose. The NAD+ is regenerated when NADH transfers the electrons it removed from food to pyruvic acid, thereby producing lactic acid (or other waste products, depending on the species of organism).
___ of Hair - loss of pigment believed to be causes by a decline in Tyrosinase, an enzyme needed for melanin production. White hair results from an accumulate of air bubbles in the medullary shaft.
Graying
___ (pili): growths of the epidermis distributed over the body. It is composed of columns of dead keratinized cells welded together. It's primary function is protection. The hair shaft is the portion above the skin and the root is the portion below the surface
HAIR
____ ___: surrounds the hair and has 2 parts: External root sheath - contains all the layers of the epidermis near the top and only stratum basale at the base. Internal root sheath - located between the external root sheath and the hair
HAIR FOLLICLE
____: Subcutaneous layer - contains nerve endings called Pacinian Corpulses that are sensitive to pressure. It also contains adipose cells, blood vessels and fibroblast cells.
HYPODERMIS
___ ___ - primarily due to melanin. It is produced by melanocytes scattered in the matrix of the bulb. It passes into the cells of the cortex and medulla.
Hair Color
___ ____- commonly called gristle, most widespread in the body. Large number of collagen fibers that appear glossy. Firm support with some pliability. Location: Ends of bones, tip of nose, connect ribs to sternum, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes.
Hyaline Cartilage
___ (Subcutaneous Layer - beneath the dermis) consist of areolar and adipose tissue. Fibers from the dermis extend into the ____ and connect the dermis to the ____. The ____ connects the skin to underlying tissues and organs. (same words)
Hypodermis
5. ___ - certain cells of the epidermis are important components of the immune system which fend off foreign invaders.
Immunity
2. ___ - which produce the pigment melanin makeup about 8% of the epidermal cells. Melocytes transfer melanin to the keratinocytes. Melanin is brown-black pigment that contributes to skin color and absorbs u-v light. When melanin is absorbed by keratinocytes it clusters the nucleus of the cells to the protect them from u-v light
Melanocytes
4. ___ Cell - Thought to function in the sensation of touch. These are located in the deepest layer of the epidermis (Stratum basale) of hairless skin, where they are attached to keratinocytes by desmosomes. Merkel cells make contact with the flatten portion of the ending of a sensory neuron called a tactile (Merkel) disc, and are thought to function in the sensation of touch.
Merkel
Metabolic Processes
Metabolism Catabolism Oxidation
____ membranes - line body cavities open to the exterior, such as parts of digestive, urinary and respiratory tract. Stratified squamous of columnar attached to loose connective. Secrete mucus except urinary system.
Mucus
(g) intercalated discs
Muscle
____ Tissue - highly cellular, well vascularized; responsible for body movement. Elongated cells called muscle fibers. Three types of muscle.
Muscle
(b) contains elongated cells that generate force
Muscular
2. ____ - skin covers the body and provides a physical barrier that protects underlying tissues form physical abrasion, bacterial invasion, dehydration, and ultra violet radiation.
Protection
____ -Some cells are taller than others; their nuclei vary in shape and location above the basement membrane which make the tissue appear layered. Ciliated type - Respiratory Tract Non-ciliated type - Ducts of large glands and male urethra.
Pseudo-Stratified Columnar
____ ____ Connective Tissue (often called dense fibrous tissue): Contains bundles of closely packed collagen cells, running in the same direction. Fibroblast cells located between the bundles of collagen fibers. It is poorly vascular(does not have a good blood supply) Location: tendons, ligaments
Regular Dense
Copper
Required with iron for synthesis of hemoglobin. Component of coenzymes in electron transport chain and enzyme necessary for melanin formation
____ - a delicate network of interneuron reticular fibers associated with reticular cells. Found in organs of the lymphatic system; lymphnodes, spleen, and bone marrow. Function: provide support for cells such as lymphocytes.
Reticular
2. ____ ____ - deeper portion of the dermis. It consists of dense, irregular connective tissue containing interlacing bundles of collagen and coarse elastic fibers. Bundles of collagen fibers produce a netlike structure. Spaces in between the fibers contain small quantities of adipose tissue, hair follicles, nerves, oil glands, and sweat glands.
