Anki Biology
In infected cells, the MHC produces proteins with which function?
"Display ""nonself"" markers on the plasma membrane"
Dyads are...
"Replicated chromosomes containing two sister chromatids that look like an ""X"""
The diastole phase of circulation is associated with the:
"closing of semilunar valves<div>""dub"" of ""lub dub""</div>"
Prokaryotic ribosomal units
(30S + 50S), assemble in nucleoid and form complete ribosome in cytosol (70S)
Three methods of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria:
1. conjugation- use pili to copy and transfer F plasmid<div>2. transformation - take up extracellular DNA (need to be competent)</div><div>3. transduction - virus transfer RNA between hosts </div>
Single allele gene cross for heterozygous x heterozygous
1/4 AA, 1/2 Aa, 1/4 aa
Single allele gene cross for homozygous x homozygous
1:1 AA or 1:1 Aa or 1:1 aa
Single allele gene cross for homozygous x heterozygous
1:2 AA or aa and 1:2 Aa
F2 generation of a monohybrid cross will have a _______ genotype ratio and a ________ phenotype ratio
1:2:1 and 3:1
Krebs cycle / TCA reaction and location
2 Acetyl-CoA -> 4CO<sub>2</sub> + 6 NADH + 2 FADH<sub>2</sub> + 2 GTP<div>mitochondrial matrix, cytosol for prokaryotes</div><div><br></div>
Pyruvate manipulations
2 Pyruvate -> 2 CO<sub>2</sub> + 2 NADH + 2 acetyl-CoA<div>Pyruvate dehydrogenase works in the mitochondrial matrix where pyruvate undergoes decarboxylation, oxidation, and addition of CoA</div>
Left lung has _____ lobes and right lung has _____ lobes
2, 3
If 2n=46, how many tetrads are present during metaphase I?
23
If a cell has 46 chromosomes at the beginning of meiosis, at the end of meiosis I each cell would have...
23 chromosomes / 46 chromatids
# of chromosomes and chromatids during end of meiosis II
23, 23 (haploid gametes)
# of chromosomes and chromatids during end of meiosis I
23, 46
# of chromosomes and chromatids during prophase and metaphase II
23, 46
single nondisjunction during meiosis II causes
24, 22, 23, 23 chromosomes in haploid daughter cells
We have ___ adrenal glands. Each adrenal gland has an outer _________ and an inner __________.
2<div>cortex</div><div>medulla</div>
TEM gives ____ images while SEM gives _____ images
2D, 3D
DNA polymerase adds to ... ends
3'
RNA polymerase travels in the .... direction and extends in the .... direction
3'-> 5' , 5' -> 3'
How many layers in the uterus?
3, peri, myo, endo
Eukaroytic ribosomal units
40S + 60S, assemble in nucleoplasm and form complete ribosome in cytosol (80S)
How many chromosomes and chromatids are present during anaphase and telophase II?
46
How many chromosomes are present during anaphase I?
46 (all thru meiosis I, giving 23 chromosomes to each daughter cell)
# of chromosomes and chromatids during anaphase and telophase II
46, 46
# of chromosomes and chromatids during end of mitosis
46, 46 (diploid)
# of chromosomes and chromatids during Metaphase
46, 92
# of chromosomes and chromatids during meiosis I
46, 92
# of chromosomes and chromatids during prophase:
46, 92
During metaphase and prophase, how many chromosomes/chromatids are present?
46, 92
single nondisjunction during mitosis leads to...
47, 45 chromosomes in daughter cells
Three main types of post-transcriptional modification
5' 7MetG cap added during elongation to protect from degradation <div>3' PolyA tail</div><div>Splicing out introns</div>
# of chromosomes and chromatids during Anaphase:
92, 92
# of chromosomes and chromatids during Telophase
92, 92
How many chromosomes are present during anaphase?
92, each chromatid = chromosome
In a dihybrid cross, the F2 phenotype ratio should be:
9:3:3:1 <div>DD: Dd: dD: dd</div><div>Where D = dominant trait and d = recessive trait for two different traits</div>
Vascular tissue types and function
<div>Transport materials from a source to a sink</div>Phloem, Xylem
Reptilia
<div>Turtle, snake, crocodile, alligator</div>Three chambered heart, crocs and gators have four chambers<div>lungs, mainly terrestrial, cold blooded / poikilothermic</div>
Ground tissue types and function
<div>provide structural support, makes up mass</div>Parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma
What is the best radioactive isotope to mark a nucleic acid?
<sup>32</sup>P
What is an episome?
A closed circular DNA molecule replicated inside the nucleus
Define a species
A group that can interbreed, have viable, fertile offspring
Define the notochord
A length of cartilage extending along the body, becoming part of the spinal discs <div>mesoderm</div>
What is brackish water?
A mix between salt and fresh water, as found in an estuary
Tetrads are..
A pair of two homologous chromosomes each with two sister chromatids
Primary succession begins with:
A pioneer species, such as lichen, fungi, or algae
What do frog embryos lack, that is present in most animals embryos?
A primitive streak
From a fragment of DNA, what would have the least amount of nucleotides?
A single strand cDNA from the original DNA
Define biotic potential
A species' ability to undergo its highest population growth when conditions are ideal
Describe allelopathy
A type of interference competition, where the establishment of other individuals that would compete for the same resource is prevented
Universal acceptor
AB+
What hormone does the posterior pituitary release and what does it do?
ADH / vasopressin, allows kidneys to reabsorb more water by inserting aquaporins
High energy myosin head that forms a cross bridge with myosin has:
ADP + Pi
What causes myosin head detachment from the actin filament?
ATP
Primary active transport uses..
ATP hydrolysis
Start codon
AUG
The nonliving elements of an ecosystem (temperature, water, light) are termed:
Abiotic factors
What is the function of lacteals?
Absorb fats in the small intestine
What are characteristics of R-selected species?
