Anatomy midterm

The hyoid bone

-Hyoid bone: only bone in the larynx; has no other connection to any other bone. -The tongue is rooted in the hyoid bone, giving the tongue structural support. -Parts of the hyoid bone: corpus, left & right greater horn, left and right lesser horn.

What causes change in pitch? lower pitch? higher pitch?

-Intrinsic laryngeal muscles adjustments lead to change in pitch during modal phonation. -Lower pitch: achieved when parts of the thyroarytenoid (TA) muscles contract, which shorten the vocal folds (thicker + heavier). -Mass per unit length is increased when the vocal folds are shortened - the greater the mass per unit, the slower the vocal folds vibrate. -Higher pitch: achieved when the cricothyroid (CT) muscles contract, therefore stretching and thinning the vocal folds. -TA muscles also help increase F0 due to contracting simultaneously with the CT muscles, causing the vocal folds to stiffen. -PCA muscles stabilize the vocal folds as they stretch and prevent the arytenoid cartilages from sliding forward.

Theory of Vocal Fold Vibration: Neurochronaxic

-States that the brain directs the muscles of the larynx to move. Problems with the theory: -Our nerves' fastest rate is 250 Hz. -If this is true, we would be able to voice without air flow

What are the infrahyoid muscles and what do they do?

-can be used to lower the larynx for certain speech sounds. -Omohyiod muscle: most superficial muscle -Sternohyoid muscle: originates at the manubrium of the sternum and inserts into the corpus of the hyoid bone. -Hyothyroid muscle: originates at the oblique line of the thyroid cartilage and inserts into the inferior border of the hyoid bone. When it contracts, it lowers your fundamental frequency. -Sternythyroid muscle: originates at the manubrium of the sternum and inserts into the thyroid cartilage.

trachea

-connects the lungs to the outside by multiple branches of tubes. -Groups of tiny alveoli connect together to feed into small tubes called bronchioles, which connect to form two large bronchi, which connect from each lung to form the trachea. -Connects up to the larynx, forming the base of the vocal tract, opening up into the mouth and the nose.

Ribs

-costal cartilage connects the ribs, making it highly elastic. -True ribs: (T1-T7) the first 7 ribs have their own cartilage that connect to the sternum. -"False ribs" (don't actually call them false): beneath the seven true ribs, T8-T12, that do not connect to the sternum. -T8, T9, and T10 connect to the sternum by indirect cartilage connection. T11 and T12 don't connect to the sternum at all (floating ribs).

What are the suprahyoid extrinsic muscles and what do they do?

-geniohyoid: extends from the lateral part of the corpus of the hyoid bone and connects to the chin. When it contracts, it pulls the hyoid up and forward, opening the pharynx. -stylohyoid: runs parallel to the posterior digastric muscle. When it contracts, it raises and retracts the hyoid bone. -mylohyoid: thin, flat, triangular, muscle that comes off the corpus of the hyoid and forms the bottom side of our chin. When it contracts, it raises the hyoid bone and stiffens the floor of the mouth -digastric: has 2 bellies and when they contract, they form a sling that raises the hyoid bone. anterior digastric- elevates the hyoid and pulls it anteriorly, important with pharyngeal movement during swallowing. posterior digastric: elevates the hyoid and pulls it posteriorly. (Gen Digs My Style) All of these muscles elevate the larynx and raise fundamental frequency.

What can an endoscope provide? Describe the different types of endoscopes.

-information not available through EGG. -exact vocal fold contact and opening can be seen from above -vertical variation in degree of closure can't be observed -rigid endoscope: a metal tube with mirrors and a camera that can be inserted through the mouth to film laryngeal structures -fibroscope: a flexible nasal endoscope containing a fiber optic tube camera through the nose. -stroboscopy: flashing a strobe light slightly faster than the rate of phonation in order to film vocal fold vibrations back when there were lo-speed cameras. PGG-uses an endoscopic light source to measure the glottal aperture over time. -for measuring glottal sounds, endoscopy and PGG won't work because any structure thats above the glottis can obscure the vocal folds.

Describe the Lungs

-inside the thorax, composed of a very light airy tissue with pockets of air. -Made up of 300 million alveoli that fill with air, and are surrounded by blood vessels in order to exchange oxygen for carbon dioxide. -The lungs are connected to the inner walls of the thorax due to suction by the pleura. Pleura: double layer of waterproof membrane that surrounds each lung. Visceral pleura: inner layer of the pleura that is attached to the lungs. Parietal pleura: the outer layer of the pleura that is attached to the inside wall of the thorax. A thin film of fluid separates the two membranes and keeps them stuck together by suction.

What is negative-pressure breathing?

-muscles of the chest cavity which increase and decrease the volume of the lungs, causing air to move in and out to equalize pressure. -the vacuum like action to suck in air into the lungs.

Vital capacity

-the maximum amount of air a person can exchange through breathing. -3 to 4 L for females, 4 to 5L for males.

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

-the maximum volume you can inhale after tidal inspiration. (3L in males, 2L in females)

Quiet (tidal) breathing

-the regular breathing that people do when relaxed. -Rhythmical pattern, 40% inspiration and 60% expiration. -Tidal volume (TV): the small volume of air exchanged during tidal breathing. 0.4L for females, 0.5L for males. -Inhalation expands the diaphragm and chest, exhalation contracts the diaphragm and chest.