Reticular Layer
___ ___: Three pigments are responsible for skin color, melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin. Melanin is located mostly in the epidermis. Carotene is located mostly in the dermis. Hemoglobin - red cells found in capillaries of the dermis.
SKIN COLOR
____ is a Single layer of tall, closely packed cells. Functions - absorption and secretion. Example: Digestive tract and Respiratory tract
Simple Columnar Epithelium
____ is a One single layer of cube like cells. Functions - secretion, absorption. Example: Kidney tubule
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Simple Squamous Epithelium Two simple squamous in the body have special names. a. Endothelium - blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. b. Mesothelium - epithelium (serous membranes) that line the body cavity and covers internal Organs.
Simple Squamous Epithelium
___ - absorption, filtration, & secretion - one layer; found where absorption and Filtration occurs.
Simple epithelium
____ Muscle - Forms the flesh of the body; when it contracts it pulls on bones. Called voluntary under our conscious control. Striated: Elongated cells; many nuclei that tend to be on the edge of the muscle fiber.
Skeletal
Functions of the ____: (1) Regulation of body temperature (2) Protection (3) Sensation (4) Excretion (5) Immunity (6) Blood Reservoir (7) Synthesis of Vitamin D
Skin
____ Muscle (visceral muscle)- does not have striations. Propels substances through hollow organs. Spindle shaped cells with one nucleus. Found in walls of hollow organs. Example: digestive tract. Involuntary - under control of the nervous system.
Smooth
____ Several cell layers, basal cells, usually cuboidal. Function - protection and secretion. Location: rare in the body, small amounts in male urethra and in large ducts of some glands.
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
___ Two layers of cube like cells. function-protection. Location large ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands and salivary glands.
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
____ - Most widespread stratified epithelium. Top cell - squamous; Deep layers - usually cuboidal. Found in areas where there is wear and tear on the tissues. Example: mouth, vagina, pharynx, esophagus, anal canal, skin: squamous epithelium contains keratin - a water proof protein.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
____ - many layers; found where abrasion occurs. External mouth & skin.
Stratified epithelium
5. ___ ____ - outer most later of the skin; it consists of 25-30 rows of flat, dead cells completely filled with keratin. These cells are continually shed and replaced by cells from deeper stratum. It is a barrier against light and heat waves, bacteria and chemicals.
Stratum Corneum
3. ____ ____ - Keratohyalin produced in cells and nuclei start to degenerate. Third layer of epidermis; it consist of 3-5 rows of flattened cells that develop dark granules of keratohyalin a precursor of keratin. The cells in this layer have nuclei in various stages of degeneration. As the nuclei break down the cell dies.
Stratum Granulosum
4. ____ ____ - found in thick skin of palms and soles. Three-five rows of clear, flat, dead cells that contain and intermediate substance that form keratin
Stratum Lucidum
2. ___ ___ - next layer above the stratum basale. It contains 8-10 rows of cells. The cells appear to be covered with prickly spines. Long projections of the melanocytes extend among the keratinocytes. The keratinocytes take in melanin by phagocytosis of the melanocyte process.
Stratum Spinosum
LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS: 1. ___ ___ - deepest layer of the epidermis. It contains stem cells (cuboidal-columnar) which are capable of continued cell division and melanocytes. Stem cells - produce keratinocytes; which push upward to become part of the superficial layer. Some stem cell migrate to the dermis to produce glands and hair follicles. Merkle cells are sensitive to touch.
Stratum basale
___ - a mixture of water, salts, urea, amino acids, ammonia, sugar, lactic acid, and absorbic acid.
Sweat
The transition reaction connects glycolysis to the kreb cycle ...Note* In the textbook the transition reaction and kreb cycle together are called the ___ cycle
TCA
The Citric Acid Cycle
The citric acid cycle finishes extracting energy of sugar by breaking the acetic acid molecules all the way down to CO2. 1) Acetic acid joins a four-carbon acceptor molecule to form a six-carbon product called citric acid. 2) Two CO2 molecules eventually exit as a waste product. 3) Some of the energy is used to produce ADP directly. However, the cycle captures much more energy in the form of 4) NADH and 5) a FADH2. 6) All the carbon atoms that entered the cycle as fuel are accounted for as CO2 exhaust, and the four-carbon acceptor molecule is recycled.