Abundant, small offspring that mature quickly<div>no parental investment, many do not survive</div><div>Type III survivorship curve</div>
Excitatory NT of neuromuscular junction in vertebrates<div><br><div>Pre-synaptic NT of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems</div></div><div><br></div><div>Post-synaptic NT of parasympathetic nervous system</div>
Acetylcholine
NT that stimulates muscle contraction:
Acetylcholine
Somatic nervous system is most related to which neurotransmitter?
Acetylcholine
Parenchyma:
Act as filler tissue, make up bulk of the plant, have thin cell walls
What are fixed action patterns?
Actions caused a specific releaser or sign stimulus, leads to predictable behaviors
Blood enters the glomerulus from the ________, making said tissue act as a sieve
Afferent arteriole
Diastole occurs..
After atria contract to fill ventricles <div>myocardium is relaxed at this point</div><div>blood pressure is lowest in arteries</div>
Systole occurs...
After ventricles eject their blood into arteries, highest blood pressure in arteries
Define an ecosystem
All the organisms in an ecological community, and the abiotic factors interacting within it
In mammals, what aids the embryo in storage of liquid waste?
Allantois
What develops into the umbilical cord in mammals and forms the urinary bladder in adults?
Allantois
What is the sac that buds off the archenteron, storing waste for disposal?
Allantois
What structure stores uric acid in egg-laying animals, later fusing with the chorion?
Allantois
Describe the law of segregation
Alleles for each gene segregate into separate gametes during meiosis, occurs during Anaphase I
Gap junctions
Allow passage of ions and small molecules between cells
What does ADH do?
Allows nephron connecting duct to become more water permeable, and reabsorbs from the filtrate. Results in a more concentrated filtrate.
What types of cells take the information from rods and cones in the eye?
Amacrine and bipolar cells
Cartilaginous joints that partially move:
Amphiarthrose
What is imprinting?
An innate way that animals learn behaviors that will never be forgotten<div>Occurs during critical imprinting stage</div>
What is an innate behavior happening without thought?
An instinct
Coenzyme
An organic factor, such as vitamins
Active immunity is when:
An organism is infected to a pathogen which causes an initiation of the immune system
What structures have the same function, but do not have a common ancestor?
Analogous structures<div>also known as convergent evolution</div>
During which step can nondisjuction occur in mitosis?
Anaphase
Define divergent evolution:
Animals diverge from a common ancestor
Define parallel evolution
Animals diverge from a common ancestor, but undergo similar changes
What are amniotes?
Animals with an amnion, like reptiles, birds, and mammals
What are anamniotes?
Animals without an amnion, such as amphibians and fish
What phylums use nephridia in their excretory system?
Annelida and Mollusca
What phylums are coelomates?
Annelids, Mollusks, Arthropods, Echinoderms, Chordates
In deuterostomes, the first opening/blastopore that forms gives rise to the:
Anus
A pluripotent cell can differentiate into...
Any of the three germ layers
6 kingdoms:
Archaea, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
The blastopore will eventually form the ______, which becomes the ________
Archenteron, digestive tract
What is the disphotic zone?
Area semi-irradiated with sun, where bioluminescent species can produce light
Where does cleavage of the fertilized egg occur?
As it travels from the oviduct to the uterus
Learning that two things are connected to each other is called:
Associative learning<div>This increases the stimulus response efficiency</div>
Dub sound
Atria are contracting, ventricles are relaxing<div>noise comes from semilunars snapping shut</div>
Intramolecular forces
Attractive forces that hold atoms within a molecule
Lymphocytes
B and T cells, part of adaptive immunity
Low density lipoprotein (LDL)
Bad cholesterol, low protein density, and delivers cholesterol to peripheral tissue
Placental mammals
Bat, whale, mouse, human<div>four chambered heart, lungs, homeotherms, placenta supports fetus</div>
Diastole occurs
Between dub and lub
Carrier protein
Binds to molecule on one side and changes shape to bring it to the other side
How can we see the spread of different species around the world?
Biogeography
What is the term to describe all ecosystems on Earth, and their interactions with each other?
Biosphere
At the uterus, at what stage is the fertilized egg?
Blastocyst
In the chick embryo, what is analagous to the inner cell mass in mammals?
Blastodisc
Smaller cells resulting from cleavage are called:
Blastomeres
Protostome
Blastopore forms mouth
A hollow cavity with ~128 cells is called a :
Blastula
A hollow sphere of cells is called a:
Blastula
What can cause genetic drift? (2 examples)
Bottleneck- where some alleles may be lost due to a disaster<div>Founder effect - some individuals migrate away</div>
spongy mesophyll cells
Bottom of leaf, spaces for gas movement<div>some chloroplasts</div>
Catabolic process involve
Breaking down larger molecules for energy
What method of reproduction do hydra and yeast use?
Budding
MHC II presentation to T cells will cause....
CD4 T cell differentiation, release cytokines to boost innate and adaptive immunity
Mean arterial pressure is found by..
CO x TPR
Stomata are open when...
CO<sub>2</sub> concentration is low (allows for photosynthesis)
Small channels connecting lacunae and the haversian canal are:
Canaliculi
What type of bone is red bone marrow found in?
Cancellous / spongy bone
Deregulation of apoptosis may lead to:
Cancerous growth
What type of hormone is epinephrine, and where is it released from?
Catecholamine, adrenal medulla
Auxins
Cause cell growth, working with cytokinins<div>responsible for plant tropisms, like light, gravity, and contact</div><div>high concentration on one side can lead to asymmetric growth</div>
What would disrupting the AV node do?
Cause simulataneous contraction of atria and ventricles
Platelets / thrombocytes
Cell fragments with no nucleus, responsible for blood clotting<div>release factors that convert fibrinogen to fibrin</div>
What occurs during Gap phase 1?
Cell growth, checkpoint before S phase<div>if conditions are unfavorable, will enter G0</div>
What's the difference between central and peripheral chemoreceptors?