Two-mass theory of vocal fold vibration

-the vocal folds can only vibrate the way they do because each fold is not simply one uniform mass of muscle, but is instead many layered, creating multiple masses that can vibrate semi-independently.

Cover body theory

-vocal folds are made up of two loosely connected layers: the denser inner layer "the body" which consists mainly of the vocalis muscle, while the looser outer layer (the cover) is made up of the mucous membrane on the surface of the vocal folds. we now know that there are several important layers of the vocal folds.

Explain the cycle of the vocal folds and which theory supports this.

1) the lateral cricoarytenoid (LCA) and IA muscles ADDUCT and bring the vocal folds to paramedic position. 2) The Bernoulli effet occurs, closing the vocal folds. When air travels through the vocal folds, the flow increases due to the narrowing of the laryngeal airway, changing the pressure and closing the vocal folds. 3) Subglottic pressure opens the vocal folds. Closing the vocal folds makes the supraglottic pressure less than the subglottic pressure, opening the vocal folds. 4) The elasticity of the vocal folds brings them back to peramedian. The theory that supports this is the myoelastic aerodynamic theory of phonation. myo-muscles used to adduct elastic- the elasticity of the vocal folds bringing them back to peramedian.

What is the lamina Propria comprised of?

3 connective tissue: -Gelatenous (superficial): Epithelium (squamous). -Elastic fibers (intermediate): during speech, these fibers help the vocal folds return to their original shape. Conus elasticus: thickens into the vocal ligament. -Collagen fibers (deep): Vocal ligament: comprised of collagen and elastic fibers at the midline.

Describe the 2 joints of the larynx.

At the cricothyroid joint, the thyroid rocks anteriorly and inferiorly. Muscles that create action at the joint are -Pars recta: pulls the thyroid down -Pars oblique: rocks the thyroid forward away from the arytenoids. At the cricoarytenoid join, the arytenoids can't rock anteriorly or posteriorly, and medially. The muscles that create these actions are: -posterior cricoarytenoid: abducts the vocal folds and makes the arytenoids rock backward. -lateral cricoarytenoids: rocks the arytenoids forward and adducts the vocal folds. -Interarytenoids: adducts the vocal folds

What affect does conservation of mass and energy have on vocal folds?

Because of conservation of mass, we know that air moving through glottal constriction moves relatively faster, and based on conservation of energy, the lateral air pressure on the vocal folds is relatively lower, than in the areas above and below the glottis.

What must happen to the vocal folds before the Bernoulli's effect? what is this principle?

Before the Bernoulli effect takes place the vocal folds must be in paramedic position which reduces the pressure on the side walls and causes the vocal folds to come closer together. The interarytenoids and the lateral cricoarytenoid ADDUCT the vocal folds to this position. The Bernouli principle states that pressure has to increase in order for the air molecules to get through the smaller spaces of the vocal folds. Due to the pressure coming upward, they close from bottom to top. The aerodynamic force of the Bernoulli effect causes the vocal folds to close.

What is Boyle's Law?

Boyle's law states that in a closed system, air pressure and volume are inversely proportional. This relationship can be stated by using this equation: P(1 subscript)V(1 subscript) = P(2 subscript)V(2 subscript). This equation basically means that if the volume of the cavity increases, the pressure will have to drop and vice versa. As the volume of a closed space decreases, the pressure increases. Therefore, when the lungs become smaller in a breath cya;e due to exhalation, the pressure inside the lungs becomes greater. Since the pressure inside the lungs is now high, it results in air rushing in during inhalation.

Cervical vertebra parts (C1-C7)

C1: the atlas, holds the skull. C2: the axis. Atlas rests on the axis, allowing our heads to nod and rotate.

Caroline has damage to her spinal nerves C4-C5, describe difficulties she may have.

C4 and C5, along with C3, supply the diaphragm. This muscle assists with breathing by creating more space in the chest and pulling air into the lungs when it contracts. Damage to these nerves, particularly C4, can disrupt the normal function of the diaphragm and result in difficulty breathing. However, this is rare unless the nerve damage is severe.

What is Aponeurosis, and where is it located?

Central tendon at the top of the diaphragm-meets between the corpus and the xiphoid process.

What are the muscles used for inspiration for speech?

DIAPHRAGM - primary muscle during inhalation. When it contracts, the aponeurosis of the diaphragm is pulled downward, expanding the volume of the lungs by pushing out the ribs. Muscle fibers are vertically directed in their attachments running superiorly to connect to the top part (tendon) of the diaphragm. Aponeurosis: central tendon at the top of the diaphragm - meets between the corpus and the xiphoid process. EXTERNAL INTERCOSTALS - Muscles that go in between the ribs along the outside surface of the bones. -Run downward and obliquely away from the vertebrae. -Link the ribcage to higher points along the spine. Therefore, when they contract, it pulls the rib cage upwards and sideways. INTERCHONDRAL PARTS OF THE INTERNAL INTERCOSTAL: run between the cartilage that connects the higher points of the sternum, connect obliquely and downward from the sternum along the inner surface of the ribcage. When they contract, they pull the lower cartilages up and away from the center of the body. -Posterior Cricoarytenoid Muscles are contracted, and the vocal folds are opened very widely. This allows the most airflow possible through the glottis.