Energy from food
The monomers from carbohydrates (polysaccharides and sugars), fats, and proteins can all serve as fuel for cellular respiration.
Glycolysis
The word glycolysis means "splitting of sugar." That happens is exactly what happens. 1) During glycolysis, a six-carbon glucose molecule is broken in half, forming two three-carbon molecules. 2) The three-carbon molecules then donate high-energy electrons to NAD+, the electron carrier, forming NADH. 3) In addition to NADH, glycolysis also makes four ATP molecules directly when enzymes transfer phosphate groups from fuel molecules to ADP.
Differentiate between the following: A. Tight junction B. Gap Junction C. Adheres Junction D. Desmosome E. Hemidesmosome
Tight- weblike strands, prevents leaking; location digestive tract and urinary bladder gap- allows cells in a tissue to communicate, enables nerve implases adheres- contains plaque, attaches membrane proteins to microfilaments to cytoskeleton; desmosome- contains plaque and a transmembrane. does not attach to microfilaments, attaches to intermediate filaments hemidesmosome- half the size of desmosomes, anchors to the basement membrane
____ Resemble stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal. It is found in organs that stretch. location: uterus, urinary bladder and part of the urethra.
Transitional Epithelium
(T or F) Connective tissue fibers that are arranged in bundles and lend strength and flexibility to a tissue are collagen fibers.
True
(T or F) Epithelial cells have an apical surface at the top and are attached to a basement membrane on the bottom.
True
(t or f) foods that we eat are used to supply energy for life process, serve as building blocks for synthesis reactions. or are store for future use.
True
___- partial or complete loss of melanocytes from patches of skin produces irregular white spots.
Vitiligo (Vit-I-L_i-g_o)
What is PGAL?
When glucose breaks in half it is PGAL, phosphoglceraldehyde
How breathing is related to cellular respiration
When you inhale, you breathe in O2. The O2 is delivered to your cells, where it is used in cellular respiration. Carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular respiration, diffuses from your cells to your blood and travels to your lungs, where it is exhaled.
Fermentation: Producing ethyl alcohol
Yeast, a microscopic fungus, is capable of both cellular respiration and fermentation. If you keep yeast cells in an anaerobic environment, they are forced to ferment sugars and other foods to stay alive. When yeast ferments, they produce ethyl alcohol as a waste product instead of lactic acid. This alcoholic fermentation also releases CO2.
match the hormones with the reaction they regulate. (1) insulin (2) cortisol (3) glucagon (4) thyroid hormones (5) epinephrine (6) insulinlike growth factors __A gluconeogensis __B glycogenesis __C glycogenolysis __D lipolysis __E lipogensis __F protein catabolism __G protein anabolism
__A gluconeogensis- cortisol and glucagon __B glycogenesis- insulin __C glycogenolysis- glucagon epinephrine __D lipolysis- cortisol, thyroid hormones, epinephrine and insulin growthlike factors __E lipogensis- insulin __F protein catabolism- cortisol __G protein anabolism- insulin, thyroid hormones, insulin growthlike factors
aging of the skin can result in
a decrease in the activity of sebaceous glands
Catabolic Reactions
a. are breakdown reactions b. break large molecules into 2 or more smaller ones c. release energy
Anabolic Reactions
a. are synthesis reactions (building up) b. combine small molecules to make large ones c. requires energy
Oxidative Phosphorylation
a. electron transport chain (many steps) i. molecules in chain= coenzymes b. many ATP created (32-34) c. requires oxygen (final acceptor molecule in chain)
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
a. few steps (1 or 2) b. few ATP created (2-4) c. does NOT require oxygen
What is the end point of the transition reaction?
acetyl coenyme a
pre-optic area of hypothalamus= body's thermostat
activates heat-loss or heat-producing center to maintain temperature
pheomelanin-
aids in sun absorption in the skin
Metabolism
all chemical processes in the body 1. anabolic reactions 2. catabolic reactions
the mechanism of ATP generation that links chemical reactions with pumping of hydrogen ions
chemiosmosis
Proteins
amino acids
Gluconeogenesis
amino acids--> glucose 1. glucose then broken down via carbohydrate pathways
calorie
amount of heat produced
endergonic chemical reactions that combine simple molecules and monomers to make more complex one
anabolism
what best describes glands that release their product by pinching off?