Central only sense CO<sub>2</sub> while peripheral also sense oxygen and protons
The forebrain gives rise to the telencephalon and diencephalon which then give rise to.... (1,3)
Cerebrum<div>thalamus, hypothalamus, pineal gland</div>
What connects the uterus to the vagina?
Cervix
What connects a chick yolk to the ends of the shell, allowing nutrient distribution to the entire embryo?
Chalaza
Gap phase 2
Checking DNA for error after replication<div>checks for Mitosis Promoting Factor</div><div>Replication of organelles</div>
What type of cells secrete gastric lipase to break down fats?
Chief cells
The cell walls of fungi contain...
Chitin, beta glucose molecules with nitrogen-containing groups attached to the ring
What component of the chloroplast absorbs light?
Chlorophyll molecules in the thylakoid membrane
Build cartilage by secreting collagen and elastin:
Chondroblasts
In egg laying-animals, which extra-embryonic membrane allows gas exchange?
Chorion
Which two structures form the placenta?
Chorion and endometrium
Prophase of mitosis description
Chromatin condenses into chromosomes <div>Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear</div>
Prophase I of meiosis
Chromatin condenses into chromosomes<div>crossing over between homologous chromosomes (synapsis to form tetrads)</div><div><br></div>
Telophase of mitosis description
Chromosomes have segregated, nuclear membranes reform<div>Chromosomes decondense into chromatin</div>
Metaphase II
Chromosomes line up single file just like mitosis
Where is the CO<sub>2</sub> mammals exhale produced?
Citric acid cycle in the mitochondrial matrix
Describe the chloride shift
Cl<sup>-</sup> offsetting positive charge of protons after HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> leaves erythrocytes
Mollusca
Clam, snail, slug, octopus<div>Bilateral, triploblasts, open circulatory system with hemocoel, gills,</div><div>one-way digestion, nephridia, protostome</div><div>radula (tongues with teeth - unique)</div>
Rapid cell division without changing the total mass of cells is :
Cleavage
Cytokinesis in mammals
Cleavage furrow develops from microfilaments encircling the center of the cell and shortening
What does the epiglottis do?
Close the trachea when swallowing food, make the food go down the esophagus.
Vertebrate circulation
Closed<div>2 chamber hearts, all deoxy, seen in fish</div><div>3 chambers (2A 1V) - reptiles except gators and crocs</div><div>4 chambers (2A 2V) - birds and humans</div>
What is the euphotic zone?
Closest to the surface, allows for plant survival and photosynthesis
Seedless tracheophytes
Club moss, quillworts, fern<div>heterosporous with flagellated sperm</div>
What features are characteristic of the taiga?
Cold winters and warm, rainy summers<div>coniferous trees, bears</div><div>largest terrestrial biome</div>
What features are characteristic of the tundra?
Cold with little precipitation, permafrost
Describe the tundra
Cold, very little precipitation
Filtrate path after nephrons:
Collecting duct -> renal pelvis -> ureter -> bladder -> urethra
S wave
Completion of ventricular depolarization
Cell matrix junctions function and types:
Connect ECM - cytoskeleton<div>Focal adhesions and hemidesmosomes</div>
How do marine fish maintain homeostasis?
Constantly drink water<div>They are hypoosmotic to their environment, since the sea is salty.</div>
How do freshwater fish maintain homeostasis?
Constantly urinate, they are hyperosmotic / more salty than their environment
What is the function of the epiblast?
Contributes to the main embryo. Cells will thicken to form a primitive streak which defines axes and is crucial for gastrulation to begin
Define homoplasy
Convergent evolution, unrelated species adapt to similar environments, becoming more alike
Denitrifying bacteria will..
Convert nitrates back to atmospheric nitrogen
Describe the temperate grasslands
Cool winters, hot summers, seasonal rain
The stratum corneum contains:
Corneocytes / dead keratinocytes, forming the outer, protective layer
Layers of epidermis from superficial to deep and mnemonic:
Corneum, Lucidum, Granulosum, Spinosum, Basale<div>Come Let's Get Some Beers</div>
What nourishes the developing egg?
Corona radiata
Each of our two kidneys consist of 3 parts, what are they and what are their functions?
Cortex (outer portion where blood enters)<div>medulla (middle)</div><div>pelvis (inner portion where filtrate exits)</div>
Compact bone is also known as
Cortical bone
Who proposed the evolutionary theory of catastrophism?
Cuvier
Cytoplasm
Cytosol + organelles
3 Parts of small intestine:
D > J > I<div>Duodenum (digestion), Jejunum, and ileum (absorption)</div>
The meninges protect the CNS and have three layers:
DAP from outer to inner:<div>Dura -> arachnoid -> pia</div>
Epigenetic changes examples and effects:
DNA methylation- gene suppression<div>Histone acetylation - gene activation and formation of euchromatin</div><div>Histone de-acetylation - gene suppression, formation of heterochromatin</div>
Which technique allows identification of gene expression?
DNA microarray
Factors that contribute to DNA mutations
DNA pol errors<div>Loss of DNA during meiosis crossing over</div><div>chemical damage</div><div>radiation</div>
What occurs during embryonic cleavage from zygote to morula?
Decrease in the blastomere size
What is the function of siRNA?
Degrade target RNA or block its translation
What are the requirements for natural selection to occur?
Demand exceeds supply, leading to competition<div>Difference in levels of fitness due to variation in traits</div><div>Variation in traits must be genetically-influenced to be passed on</div><div>Variation in traits must be significant for survival</div>
What organs are made from the mesoderm?
Dermis, muscle, skeleton, circulatory system, gonads, kidneys, respiratory tracts, notochord, spleen, adrenal cortex
What is ELISA used for?
Determine if a specific antigen exists
What consumes detritus, exposing more organic material for decomposers?
Detritivores, like worms and slugs
What do saprophytes, like fungi and some bacteria, form?