What is forced exhalation?

During forced exhalation, expiratory muscles including the abdominal muscles and internal intercostal muscles generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air out of the lungs. Muscles used: Serratus posterior inferior muscles- are used during forced exhalation to pull the ribcage downward.

Describe the respiratory and laryngeal muscle activities in sequence needed to shift from quiet breathing to producing the vowel /e/.

During quiet breathing we inhale using the external and interchondral portion of the internal intercostals. When these muscles contract, they pull the ribcage upward and outward, expanding the lungs to increase lung volume. During quiet breathing inhalation, we also utilize our diaphragm. When the diaphragm contracts, it pushes downward onto the abdomen, also expanding lung volume. Exhalation for quiet breathing is passive, as we do not utilize any muscles of exhalation. Rather, these previously mentioned muscles are just contracted less, allowing for the lung volume to go back to equilibrium, resulting in exhalation. To produce the vowel /e/, we need to switch from quiet breathing to speech breathing. Here we use the same muscles described for inhalation in quiet breathing as well as the levator costalis muscles which are used during deep inhalation. Once a deep inhalation occurs, speech can begin.

What are the muscles of expiration?

During quiet breathing, expiration is passive, using the elastic recoil of the lungs and chest wall to move gas out of the mouth. In active breathing, muscles used include: ANTERIOR ABDOMINAL WALL MUSCLES - rectus abdominus, internal and external oblique and transversus abdominus. They contract on expiration and increase intra abdominal pressure, pushing the diaphragm up and increasing pressure for air movement out of the lungs. INTERNAL INTERCOSTALS - join adjacent ribs. Oppose the external intercostals by moving ribs downwards and inwards, enhancing the effects of the abdominal muscles.

What is a feed forward system? What would happen in a speech chain?

Feed forward: a plan is constructed and carried out, without paying attention to the results - all the arrows go in the same direction. Speech chain model: speakers thought's -> linguistic representations -> vocal tract movement -> articulation/acoustic output -> auditory perception -> abstract linguistic representations -> meaning. -Feedback: control is based on observed results rather than on a predetermined plan. -Multimodal: we use all of our senses when going through speech perception feedback. Therefore, although the speech chain is linear, each link in the chain is a feedback loop.

What is forced respiration?

Forced respiration uses a lot more lung capacity than just tidal breathing. The muscles used in forced respiration are: sternocleidomastoid- the "head-turn" muscle. It pulls the ribcage up, and tilts or moves your head forward. serratus posterior superior- pulls the shoulders back, minimally raises the rib cage. serratus anterior- when this muscle contracts, it moves the scapula to move the arms medially. levator costalis- originates in the vertebrae and insert into the ribs.

the fundamental frequency in men and woman.

Hz= cycles per second Men: 80 Hz-640 Hz Women: 150 Hz-1200 Hz Change in fundamental frequency is developmental - the length of our vocal folds become longer and our fundamental frequency becomes lower. -Infant: 6-8 mm/400-500 Hz. -Child: 10-12 mm/240-300 Hz. -Adult female: 13-17 mm/200-240 Hz. -Adult male: 17-23 mm/100-135 Hz -The contraction of the cricothyroid changes the fundamental frequency (stretching and stiffening of the vocal folds).

Dave finds out that you are knowledgeable about the speech mechanism. When Dave talks with you, you can hear that his average speaking fundamental frequency is low in his range. When he gets louder because of background noise, you can tell that he is using laryngeal tension. Dave says to you, "I have a great speaking voice, but can you give me any tips to improve?" Answer Dave with explanations that will indicate which behaviors he has that make his voice less than 'great'. Main question: How can Dave improve his average fundamental frequency in his normal voice & not use laryngeal tension when talking louder?

I hear a couple of aspects of your voice that indicate poor voice use. Your poor voice use can be perceived in your typical voice and when you speak with greater amplitude. The lower average speaking fundamental frequency that you use requires that you use excess laryngeal muscle activity. In particular, you are using some of your infrahyoid muscles; omohyoid, sternohyoid, and sternothyroid muscles to pull your larynx down. When you speak at higher amplitudes I can hear that you are creating the greater amplitude by using extra lateral cricoarytenoid and interarytenoid muscle activity to close your vocal folds and build extra sub glottal pressure. To create greater voice amplitude more efficiently, you should increase the sub glottal pressure by increasing the force from the respiratory system. This force can be increased by adjusting the intercostal and diaphragm muscles. This effort may also involve the abdominal muscles, external oblique, internal oblique, transverse abdmoninus, and rectus abdominus.

How does one lower their fundamental frequency?

In order to lower your fundamental frequency, the cricothyroid relaxes and the cricoarytenoid contracts which causes the vocal folds to be short and slack. This results in the vocal folds to change and vibrate less. This results in a low fundamental frequency. In addition, infra hyoid muscles pull the larynx down, which causes a lower fundamental frequency. The infra hyoid muscles include: sternohyoid, sternothyroid, thyrohyoid, and omohyoid.