apocrine
f) smooth muscles associated with the hair follicles; when contracted they pull the hair shafts perpendicular to the skin's surface
arrector pili
adult-onset type 2
associated with hypertrophic obesity a. insulin secretion is normal b. insulin receptors are desensitized
describe the reticular layer
below the papilary; made of dense irregular tissue; fiber and elastin...
describe the hypodermis
beneath the dermis connecting it to other tissues...
the cleavage of one pair of carbon atoms at a time from a fatty acid
beta oxidation
Nail ___ - part that is visible
body
body heat
by-product of catabolism (~57% of energy lost as heat)
g) an abnormal thickening of the epidermis
callus
measurement
calorie metabolic rate
Fat Soluble Vitamins
can be stored in body (in adipose tissue) 1. A 2. D 3. E (tocopherols) 4. K
Water-Soluble
cannot be stored, must be replenished daily 1. B12 2. C 3. Folic Acid
_____ - characteristic intermediate between dense connective tissue and bone. Tough and yet flexible; no blood vessels, and no nerve cells. Chondrocytes are found in cavities called Lacunae. The matrix contains collagen, reticular or elastic fibers. Perichondrium - connective tissue membrane around cartilage. It has a good blood supply. Chondrocyte is the major cell type that produces and maintains the matrix.
cartilage
exergonic chemical reactions that break down complex organic molecules into simpler ones
catabolism
hypertrophic
caused by overeating a. usually seen only in adults b. fat cells increase in size
the oxidation of glucose to produce ATP
cellular respiration
which glands are modified sweat glands?
ceruminous and mammary glands
(d) lines the upper respiratory tract and uterine tubes; wavelength motion of cilia propels materials through the lumen
ciliated simple columnar epithelium
Name the first molecule formed during the kreb cycle?
citric acid
stratum lucidum-
clear; only in thick skin of the palms and toes contains form of keratin
canaliculi-
connect the Haversian canals within the bone...
intercalated disc-
connect the cytoplasm of one cell to the next
stratum basale-
contains cells undergoing mitosis; deepest layer of epidermis receives nutrients from the papilary layer of the dermis. produces keratinocytes and melanocytes...
cuticle of the hair-
contains keratin is the outer layer of the hair...3 layers of the hair are medulla, cortex and cuticle
arrector pili muscle-
contracts on the hair follicle...
Gluconeogenesis
conversion of amino acids or glycerol--> glucose
carriers of electrons in the electron transport chain
cytochromes
the removal of the amino group from an amino acid
deamination
removal of CO2 from a molecule
decarboxylation
which of the following would you not expect to experience during fasting or starvation
decrease in plasma fatty acid levels
what brings electrical signals to the cell body?
dendrite
Absorptive States
describes types of metabolic reactions occuring at particular times in the body
what junctions contain transmembrane proteins called cadherins?
desmosomes and adherens junctions
What is the difference between aerobic glyclolysis and anaerobic glycolysis?
different endpoints, aerobic is with oxygen is pyruvic acid anaerobic is with out oxygen lactic acid and ATP
cystic fibrosis
due to genetic mutation 1. exocrine glands blocked 2. no pancreatic juice secretion 3. no digestion or absorption of fat 4. no access to fat soluble vitamins 5. loss of metabolic reactions controlled by fat-soluble vitamins
juvenile-onset type 1
due to genetic mutation a. islet cells do not produce insulin b. cannot perform anabolic reactions
hyperplastic
due to genetic mutation a. present in children b. fat cells increase in number
the most common sweat glands that release a watery secretion are ___ sweat glands; modified sweat glands in the ear are ____ glands; sweat glands located in the axillae, groin, areolae, and beards of males and that release a slightly viscous, lipid-rich secretion are ___ sweat glands
eccrine, ceruminous, apocrine
what tissue type is located in the wall of large blood vessels such as the aorta?