Detritus
What controls respiratory rate?
Diaphragm which is controlled by medulla oblongata
Synovial joints that fully move, typically containing hyaline cartilage:
Diarthroses
What type of natural selection favors one extreme?
Directional selection
What type of natural selection favors rare traits, forming a bimodal curve?
Disruptive selection
Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm and cell membrane
Karyokinesis
Division of the nucleus
What is the order of classification levels?
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species <div>( Dear King Phillip Came Over From Great Spain)</div>
What develops into the spinal cord in chordates?
Dorsal hollow nerve cord
Where does gastrulation begin in a frog embryo?
Dorsal lip of blastopore, which forms at the site of the gray crescent
If no implantation occurs during the menstrual cycle, what will happen hormone levels, and the corpus luteum and endometrium?
Drop, corpus luteum not maintained, and the endometrium sloughs off causing menstruation
Focal adhesions
ECM connects via integrins to actin microfilaments inside the cell
Hemidesmosomes
ECM connects via integrins to intermediate filaments inside cell
Annelida
Earthworm, leech<div>bilateral, triploblasts, closed circulatory system,</div><div>most have metanephridia</div><div>protostome, segmented bodies, sexual and asexual</div>
What is the function of Kupffer cells?
Eat bacteria and break down hemoglobin (red) to bilirubin (yellow) for secretion in the bile
Sudoriferous glands consist of
Eccrine glands and apocrine glands
What are the factors influencing development?
Embryonic induction, homeotic genes, egg cytoplasm determinant, apoptosis
What does the amnion do and where is it?
Encloses the amniotic cavity, cushions embryo; innermost layer
When is intrapleural pressure of the lungs highest?
End of exhalation
When does intrapulmonary pressure reach zero?
End of inhalation
When is intrapleural pressure of the lungs most negative?
End of inhalation
Epiblast cells will invaginate inwards during gastrulation through the primitive streak to give these three germ layers:
Endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm
membrane located between cortical and cancellous bone
Endosteum
Glycogen
Energy storage for humans and is an alpha bonded polysaccharide, more branched than starch
Starch
Energy storage for plants and is an alpha bonded polysaccharide. Linear starch = amylose, branched = amylopectin
Villi are made of:
Enterocytes
What converts trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen to their active forms in the duodenum?
Enteropeptidase
Functional residual capacity
Entire volume of air in lungs after a normal exhalation<div>expiratory reserve volume + residual volume</div>
What type of cell produces cerebrospinal fluid?
Ependymal cells
The most superficial layer of the skin, containing keratinocytes and no blood vessels:
Epidermis
Plant Dermal tissue types:
Epidermis, root hairs
Growth plate located between epiphysis and metaphysis:
Epiphyseal plate, made out of hyaline cartilage, works to lengthen diaphysis through ossification
The gas that increases fruit ripening is:
Ethylene
Eubacteria and archaea differences
Eubacteria have peptidoglycan, lipids bound via ester linkage while archaea have ether linkage<div>unique ribosomes</div><div>Archaea contain introns and histones</div>
Epinephrine and norepinephrine function and location:
Excitatory postsynaptic NT of sympathetic nervous system
The trophoblast, or outer ring of cells is resonsible for:
Extraembryonic membranes (amnion, yolk sac, chorion, allantois), supports embryo<div>Implants embryo in uterus</div><div>Produces HCG, which maintains the corpus luteum and endometrium</div>
What features are characteristic of the deserts?
Extreme temperature fluctuations between night and day, cacti, nocturnal animals
In the luteal phase of menstruation, the follicle develops into the corpus luteum, which is maintain by what hormones?
FSH and LH
Passive diffusion
Facilitated transport down concentration gradient without energy use
What triggers cholecystokinin, where is it made, and what does it do?
Fats/proteins ; small intestine ; stimulates gallbladder to release bile
Flower pistil
Female sex organ, composed of stigma (top), style (tube to ovary) and ovary (contains ovule or egg)
High rigidity and resists tension, found in intervertebral discs and knee meniscus:
Fibrous cartilage
What are the functions of the cerebellum?
Fine tuning motor inputs, balance, coordination
Cotyledons
First leaves to appear on seedling, contain nutrients from seed
Gymnosperms:
First seeded plants, seed not protected, conifers<div>sperm is non-flagellated and dispersed by wind</div>
Simple diffusion
Flow of small, uncharged, nonpolar substances across the membrane down their concentration gradient
Follicular phase of the menstrual cycle is stimulated by GnRH from the hypothalamus, as well as LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary. What do these hormones cause?
Follicles to develop, estrogen release, endometrium thickining, rapid LH spike and then ovulation
Intermolecular forces
Forces that exist between molecules and affect physical properties of a substance
Tight junctions
Form water-tight seals between cells to ensure substances pass through cells and not between them
What are ichnofossils?
Fossils of animal traces
Contractile vacuoles
Found in single-celled organisms and works to actively pump out excess water
Birds
Four chambered heart, lungs, homeotherms
Which area of the eye has the most photoreceptors and is responsible for high acuity vision?
Fovea
3' end of DNA contains a
Free OH
Secondary active transport uses...
Free energy released when other molecules flow down their concentration gradient
Amphibia
Frog, toad<div>Three chambered heart, gills then lungs, no scales</div><div>undergo metamorphosis</div><div>tadpoles are aquatic while adults are terrestrial</div>
Exception to holoblastic cleavage: This animal has lots of yolk but undergoes uneven cleavage:
Frogs
What feature is unique to fungi?