How does one raise their fundamental frequency?

In order to raise your fundamental frequency, the cricothyroid contracts, which stiffens the body and the cover of the vocal folds. When contracted, the thyroid cartilage rocks forward and down which stretches the thyroarytenoid causing a higher pitch. When the vocal folds are stiff, they vibrate more, which raises the fundamental frequency. In addition, suprahyoid muscles raise the larynx, which causes a higher fundamental frequency. The supra hyoid muscles include: digastric, stylohyoid, mylohyoid, and geniohyoid. (acronym to help remember: Gen Digs My Style.)

What happens when we increase the loudness of speech?

Increasing the loudness of speech requires the use of the diaphragm with an increase in air and pressure as speech gets louder. For example, quiet speech requires .2 to .5 KPA, normal speech requires .5-1 KPA, and loud speech requires 1.2 to 1.5 KPA.

Explain the pressure relationship between the subglottic space and the supraglottic space with ingressive and different egressive sounds.

Ingressive and egressive sounds occur due to the movement of the larynx. This has a direct correlation to the amount of pressure in the subglottic and supraglottic spaces. Ingressive sounds happen when the two air streams, glottic ingressive and pulmonic egressive, combine due to the closing of the vocal tract and the larynx shifting downward. Since the larynx is shifted downward, the air pressure in the vocal tract decreases resulting in the subglottic and supraglottic spaces to decrease as well. Egressive sounds happen when the larynx is closed off and raised when there's a halt in the vocal tract. The raising of the larynx and the closing of the glottis results in the supraglottic space to increase in pressure for phonation to occur.

Describe speech breathing

Inhalation and exhalation for speech breathing is very similar to quiet breathing. During inhalation and exhalation, the abdominal muscles are added for better control of thoracic space during speech. Abdominal muscles include: rectus abdominis, transverse abdominis, and internal and external oblique muscles. everyone uses ab muscles differently in speech breathing. -Muscles being used: diaphragm, intercostals, and abdominal muscles. -The interarytenoids contract, which causes arytenoids to "medial glide" which brings vocal folds to a paramedian. ADDUCT -The lateral cricoarytenoid contracts, which causes the arytenoids to rock forward, which brings vocal folds to a paramedic. ADDUCT

What can we see amongst vocal folds in an EGG? What is an EGG?

It measures contact area between the vocal folds, so that higher values show more closure, while lower values show less opening. -it measures vocal fold closure through a collar around the subjects throat with electrodes on either side of the thyroid notch.

What would happen to a person if they were paralyzed bellow the thoracic vertebrae T1?

It will be increasingly more difficult for them to breathe due to the fact that most of the muscles aid in breathing are attached to the thoracic vertebrae bellow T1. Paralyzing these muscles will make it a lot harder to control the movement of the ribcage during breathing. If this were to happen though, that is when the sternocleidomastoid muscle would step in so it would be possible to speak and breathe.

What are the lateral Cricoarytenoids and Interarytenoids?

Muscles and joints used during medial compression of the vocal folds.

What is one way to measure aerodynamics?

One way to measure aerodynamics is with a spirometer; it assess how well your lungs work by measuring how much air you inhale, how much you exhale and how quickly you exhale.

How do we think of speech?

Our brains come up with a speech plan, which is then sent through our bodies as nerve impulses. These nerve impulses reach muscles, causing them to contract. Muscle movements expand and contract our lungs, allowing us to move air. This air moves through our vocal tract, which we can shape with more muscle movements. By changing the shape of our vocal tract, we can block or release airflow, create vibrations, change frequencies which all produce different speech sounds. The sound, air, vibrations and movements we produce through these actions can then be perceived by ourselves or by other people as speech. speech plan sent as nerve impulses through body -> reach muscles causing them to contract -> lungs expand and contracts moving air -> air moves through vocal tract which we can shape-> block or release air flow, create vibrations, change frequencies to produce different speech sounds.

What is the relationship between Pascal's Law and Boyle's Law?

Pascal's Law states that in a closed system, air will flow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. Boyle's law states that pressure and volume are inversely related. When you breathe in, the volume of your lungs expand, because of Boyle's law, the pressure will decrease in the lungs when the volume increases. Because of Pascal's law, air will flow into the lungs.

Is quiet exhalation a passive function or active function? What passive forces are used in respiration?

Quiet exhalation is mostly a passive function. Three passive forces are involved; gravity, (the ribcage going backdown pushing on the lungs), torque (the way the ribcage is coming back in on the lungs, pushing more air out), and elasticity (the elasticity of the lungs automatically makes them return to their smaller state.)

What is resting expiratory level?

Resting expiratory level is the amount of air in your lungs after a normal exhalation. We're almost always in our REL unless we're doing something physically vigorous. In relation to respiratory muscles and lung capacities, this is when the respiratory system is at its most passive state. None of the muscles are being used at that moment.

What are the 2 interarytenoid muscles and what do they do?

The arytenoid cartilages are connected to each other by interarytenoid muscles: transverse interarytenoid muscle (IAt) which connects the backs of the arytenoid cartilage, and the oblique interarytenoid muscles, which connect behind the IAt muscle. These muscles can tense to close the vocal folds completely.