elastic connective tissue
the substance that helps promote mitosis in epidermal skin cells is ___
epidermal growth factor
composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelial tissue
epidermis
Name the 4 Major Tissue Types
epithelial connective muscular nervous
___- is non-living and separates the living cells. The ground substance and fibers make up the ____ matrix. (same word)
extracellular matrix
(T or F) An individual with a dark skin color has more melanocytes than a fair skinned person
false
(T or F) much of the bodys fat is located in the dermis of the skin.
false
post-absorptive state
fasting condition exclusively catabolic controlled by glucagon (first stage) and cortisol (later stages)
Beta Oxidation
fatty acids--> acetyl conenzyme A 1. allows entry into the Krebs Cycle
what tissue forms the intervertebral disc?
fibrous cartilage
absorptive state
food in digestive tract primarily anabolic controlled by insulin
langerhan cell-
found in the epidermis; phagocytosis, derived from bone marrow interacts with helper t-cells in the immune responses, is damaged by UV light...
ceruminous gland-
found in the external ear that produces a wax called cerumen...
e) located in the dermis, they function in the sensations of warmth, coolness, pain, itching, and tickling
free nerve endings
eumelanin
give the color of the skin and eyes
the formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources
gluconeogenesis
Carbohydrates
glucose
the body's preferred source for synthesizing ATP
glucose
Glycongenesis
glucose--> glycongen (stored in liver) 1. controlled by insulin
Glycolysis
glucose--> pyruvic acid+2 ATP 1. occurs throughout cytoplasm
Fats
glycerol or fatty acids 1. catabolic reactions 2. anabolic reactions
Gluconeogenesis
glycerol--> glucose 1. glucose then broken down by carbohydrate pathways
Glycongenolysis
glycogen--> glucose (released into bloodstream) 1. controlled by glucagon
the conversion of glucose into glycogen
glycogenesis
which of the following are absorptive state reaction aerobic cellular respiration? glycogenesis glycogenolysis gluconeogenesis using lactic acid lipolysis
glycogenesis glycogenolysis
the breakdown of glycogen back to glucose
glycogenolysis
the breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid
glycolysis
What is the correct sequence for the oxidation of glucose to produce ATP
glycolysis, formation of acetyl CoA, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain
stratum granulosum-
granuled; consist of 3-5 layers of flattened cells that develop keratohyalin precursor of keratin...
Which of these has a pink color? A) melanin B) hemoglobin
hemoglobin
remove excess cholesterol from body cells and transport it to the liver for elimination
high-density lipoproteins
Name three types of cartilage and describe each:
hyaline elastic fibrocartilage
3 types of cartilage
hyaline, elastic, fibrous
the thermostat and food intake regulating center of the body is in the ___ of the brain
hypothalamus
vasodilation and increased permeability of blood vessels to deliver cells involved in phagocytosis; clot formation
inflammatory phase
place the phases of deep wound healing in order
inflammatory, migratory, proliferative, maturation
Minerals
inorganic molecules (No carbon) 1. sodium 2. copper 3. selenium
diabetes
juvenile-onset (type 1) adult-onset (type 2)
1. Keratinocytes - about 90% are keratinocytes. They produce ___ that helps waterproof and protect the skin and underlying tissues. Desmosomes weld keratinocytes in place.
keratin
what protects the skin from invastion by microbes?
keratin
(b) Found in the superficial part of skin; provides protection from heat, microbes, and chemicals
keratinized stratified epithelium
___ produce the protein that helps protect the skin and underlying tissues from light, heat, microbes, and many chemicals
keratinocytes
the formation of ketone bodies
ketogenesis
acetoacetic acid, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, aceton
ketone bodies
what is the endpoint of anerobic glycolysis in animal cells?
lactic acid and ATP
h) release a lipid-rich secretion that functions as a water-repellent sealant in the stratum granulosum
lamellar granules
c) cells that arise from red bone marrow, migrate to the epidermis, and participate in immune responces
langerhans cells
Name three things most connective tissues have in common.