Fungi cell walls are made of glucans and chitin
<div>Protist types and details</div>
Fungus-like: BUT no chitin cell wall, move via cilia or flagella, saprophytic<div>Plant-like: very important primary producers, (dinoflagellates, diatoms, euglenoids), photoautotrophic</div><div>Dinoflagellates are responsible for red tide which depletes water of oxygen</div><div>Animal-like/ protozoa: have food vacuoles and are heterotrophic</div>
Food entry to the stomatch causes _____ cells to release ______, a hormone with these 2 functions:
G, gastrin<div>Stimulate parietal and chief cells</div>
Cell specific checkpoints at:
G0, end of G2, and M (during metaphase)
Inhibitory NT in the brain
GABA
Lactose
Galactose + glucose
Dominant generation in bryophytes:
Gametophyte
The formation of a trilaminar embryo is called:
Gastrulation
When allele frequencies change by chance, what is occurring?
Genetic drift
What are the factors affecting microevolution?
Genetic drift, non-random mating, mutations, natural selection, and gene flow
Fish respiratory system
Gills with a large surface area and use countercurrent exchange (fluids move in opposite directions)<div>creates a diffusion gradient, allowing more oxygen to enter blood</div><div>Water then leaves through operculum</div>
Sucrose
Glucose + fructose
Maltose
Glucose + glucose
Glycolysis reaction and location
Glucose -> 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 pyruvate<div>cytosol, no O2 needed</div><div>uses substrate-level phosphorylation</div><div><br></div>
Main excitatory NT of CNS
Glutamate
Liver functions related to glucose:
Glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis
Aerobic cellular respiration has these catabolic processes..
Glycolysis<div>pyruvate manipulations</div><div>Krebs cycle</div><div>Oxidative phosphorylation</div>
Two monosaccharides are joined by a:
Glycosidic bond, dehydration/condensation reaction
What cell secretes mucus to protect the epithelial lining from chyme?
Goblet cells
High density lipoprotein (HDL)
Good cholesterol, takes cholesterol away from peripheral tissue and to liver
During ovulation, the egg is released from the ________
Graafian follicle
Evolution is best defined as:
Gradual development and change of heritable traits / allele frequencies in populations over successive generations
Where are teichoic acids found and what do they do?
Gram-positive bacteria, keep the cell wall rigid
Eosinophils act by releasing ...
Granules
Secondary succession begins with:
Grasses and shrubs
Plant tissue types:
Ground, Vascular, Dermal
Area where only myosin is present
H zone
What are the prezygotic isolation factors?
Habitat isolation, temporal isolation, behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation, gamete isolation
Tubes that contain blood vessels for nutrient suppy in bones:
Haversian canals
Carboxyhemoglobin
HbCO, CO outcompetes oxygen for binding
carbaminohemoglobin
HbCO<sub>2</sub>, transports carbon dioxide, most is dissolved as bicarbonate anion
What are the functions of the medulla oblongata?
Heart and breathing rate, blood pressure, toxin sensing
Haldane effect
Hemoglobin has increase carbon dioxide affinity when oxygen is low
What were the first living cells?
Heterotrophic prokaryotes
Describe the savanna
High temperatures, low amount of seasonal rainfall
What are the functions and lobes of the cerebral cortex?
Higher level thinking ; frontal, temporal, occipital, parietal
Mast cells release ______ which ______ blood vessels
Histamine, dilates
Cleavage that is throughout the entire embryo and evenly divides it is called: <div>It is characteristic of animals with _______ yolk</div>
Holoblastic<div>Little (human, sea urchin)</div>
What is known as the master controller, turning different genes on or off?
Homeotic genes
Describe the law of independent assortment
Homologous chromosomes separate independently from one another during Metaphase I<div>can produce 2<sup>23</sup> options</div>
What structures may or may not have the same function but have a common ancestor?
Homologous structures
Specificity constant measures
How efficient an enzyme is at binding to the substrate and converting it to product
Slightly flexible and important in providing support and stability to joints:
Hyaline cartilage
What are the postzygotic isolation factors?
Hybrid mortality, hybrid sterility, hybrid F2 breakdown
Secondary structure in proteins is due to
Hydrogen bonding between polypeptide backbone
Lysosomes functions
Hydrolyze substances, acidic digestive enzymes, autophagy, apoptosis
Inorganic mineral found in bone, giving it strength:
Hydroxyapatite
Over-secretion of T3 and T4 is known as:
Hyperthyroidism
The inner cell mass will form the embryo. It differentiates into what layers during what stage?
Hypoblast and epiblast during bilaminar stage
What part of the brain monitor's the body's temperature?
Hypothalamus
ADH/vasopressin is produced in the ______ and stored in the ______
Hypothalamus, posterior pituitary
Under-secretion of T3 and T4 is known as:
Hypothyroidism
Area where only actin is present
I band
Which photosystems are used in photosynthesis?
II (P<sub>680</sub>) and I (P<sub>700</sub>)
What is the most abundant antibody transferred through breastfeeding?
IgA
These types of mutations can shift the reading frame...
Insertions and deletions
Where does water undergo photolysis?
Inside of the thylakoid
What kind of proteins are aquaporins and how do they work?
Integral membrane proteins, use facilitated diffusion to move water down its' concentration gradient.
Facilitated transport
Integral proteins allow larger molecules to enter the cell
Tertiary structure in proteins is due to
Interactions between R-groups
Cell cycle spends most time in...
Interphase: G1, S, G0, G2
Direct creation of bone is called:
Intramembranous ossification
How does cAMP affect the lac operon?
It binds to catabolite activator protein, which then binds near the lac operon promoter and attracts RNA pol
How does trp affect the trp operon?
It binds to trp repressor, which attaches to the operator and prevents trp production<div>when trp is not present, the operon will be transcribed </div>
Where is the chorion and what does it do in placental mammals?
It is the outermost layer, it forms fetal half of the placenta, allowing for exchange of gases, nutrients and waste
What is the evolutionary order of fish?
Jawless -> Cartilaginous -> Lobe-finned
Cnidaria
Jellyfish, coral<div>radial, diploblasts, eumetazoa, diffusion, nerve net, gastrovascular cavity (one opening) </div><div>some have nematocysts (cells shooting poison), </div><div>can switch from polyp (immotile, asexual) to medusa (motile, sexual)</div>
What cells can detect changes in blood pressure and sodium levels and what do they do when levels are low?