Contrast the roles of the cricothyroid and thyroarytenoid muscles in control of fundamental frequency in different modes of voice production.

The cricothyroid muscle is a main part of pitch control and modal voicing. Modal voicing is when the vocal folds open and close in a cycle to keep the balanced level of vibration and regulate sound. These muscles must contract to decrease their mass unit length, which then creates a higher pitch. Slower vibration rates means that a lower pitch will be produced and faster vibration rates will result in a higher pitch. The thyroarytenoid muscles are then introduced as helpers to make the vocal folds become thicker and shorter. As these muscles become thicker and shorter the vibration becomes slower, which ends up resulting in a slower pitch. If the thyroarytenoid muscles work together with the cricothyroid muscles, they contract and help to increase frequency and pitch of the vocal vibration. Chapter 6 discusses the cricothyroid and thyroarytenoid muscles that are used in non-modal types of phonation or easily said as falsetto voicing. This process begins with the vocal folds stretching to their maximum capacity; this first step is completed by the use of the circothyroid. During this process, the thyroarytenoid muscles remain relaxed causing the drooping motion of the thyroarytenoid muscles, which puts tension on the vocal ligaments. Because of this drastic change in muscle tension, the switch form modal to falsetto voicing is extremely difficult.

What are the muscles used in respiration?

The diaphragm and the intercostal muscles drive respiration during quiet breathing. Additional accessory muscles of respiration are typically only used under conditions of high metabolic demand such as exercise.

What happens during tidal breathing (quiet breathing)?

The diaphragm and the intercostals work together to expand the lungs so that air flow can flow in. When contracted, the diaphragm pulls down and expands the volume of the lungs. When contracted, the intercostals pull ribs up and sideways to increase the volume of the lungs. During exhalation, the diaprahgm and intercostals will relax, and the lungs will get s smaller and smaller as air flows out. the lungs return to original position due to elasticity. The costal cartilage will untwist to normal position (torque). Gravity pulls ribs down until the volume is smaller and pressure will go up. posterior cricoarytenoid contracts, which allows arytenoids to rock back and forth which allows the vocal folds to open during breathing (ABDUCT).

Compare and contrast the usefulness of the three models of the speech chain showed in the book. Which do you believe will be the most effective for clinical use in speech-language pathology? Would it differ for audiology?

The feed-forward, auditory only speech chain is a more simple chain compared to the multimodal and speech production chains. This chain uses less detail in explaining how the speaker and perceiver are doing what they do. The feed-forward is similar to the multimodal chain in that it shows what's happening between the speaker and the perceiver. However, the speech production chain only portrays how speech is produced, not how the perceiver portrays it as. I feel the speech production chain would be the most effective for a speech-language pathologist. This is because a speech pathologist needs to know more about the anatomy and physiology in a person to fully understand the complexity of how exactly speech is produced. For example, in the textbook Gick points out how the brain sends messages to nerves to start off this chain. Speech pathologists do no necessarily need to understand the perceiver as well. As for audiology, I would suggest using the multimodal speech chain. Audiologists need to take in consideration the perceiver just as much as the speaker.

What happens to the epiglottis during swallowing?

The larynx is raised, and the epiglottis folds over to keep food from going down the trachea.

What are the boundaries between the chest wall and the lungs?

The lungs and the chest wall are extremely close together with a few boundaries between them. The order of the structures from deep to superficial are the visceral pleura, the pleural space, and the parietal pleura. In the pleural space there is pleural fluid which helps the lungs glide along the chest wall without friction. Also, the lungs are able to stay inflated because of pleural pressure. The pressure inside the lungs is greater than the pleural pressure which keeps the lungs inflated because the pressure inside the lungs is always pushing outward.

What are the three main points of Chapter 5?

The main points in chapter 5 include the anatomy of the larynx, how phonation and pitch control are formed through the pharynx, and the vocal fold measurements. Gick, et al. made their points well by first describing the anatomy of the larynx. There are no bones in the larynx, only cartilages that are connected to each other by intrinsic muscles. Then discusses physiology, or how phonation is formed and the frequency in which it is formed. In both this section and the vocal fold measurement sections, we can see how EGG's are used to measure both modal voice cycles in phonation and acoustic waveforms in vocal folds.

Rock singers sometimes develop nodules (small masses of tissue) on their vocal folds. Thinking of mass per unit length, how would you expect these extra growths to affect the sound of these singers' voices?

The more mass on the vocal folds, the heavier they are. Therefore, this would decrease the fundamental frequency and decrease their perceived pitch. Perceived pitch would be lower.

Describe the expiratory muscles used in the abdominal wall.

The muscles of the abdominal wall include the rectus abdominis, the external obliques, the internal obliques, and the transverse abdominis. When this muscle contracts, it pulls the ribs down and inward aiding in forced expiration. When the external obliques contract, they squeeze the guts into the abdominal cavity, pushing the diaphragm upward against the bottom of the lungs and resulting in exhalation. The internal obliques, When they contract, they squeeze the guts into the abdomen, pushing them upward against the diaphragm and the bottom of the lungs. The transverse abdominis is the deepest of the abdominal muscles which run in a transverse plane. When it contracts, it squeezes the guts, pushing them upward against the diaphragm, and resulting in exhalation.