large area of matrix in between cell... large amounts of blood vessels found adjacent to epithelial tissue
hormone secreted by adipocytes that acts to decrease total body-fat mass
leptin
nutrient molecules that can be oxidized to produce ATP or stored in adipose tissue
lipids
the synthesis of lipids
lipogenesis
the splitting of a triglyceride into glycerol and fatty acids
lipolysis
deliver cholesterol to body cells for use in repair of membranes and synthesis of steroid hormones and bile salts
low-density lipoproteins
fibroblast-
made scar tissue in migratory phase and collagen in proliferative phase...
keratinocyte-
makes up most of the epidermis; produces keratin which make the skin a barrier...
sloughing of scab; reorganization of collagen fibers; blood vessels return to normal
maturation phase
which of these is a touch receptor in the dermis? A) meisser's corpuscle B) raw nerve ending C) merkle cell
meissner's corpuscle
___ produce a pigment that contributes to skin color and absorbs ultraviolet light
melanocytes
d) cells thought to function in the sensation of touch
merkel cells
What is the difference between a merocrine gland, holocrine gland and apocrine gland?
merocrine gland- are synthesized on ribosomes attached to rough ER. most exocrine glands are merocrine glands; salivary glands and pancreas holocrine gland- accumulate a secretory product in their cytosol sebaceous gland release product by rupturing apocrine gland - accumulate the secretory product at the apical surface of the secreting cell; released by pinching off portion of cell . mammary gland
eccrine suderiferous gland-
merocrine- sweat gland that open into the surface of skin. helps cool the body by evaporating
overall rate at which metabolic reactions use energy
metabolic rate
refers to all the chemical reactions in the body
metabolism
epithelial cells migrate under scab to bridge the wound; formation of granulation tissue
migratory phase
basal metabolic rate
minimum resting metabolic rate, measured indirectly via: 1. oxygen consumption (higher oxygen consumption--> higher basal metabolic rate; and opposite) 2. body temperature (core body temperature, higher metabolic rate; and opposite)
neurotansmitter that stimulates food intake
neuropeptide Y
(e) contains cells with microvilli and goblet cells; found in linings of the digestive, reproductive, and urinary tracts
nonciliated simple columnar
Vitamins and Minerals
not metabolized directly but aid in generating particular metabolic reactions
Metabolic Disorders
obesity diabetes cystic fibrosis
sebum-
oil produced from sebaccous gland; opens into the hair follicle...
Vitamins
organic molecules (contain carbon) a. fat soluble b. water-soluble
stratum corneum-
outermost part of the skin; 25-30 rows of flat dead cells filled with keratin
C6H12O6 + 6O2-------------------------6CO2 + 6H20 + 38 ATP GLUCOSE OXYGEN CARBON WATER ENERGYDIOXIDE
overall equation aerobic cellular respiration
What substance binds with acetyl CoA to produce citric acid?
oxaloacetic acid
the removal of electrons from an atom or molecule resulting in a decrease in potential energy
oxidation
Both hydrogen and carbon are removed at the same time and this is called ____ ____.
oxidative decarboxylation
i) pressure-sensitive cells found mostly in the subcutaneous layer
pacinian (lamellated) corpuscles
raw nerve endings-
pain and change of temperature...
superficial region of the dermis; composed of areolar connective tissue
papillary region
the addition of a phosphate group to a molecule
phosphorylation
regulation of body temperature
pre-optic area of hypothalamus= body's thermostat if body temperature drops, heat-producing center if body temperature rises, heat-loss center
pacinian corpuscle-
pressure...
melanocytes-
produces melanin; epidermis responsible for skin and hair color ranges from yellow to black ...made from amino acid tyrosin
goblet cell-
produces mucus to protect and export invaders away...
what is not a function of the skin?
producing Vitamin A
extensive growth of epithelial cells beneath scab; random deposition of collagen fibers; continued growth of blood vessels
proliferative phase
Functions of the skin
protects the body from invading micro organisms (keratin) prevents water loss (keratin) regulates body temperature (eccrine sweat gland) synthesizes vitamin D (absorbs calcium) allow sensation (touch, pressure, pain) involved in the removal of waste (excretion) blood resevoir (eight to ten% of the blood in the body is stored within the vessels of the skin
Protein Anabolism
protein synthesis 1. amino acids strung together to form proteins
composed of amino acids and are the primary regulatory molecules in the body
proteins
(g) contains cells that are all attached to the basement membrane, although some do not reach the surface; those cells that do extend to the surface secrete mucus or contail cilia
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Kreb Cycle
pyruvate--> CO2+NADH+FADH2+2 ATP 1. occurs in the mitochondria ONLY
NAD removes hydrogens from ___ acid converting it to active acetate and building up 2 NADH molecules and releasing 2 molecules of CO2 (carbon dioxide) as a gas.