Juxtaglomerular cells release renin
Marsupials
Kangaroo, opossum<div>four chambered heart, lungs, homeotherms, feed young with milk</div>
Anaphase of mitosis description
Kinetochore microtubules shorten to pull sister chromatids apart<div>Sister chromatids are considered separate chromosomes, chromosome number doubles</div>
Competitive inhibition
Km increases while Vmax stays the same
Noncompetitive inhibition
Km stays the same while Vmax decreases
Surge in ____ causes ovulation, which also results in this:
LH, corpus luteum
Small spaces between lamellae that hold bone cells and interconnect through canaliculi are:
Lacunae
Where do osteocytes live?
Lacunae in osteons to maintain bone
Layers of the osteon are:
Lamella
Types of chordates
Lancelets, tunicates, jawless fish, cartilaginous fish, bony fish, amphibia, monotremes, marsupials, placental mammals, reptiles, birds
Cell division occurs when the S/V or G/V is too...
Large
What are the Hardy Weinberg assumptions?
Large, Random, no MNM<div>Large pop. , random mating, no mutations, natural selection, or migration / gene flow</div>
When does cytokinesis begin in animal cells?
Late anaphase with a cleavage furrow
Three phases of a twitch:
Latent (signal spreads), contraction (cross bridge formation), relaxation (Ca back to sarcoplasmic reticulum
Secondary growth is horizontal growth occurring at..
Lateral meristems, only occurs in woody plants
What is operant conditioning?
Learning to associate a behavior with a reward or a punishment
Describe the law of parsimony
Less assumptions is most preferred, simplest explanation is probably the most accurate
LH will stimulate ________ to produce testosterone
Leydig cells
Testosterone is produced by:
Leydig cells
Connect bone to bone:
Ligaments
Which enzyme connects Okazaki fragments together in prokaryotes?
Ligase
What organs are made from the endoderm?
Lining of digestive and layer of respiratory tracts, PLTT<div>Pancreas, Liver, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Thymus</div>
Fats are digested by...
Lipases through lipolysis, then absorbed by enterocytes in the small intestine
What are characteristics of K-selected species?
Long gestation<div>Few, large offspring taking a long time to mature</div><div>significant parental investment</div><div>high survival</div><div>Type I survivorship curve</div>
What kind of ganglionic nerves are in the PNS?
Long preganglionic nerves and short postganglionic nerves<div>ganglia close to effector organs</div>
Types of bones in endoskeleton
Long, short, flat, sesamoid
What is macroevolution?
Long-term evolution, occurs at a level at or higher than species
Partial cleavage, where the embryo is not evenly divided occurs in animals with:<div>This type of cleavage exhibits an animal pole and a vegetal pole</div>
Lots of yolk, like birds, fish, and reptiles<div>Meroblastic (animal -> active cleavage)</div>
Overall characteristics of frog embryo:
Lots of yolk, uneven holoblastic cleavage with animal (dark) and vegetal (light) poles
What will shift a hemoglobin curve to the RIGHT?
Low pH / high [H<sup>+</sup>], high temperature, high CO<sub>2</sub>, 2,3-BPG<div><b>CADET</b>, face Right!</div><div><b>C</b>O<sub>2</sub>, <b>A</b>cid, 2,3-<b>D</b>PG, <b>E</b>xercise and <b>T</b>emperature</div><div>increase in CADET -> right shift</div>
What prevents reflux from the stomach back into the esophagus?
Lower esphagel sphincter / cardiac sphincter
What does low breathing to do blood pH?
Lowers it / more acidic, increases CO<sub>2</sub> buildup.
A surge of which hormone causes ovulation in females?
Luteinizing hormone
What hormone stimulates ovulation, corpus luteum formation?
Luteinizing hormone
Myosin filaments branch from the _________ to the end of the sarcomere
M line
Organ transplants with a different ______ may lead to failure and rejection
MHC I
autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system attacks self _____
MHC I
Antigen-presentin cell types
Macrophages / monocytes / dendritic cells
What is the order of sperm movement?
Made in <b>s</b>eminiferous tubules, then moved to <b>e</b>pididymis to mature, then go through <b>v</b>as deferens to <b>e</b>jaculatory ducts, then through <b>u</b>rethra and <b>p</b>enis<div><br><div><b>SEVEN UP</b></div></div>
Golgi apparatus
Made up of cisternae that modify and package substances<div>Vesicles come from ER and reach cis face, leave from trans face</div>
What do Intermediate filaments do and what are examples?
Mainly help with structural support<div>kertain, lamins (make up nuclear lamina)</div>
What is the definition of adaptive radiation?
Many species arise from one ancestor as they adapt differently to their environments
Iteroparity:
Mate many times in a lifetime
Classes of antibodies mnemonic
Me And Eve Don't Go<div>M A E D G </div>
Located in the diaphysis and contains red and yellow bone marrow:
Medullary cavity
Meiosis is separated into...
Meiosis I (homologous chromosomes separate)<div>Meiosis II (sister chromatids separate)</div>
Mitosis is very similar to _____ because ______ are separated
Meiosis II, sister chromatids
Key cells for vaccinations
Memory B cells
What germ layer is the coelom derived from?
Mesoderm
Which germ layer produces the notochord?
Mesoderm
Plant cells contain these cell junctions...
Middle lamina <div>Plasmodesmata</div>
What features are characteristic of the chaparral?
Mild winters with hot, dry summers<div>Scattered vegetation, common droughts and fires</div>
Which stages of mitosis and meiosis are most similar?