Explain the myoelastic aerodynamic theory of phonation with a focus on the aerodynamic forces.

The myoelastic aerodynamic theory of phonation explains that phonation occurs because of the vocal chords ability to spring back to their resting position and because airflow creates periodic vibrations. As the theory explains, the glottis is a narrow opening between the vocal folds, & because the glottis is narrower than the channels above and below it, it forms a constriction. When air must flow through a constriction it must move faster in order to pass through efficiently. In addition, when air flows through a constriction, air pressure on the surrounding walls decreases. In order to fully understand this theory, we must understand the two laws of fluid dynamics (branch that deal with air flow): conservation of mass and conservation of energy. Conservation of mass explains that air entering the vocal tract must be equal to the air leaving the vocal tract in the same amount of time. In order to do this when there is a constriction, the air must flow faster. Conservation of energy explains that since the air is flowing quickly through the constricted space, the air particles have less time to bounce around. Because of this, pressure decreases.

Explain the process of the movement of the vocal folds

The process of the movement of the vocal folds can be explained using the conservation of mass and conservation of energy laws. Once the subglottal pressure is greater than the supra glottal pressure due to lung compression) the air is forced through the glottis, pushing the vocal folds apart. This movement of the vocal folds creates a constriction and therefore the air moves faster. Since the air is passing through a constricted space, there is a decrease in pressure and pressure difference which causes the vocal folds to move back together.

What are the three vocal registers? describe them.

The three vocal registers are modal, pulse, and falsetto. The modal register is considered the typical speaking voice and the most common type of phonation. It is produced when air pressure and vocal fold configuration are optimized for maximum vibration. The body of the vocal folds is stiff while the cover is loose, causing the opening and closing cycle to go from a bottom to top motion. The closed phase of the glottal cycle is 50/50. This accounts for 2 octaves out of our 3 octave range. It is created due to the cricothyroid muscle contracting forward - altering the fundamental frequency by either contracting less or more of the cricothyroid muscle. Pulse register has a very low fundamental frequency. This register can't be preformed at a high amplitude or it will turn into a modal register. The vocal folds are very lose and relaxed, making the vocal folds come together from bottom to top. Falsetto range has a very high amplitude and accounts for 1 1/3 octaves out of our 3 octive range. Here the vocal folds are stiff and long and they come together more laterally than bottom to top due to the tension in the body of the vocal folds. The CT muscles stretch the vocal folds to the limits of the elasticity, and the TA muscles are no longer used to provide resistance. With the TA muscles relaxed, the vocal ligaments are placed under even greater tension, eliminating the multiple masses and complex vibration phases that occur during modal voce.

Describe the 2 vocal folds & their layers.

The two vocal folds are identical. There are five layers of the vocal folds. In order of deep to superficial: Thyroarytenoid muscle: makes up 90% of the vocal folds, it is the muscular portion of the vocal folds. lamina propria: (deep to superficial) deep layer- made of collagen fibers, not stretchy but can move. intermediate layer- layer made up of elastic fibers and is the stretchy part of the vocal folds. Superficial layer- gelatenous covering of the vocal folds. The last layer is the simple squamous epithelium of the vocal folds. The vocal ligament is made up of the intermediate portion of the lamina propria and the deep portion.

What does the vagus nerve & lateral laryngeal nerve do?

The vagus nerve activates the laryngeal muscles branches- recurrent laryngeal nerve: activates all muscles having to do with the arytenoids (posterior cricoarytenoid, lateral cricoarytenoid, thyroarytenoid, interiorarytenoid) Lateral laryngeal nerve- deals with muscles having to do with the cricothyroid joint. -Pars recta of the criicothyroid muscle -Pars oblique of the cricothyroid muscle.

Describe the types of tissues in the human body and list an example of each.

There are 4 main types of tissues in the human body; connective, epithelial, muscular and nervous. Connective tissue is the most abundant and the most widely distributed of the tissues. Connective tissues perform a variety of functions including support and protection. An example of connective tissue would be the Lamina Propria which is comprised of 3 connective tissues: gelatinous, elastic fibers, and collagen fibers. Epithelial tissue covers the body's surface and forms the lining for most internal cavities. The major function of epithelial tissue includes protection, secretion, absorption, and filtration. An example of this would be squamous epithelial which can be found on the outer layer of the skin where rapid diffusion takes place. Muscular tissues main function is to provide posture and body support and heat protection. An example of muscular tissue would be skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Finally nervous tissue is composed of specialized cells that receive stimuli and conduct impulses to and from all parts of the body. An example of this would be neurons which help to conduct these electrical signals.

Are more muscles used in speech respiration or in quiet respiration? Describe what happens in speech respiration and in quiet respiration. (muscles used, air used, ect.)