pyruvic acid
the three key molecules of metabolism are ___, ____, and ____.
pyruvic acid, acetyl coenzyme A, and glucose 6-phosphate
metabolic rate
rate of heat production (number of calories burned per unit time) basal metabolic rate (BMR)
the addition of electrons to a molecule resulting in an increase in potential energy content of the molecule
reduction
What is an endocrine gland? Give some examples.
release their product into blood. any gland that releases hormones; thyroid, pituitary, ovaries, testes
What is an exocrine gland?
release their product into ducts merocrine apocrine holocrine
Deamination
removal of amine (NH2) group 1. allows entry into Krebs cycle
Decarboxylation
removal of carboxyl (COOH) group 1. allows entry in Krebs cycle
deep region of the dermis composed primarily of dense irregular connective tissue
reticular region
Nail ___ - portion buried in a skin fold
root
k) associated with hair follicles, these secrete an oily substance that helps prevent hair from becoming brittle, prevents evaporation of water from the skin's surface, and inhibits the growth of certain bacteria
sebaceous glands
meisser's corpulse-
sense of touch...dermis
merkle cell-
sensory cell, epidermis...
(c) contains cube shaped cells functioning in secreation and absorption
simple cuboidal
(a) Contains a single layer of flat cells; found in the body where filtration (kidney) or diffusion (lungs) are priorty processes.
simple squamous epithelium
what two types of tissues contain striations?
skeletal and muscle
stratum spinosum-
spiny appearance; processes of melanocytes can extend into this layer; langerhan cell (phagocytosis)...
what tissue lines the esophageal gland?
stratified cuboidal
(h) a fairly rare type of epithelium that has a mainly protective function
stratified cuboidal epithelium
the layer of the epidermis that contains stem cells undergoing mitosis is the ____
stratum basale
the epidermal layer that is found in thick skin but not in thin skin is the ___
stratum lucidum
not considered part of the skin, it contain areolar and adipose tissue and blood vessels; attaches skin to underlying tissues and organs
subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)
What acid is oxidized by FAD?
succinic acid
apocrine suderiferous gland-
sweat gland that open into the hair follicle; secreted by stress and sexual exitment...
Lipogenesis
synthesis of triglycerides for storage in adipose tissue 1. glycerol+fatty acids--> triglycerides 2. excess glucose or amino acid--> triglycerides
1. Regulation of body ____ - evaporation of sweat from the skin surface helps lower elevated body temperature.
temperature
How are epithelial tissues classified?
the arrangement of cells into layers the shape of cells
a patient is brought into the emergency room suffering from a burn. the patient does not feel any pain at the burn site. using a gentle pull on a hair, the examining physician can remove entire hair follicles from the patients arm. this patient is suffering from what type of burn?
third degree
what is not a function of skin?
to produce calcium
describe the papilary layer
top layer made of areolar tissue. contains dermal papillae (finger print)...
the transfer of amino acid to a substance such as pyruvic acid
transamination
In the ____ ____ 2 pyruvic acid molecules is oxidized to 2 active acetate molecules (acetyl coenzyme a).
transition reaction
(f) found in the urinary bladder; contains cells that can change shape (stretch or relax)
transitional epithelium
Lipolysis
triglycerides (adipose tissue)--> fatty acids and glycerol
in order to permanently prevent growth of an unwanted hair, you must destroy the hair matrix
true
j) fatty substance that covers and protect the skin of the fetus from the constant exposure to amniotic fluid
verinix caseosa
transport endogenous lipids to adipocytes for storage
very-low-density lipoproteins
Oxidation
via phosphorylation 1. substrate level phosphorylation 2. oxidative phosphorylation
organic nutrients required in small amount for growth and normal metabolism
vitamins
What is the endpoint of the respiratory chain?
water
cerumen-
wax of the ear that protects the ear drum...