Mitotic metaphase and meiosis metaphase II
A ball of blastomeres, around 12-16 cells is called a:
Morula
A solid ball of cells that then develops into the blastula is the:
Morula
Pulmonary circulation
Moves deoxy blood from heart to lungs and back<div>RA -> Tricuspid -> RV -> pulmonary SL -> pulmonary artery -> lung -> pulmonary vein -> LA</div>
Systemic circulation
Moves oxy blood<div>LA -> Bicuspid -> LV -> aortic semilunar -> aorta -> body -> vena cava -> RA</div>
What protects the stomach lining from acid?
Mucous cells producing mucus
Muscle hierarchy
Muscle -> fascicles -> fibers (cells) -> myofibrils -> sarcomeres -> myofilaments
Oligodendrocytes will:
Myelinate axons in CNS
Schwann cells will:
Myelinate axons in the PNS
Oxidative phosphorylation
NADH + FADH<sub>2</sub> + O<sub>2</sub> -> ATP + H<sub>2</sub>O<div>Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis produce ATP</div><div>mitochondrial <b>inner membrane </b>is ETC while it is cell membrane for prokaryotes</div><div>protons pumped from matrix to intermembrane space as complexes I-IV work, forming an electrochemical gradient and making the intermembrane space very acidic</div><div><br></div>
In non-cyclic photophosphorylation, electrons are sent to a short ETC that terminates with what enzyme?
NADP<sup>+</sup> reductase
Overall pathway of air
Nasal cavity -> pharynx -> larynx -> trachea -> bronchi -> bronchioles -> alveoli
What phylums are pseudocoelomates?
Nematodes, rotifers
What is the functional unit of a kidney and what are the four processes that occur there?
Nephron<div>Filtration, reabsorption, secretion, excretion</div>
Neurulation is the development of the nervous system. What is the third step in this process, after formation of the neural groove?
Neural fold continues to fold, forming a hollow tube, the neural tube. Some cells will roll off, forming neural crest cells (teeth, bones, etc.)
Neurulation is the development of the nervous system. What is the second step in this process, after formation of the neural plate?
Neural plate folds onto itself, forming the neural fold/ groove
Five main types of leukocytes and mnemonic from highest to lowest
Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas
What are the abundances of elements in Earth's current atmosphere?
Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon (0.9%), trace amounts of CO<sub>2</sub>, methane, ozone
What is the aphotic zone?
No light, some fish can survive off of dead matter descending to the ocean floor
Cofactor
Non-protein molecule that helps enzymes function
Fungi types and details
Nonfilametous (yeast) - unicellular, reproduce by budding, facultative anaerobes<div>filamentous (molds) - multicellular, multinucleate (make hyphae), reproduce sexually, aerobic</div>
Neurulation is the development of the nervous system. What is the first step in this process?
Notochord stimulates ectoderm to thicken, forming the neural plate
Universal donor
O-
Where do the light dependent reactions occur and what do they do?
Occur in thylakoid lumen<div>harness light energy to make ATP and NADPH, which is used in calvin cycle</div>
Polyandry:
One female multiple males
Pleiotropy is when...
One gene is responsible for many traits
"Who proposed the organic ""soup"" theory? "
Oparin and Haldane
Channel protein
Open tunnel that faces both sides of bilayer
Where does the gray crescent form in a frog embryo, and why does it form?
Opposite to the site of sperm entry<div>Mixing of animal and vegetal poles</div>
What is a lithotroph?
Organisms that use inorganic compounds as electron donors during cellular respiration (bacteria)
Eat and resorb bone, bringing calcium back into the blood:
Osteoclasts, derived from monocytes
Cortical bone's function unit:
Osteons / haversian systems with a haversian canal at their center
Immature precursor cells that mature into osteoblasts
Osteoprogenitors
Hydrostatic pressure pushes fluid...
Out of the capillaries on the arterial end into interstitial space
Epidermis of leaf
Outer layer of cells that provides protection and prevents water loss
What structure allows movement of egg from ovary to uterus?
Oviduct
Where does fertilization occur?
Oviduct
Where does the egg get swept into to await fertilization?
Oviduct
The milk let down reflex is caused by what hormone?
Oxytocin
Satellite cells are located in the ____ and function similarly to ____
PNS, astrocytes
Describe classical conditioning
Pairing a neutral stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus (which causes an unconditioned response)<div>Conditions the response to be paired with a neutral stimulus, resulting in a conditioned response</div>
Sebaceous glands can be found everywhere except:
Palms and soles of feet
The stratum lucidum can be found in:
Palms and soles of feet, with dead keratinocytes not yet corneocytes
Gland with exocrine and endocrine tissue:
Pancreas
2 Layers of Dermis and characteristics:
Papillary: superficial and thin, high surface area<div>Reticular: deep and thick, made of irregular connective tissue</div>
Pleura has two layers. What are they?
Parietal / outer<div>visceral / inner</div>
What type of cells secrete acidic gastric juice?
Parietal cells
What is the function of the hypoblast?
Partially contribute to yolk sac, remainder degenerates via apoptosis
How are amino acids joined together?
Peptide bonds/ dehydration / condensation reactions
Neutrophils
Phagocytes, over half of all leukocytes
Common point between digestive and respiratory systems:
Pharynx
Nucleotides are connected by:
Phosphodiester bonds from 5' C to 3' C
What are the two theories of macroevolution?
Phyletic gradualism (not likely), punctuated equilibrium (short spurts of changes, supported by fossils)
What allows bacteria to stick to a surface?
Pili
Melatonin is produced in the _____
Pineal gland
Nitrogen fixation
Plants have a symbiotic relationship with bacteria
B cells will divide into ________ or ________ through clonal expansion
Plasma cells (Antibodies) or memory B cells (activated later)
Which phyla does not have a complete digestive system?
Platyhelminthes and cnidaria
What phylum lacks a coelom, and what are examples?