There are more muscles used in speech respiration than in quiet respiration because it is more difficult to breathe while talking. During speech respiration the external intercostals, interchondral internal intercostals, the diaphragm, and the levator costalis muscles are all used to take in a great amount of air in a short period of time for inspiration. These muscles stay active to slow the contraction of the lungs and allow air to escape in a controlled manner until equilibrium is reached (air pressure outside=subglottal air pressure) in the lungs, where neither inspiratory nor expiratory muscles are active. Quiet respiration is our regular breathing that people do when relaxed. It consists of 40% inspiration and 60% expiration. Inhalation expands the diaphragm and chest, exhalation contracts the diaphragm and chest. More air is used for speech respiration than for quiet respiration. Speech respiration requires 38-58% of vital capacity where quiet respiration is 38-52%. More pressure is need for speech respiration as well. The pressure in the lungs during normal speech is .5-1 KPA.

Discuss the movements of the joints of the larynx including the cartilages and muscles involved and the function of each movement.

There are two sets of paired joints which aid the movement of the vocal folds in the larynx. The first pair are the cricothyroid joints. In this joint the thyroid cartilage glides and rotates laterally and either superiorly or inferiorly, which in turn changes the length of the vocal chords. When this movement occurs, the tension on the vocal chords changes, resulting in a different pitch of sound in the human voice. Muscles used to do this: -Pars recta: pulls the thyroid down -Pars oblique: rocks the thyroid forward away from the arytenoids. The second pair of joints are the cricoarytenoid articulations which create the movement of the arytenoid cartilage upon the lamina of the cricoid cartilage. Muscles used in arytenoid cartilage: posterior cricoarytenoid: abducts the vocal folds and makes the arytenoids rock backward. -lateral cricoarytenoids: rocks the arytenoids forward and adducts the vocal folds. -Interarytenoids: adducts the vocal folds. The cricoid cartilage houses the 2 joints of the larynx. The inferior horn of the thyroid meets at the facet of the cricoid cartilage connecting the 2. The arytenoid cartilages slide both towards and away from each other, they rotate upon their own axis, and they tilt forwards and backwards. The epiglottis folds over the airway so food doesn't fall into the airway and the cuneiform cartilage provides additional help to close the airways as well.

Indicate the reason for the activity of each of the muscles depicted during the three breathing activities. You can group muscles that are being used for similar activities.

Tidal breathing, or relaxed breathing, uses the diaphragm and the external and internal interchondral intercostals. When we inhale, the chest rises and the thoracic wall becomes larger when the intercostal muscles and diaphragm contracts; the volume is raised while the pressure is dropped. When we exhale, no muscles are being used. Gravity brings the rib cage back down, elasticity of the lungs and compression of the abdominal organs return them to their original position and torque of the costal cartilages occurs. During speech breathing, depending on how much a person is saying, more or less air needs to be entered into the lungs during each breath. A person takes in air using their interchondral internal intercostals, diaphragm, and levator costalis. During exhalation, air is released slowly by keeping these muslces active. Equilibrium is reached at the end of this exhalation and pressure is finally equal. During deep breathing, the diaphragm, inspiratory muscles and intercostals are used to expand the lungs and create a voluminous space so air can flow back into the lungs.

What is the inspiratory capacity?

Tidal volume (TV) and inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) IC+TC + IRV

What structures are in the vocal tract?

Vocal tract: larynx, pharynx, divided into laryngeal, oral, and nasal parts. Upper vocal tract: nasal passages, and oral passages (tongue, palate, teeth, lips).

Describe voice amplitude.

Voice amplitude is directly correlated to subglottic pressure. The 2 ways speakers increase their amplitude are: 1) change in respiratory drive. Most efficient way is to use the abdominal muscles to create a higher airflow, increasing amplitude. 2) change in glottal resistance to air flow. -We use the muscles in the thoracic wall to move the air out at a faster rate, creating more pressure by bringing up more aerodynamic force into the glottis. The muscles of the larynx move the vocal folds into a more closed position. When we plan to talk loud, we take in an extra 3%-4% in order to speak louder. 1.2-1.5 KPA is considered loud/yelling.

What are voiceless laryngeal sounds?

Voiceless laryngeal sounds would be the sound of breathing coming up through the larynx. This means to create it resonation in the head and the sound of air coming through the larynx. Ex: whispering

How do vocal folds vibrate?

When speech is initiated, the lungs are compressed, increasing sub glottal air pressure. If this happens while the vocal folds are held loosely together, the sub glottal air pressure continues to build, pushing upward on the vocal folds. Once the pressure from below is sufficiently greater than the supra glottal pressure and strong enough to over come the myoelasticity of the vocal folds, the folds are blown open from the bottom up.

Differentiate among breathy voice, creaky voice, and subharmonicphonation? When might you hear each of them?

breathy voice: combination of phonation and the frication of air at the glottis. This speech is commonly used amongst women and children where the vocal folds never close entirely. This is because the LCA muscles are contracted less than in modal voicing, leaving a longitudinal gap between the vocal folds that never entirely closes throughout the voicing cycle. This results in air being released during production because the IA muscles are not contracted enough to close the gap, so respiration happens faster with smaller phrases. In a creaky voice, the vocal folds are shortened & slackened to maximize their mass per unit length. The vocal folds are closed for the majority of the time during phonation. Towards the end of speech, the vocal folds open up briefly allowing for a small amount of air to escape. This voice is often used when a person is tired since it uses the least amount of energy. Finally, subharmonicphonation is a term used to to describe phonation at a low pitch. Here, the vocal folds and other laryngeal structures vibrate typically when someone is singing.

What happens when the superior laryngeal nerve is stretched?

causes a reduced frequency range

What are the vocal folds made up of?

cover: epithelium membrane & superficial lamina propria, both of which contribute to the vibrations of the vocal folds. Body: Intermediate layer of the lamina propria (elastic fibers). Deep layer of the lamina propria (collagen fibers). Thyroarytenoid muscle (97% of the vocal folds).

Muscles for inspiration in speech breahting

diaphragm, intercostals, rectus, abdominis, external and internal oblique, and transverse abdominis.

lateral cricoarytenoid muscles

lateral cricoarytenoid muscles are on the outside edge of the cricoid cartilage. When they contract, they pivot the arytenoid cartilages so that the vocal processes turn inward, ADDUCTING, or moving the vocal folds together.

muscles of forced expiration

latissimus dorsi, internal and external obliques, serratus posterior inferior, transverse abdominis, and rectus abdominis.

cricothyroid muscle; where its located, what happens when it contracts?

located at the front of the cricoid cartilage. This muscle is of primary importance in pitch control. pars recta: causes the rotation of the thyroid cartilage to be downward and forward. Pars oblique: comes from the arch of the inferior horn. when they contract, they make the thyroid rock forward and stiffens the vocal folds by stretching them. -Only muscle innervated by the superior laryngeal nerve of the vagus nerve (vagus X). -Cough reflex, throat clearing: closes the airway to protect the lungs. -Has more intervention above the vocal folds because if something gets past the vocal folds, we can choke.

describe the structures of the larynx.

main cartilages: Cricoid- attached to the top of the trachea. inferior horns rest on surface so that the two cartilages can rock back forth. superior horns connect the larynx upward to the hyoid bone, a small bone in the root of the tongue. Thyroid- composed of right and left plates. they fuse to form a notch which can be felt on the outside; Adams apple. Two arytenoids- rest on the thick part of the cricoid cartilage. Fronts of arytenoid contain the vocal processes, which are the attachment points for the vocal folds. The muscular process sticks out behind and laterally, providing attachments for some of the intrinsic muscles of the larynx. epiglottis- projects upward towards the tongue. vocal ligaments- the innermost part of the vocal folds that connect to the two arytenoid cartilages.

How does body posture influence or change how we breathe?

poor posture- breathing is far more difficult, because the lungs cannot be filled as easily with air. Leaning over squeezes your lungs, making them smaller, and decreasing your breathing volume. Shallow breathing means less oxygen into your system. Less oxygen means less energy.

muscles for exhalation in speech breathing:

same as inhalation - the abdominal muscles maintain a steady contraction where we slowly relax the intercostal muscles in order to keep the air pressure at 0.5-0.9 kPa.

Muscles for forced inhalation

serratus anterior, sternoclidomastoid, levator costalis, pectoralis major and minor.

If Katie has damage to the external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve, what aspect of her speech would be most affected? Describe two compensatory strategies she could use to make up for the resulting deficit.

she would have difficulty speaking and swallowing. The most common effect on the voice would be reduced fundamental frequency range and reduction in the highest obtainable fundamental frequency.

What is the role of the glottis during phonation?

the glottis opens and closes in a regular manner and the sound of the vibration is voicing.

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

the maximum volume of air you can expel after tidal expiration. (over 1L in males, under 1L in females)

What structures are in the respiratory system? What does this system do?

the ribcage, lungs, trachea, and all supporting muscles (including the diaphragm). The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide. responsible for the movement of air throughout the body.

What must the vocal folds look like to phonate?

the vocal folds must be close enough together, but not pressed against one another, for phonation to occur.

What are the two movements of the arytenoids?

they can pivot on the cricoid cartilage or slide along its edge. The cuneiform and corniculate cartilage sit ontop of the arytenoids.

Why are the false vocal folds called what they are?

they contain no muscles, and are not under direct muscular control.

What happens when the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles contract?

they pivot the arytenoid cartilages so that the vocal processes turn inward, adducting or moving the vocal folds together.

What is the vital capacity made up of?

tidal volume(TV) + inspiratory reserve volume(IRV) + expiratory reserve volume(ERV)

What is functional residual capacity (FRC)?

under normal functioning - the amount of air that's in the lungs after exhalation and completely relaxing (below REL which is ERV + RV).

When is the laryngeal structure closed off? Describe vocal fold, ventricular fold, and aryepiglottic fold.

vocal folds- the strongest of the folds when closed. They close during phonation. ventricular fold: this fold is made up of weak adipose tissue and it may lay down on the vocal folds during yelling (high amplitude phonation). aryepiglottic fold: this is what the epiglottis sits on when closed. It holds the cuneiform in it's membrane but only 70% of people have the cuneiform. The laryngeal structure is closed off during birthing, lifting heavy weights, throwing up, and coughing.

What happens to the vocal folds when we whisper?

whispering is a form of voicelessness. It is speech without sound. The vocal folds cycle between and open voiceless state and a more closed whisper state. the IA muscles are contracted slightly and so are the PCA muscles in order to ABDUCT sound the vocal folds just enough to prevent sound.