Platyhelminthes, trematodes, flatworms, flukes, tapeworms
Monotremes
Platypus, anteater<div>four chambered heart, lungs, warm blooded (homeothermic)</div><div>feed young with milk, leathery eggs</div>
__________ from the bowman's capsule surround the glomerulus to form fenestrations, allowing small substances to be filtered into the bowman's capsule while larger substances remain in the blood
Podocytes
Plant fertilization
Pollen lands on stigma -> tube cell elongates forming pollen tube -> generative cell travels down to ovary -> splits forming two sperm cells (double fertilization)<div>one sperm cell meets ovule forming the embryo for fruit</div><div>other sperm cell combines with polar nuclei forming endosperm</div>
Animal phyla:
Porifera, cnidaria, platyhelminthes, nematoda, rotifera, annelida, mollusca, arthropoda, echinodermata, chordata<div>privileged children play nicely rapidly and maturely, arthur ensures cooperation</div>
Oxytocin is stored and released by the _____
Posterior pituitary
Megakaryocytes
Precursor to platelets
Define microevolution
Process of gene frequencies changing within a population over generations
Function of the prostate gland:
Produce alkaline secretions to counteract uterine acidity
Type 2 epithelial cells
Produce surfactant, prevents lungs from collapsing by reducing surface tension
What event terminated abiotic chemical evolution?
Production of the ozone layer, as oxygen reacted with UV
What is a bacteriophage that has inserted its genetic material into the genome of the host cell?
Prophage
Primary oocytes are arrested in ______ until puberty
Prophase I
Fibronectin
Protein that connects integrin to ECM and helps with signal transduction
The least desirable energy source are...
Proteins
What organism can be animal-like, fungus-like, unicellular, or multicellular?
Protists
Describe proton flow during photosynthesis
Protons flow from the thylakoid lumen to the stroma as they synthesize ATP
Describe proton flow in mitochondria
Protons flow into the matrix as ATP synthase functions
Collenchyma:
Provide extra support, have irregular cell walls
Sclerenchyma
Provide main structural support of plant, have thick cell walls
Desmosomes
Provide support against mechanical stress<div>Connects neighboring cells via intermediate filaments</div>
Open circulatory system:
Pump fluid called hemolymph into sinuses or hemocoel, includes some mollusca, arthropoda, echinodermata
DNA fingerprinting uses..
RFLPs and short tandem repeats (STRs)
ATP is an...
RNA nucleoside triphosphate
Deuterostomes undergo _______ cleavage
Radial, where the cells are aligned in a vertical axis
plant embryo consists of 4 parts:
Radicle- develops into root, protects seed<div>hypocotyl- bottom region of young shoot</div><div>plumule - top region / shoot tip</div>
What does excessive breathing to do the blood pH?
Raises it / more basic
What do mast cells do?
Recognize antigens and release histamine
What are involuntary rapid responses to a stimulus, controlled by a neural circuit?
Reflexes, with simple being faster than complex because complex are controlled by an interneuron
Parasympathetic nervous system effects:
Relax muscles, decrease heart rate, maintain homeostasis, increases gastrointestinal activity
What are the functions of the pons/brainstem?
Relay messages from cerebellum to forebrain<div>Sleep and dreaming</div>
CRH will cause
Release of ACTH
GnRH will cause
Release of LH and FSH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) will cause:
Release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal gland to fight stress
Two types of chemical communication in animals:
Releaser pheromones- immediate<div>Primer pheromones - long term</div>
What allows species in a similar niche to coexist?
Resource partitioning
Microtubule organizing centers
Responsible for forming spindle apparatus, which guides chromosomes during karyokinesis
Palisade mesophyll cells
Right below upper epidermis, has many chloroplasts<div>major site of photosynthesis</div>
Cork cambium is...
Ring of meristematic tissue located outside the phloem, produces cork, the outermost protective layer
Where are nitrogen fixing bacteria located and what do they do?
Root nodules of legumes, N<sub>2</sub> -> ammonia + ammonium
Nematoda
Round worm, C.elegans<div>Bilateral, triploblasts and eumetazoa</div><div>nerve cord and ring, alimentary canal between mouth and anus</div><div>have cuticle to prevent degradation by host digestive system</div>
What is the pacemaker of the heart and where is it located?
SA node ; upper right atrium
Five signs of inflammation:
SLIPR<div>Swelling, loss of function, increased heat, pain, redness</div>
What is reciprocal altruism?
Sacrifices made for other organisms in anticipation of a future reward
Bony fish
Salmon, halibut<div>two chambered heart, gills, scales, bony skeleton</div>
What type of organism decomposes dead or decaying organic material, working with scavengers?
Saprophytes
Muscle fiber's cell membrane is the:
Sarcolemma
Releases calcium ions into the sarcoplasm when triggered by depolarization:
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
What type of animals decompose other dead animals?
Scavengers
What features are characteristic of the deciduous forests?
Seasons, hardwood, small-large mammals and rodents
A tree's growth rings are produced by...
Secondary xylem
Function of the seminal vesicles:
Secrete fructose to produce ATP, mucus to lubricate urethra, and prostaglandins to cause contractions
What is the process of neutralizing acidic chyme from the stomach?
Secretin triggers release of alkaline bicarbonate from the pancreas into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct
What is the process of Imbibition?
Seed absorbing water, breaks seed coat and initiates growth
The ____________ gives information about the person's movement and is the reason we get dizzy
Semicircular canals
What forms in the middle of a unicellular organism undergoing binary fission?
Septum, creates two separate cells
Which cells are stimulated by FSH to surround and nourish sperm? These cells also produce inhibin to inhibit FSH
Sertoli cells
Bones found within tendons to help muscles pull:
Sesamoid bones
Cartilaginous fish
Shark<div>Two chambered heart, gills, jaws and teeth, reduced notochord</div><div>from here on: notochord only in embryonic stage and replaced by vertebrae</div>
What kind of ganglionic nerves are in the SNS?
Short preganglionic nerves and long postganglionic nerves <div>(ganglia far from effector organs)</div>
Point mutation types
Silent - no change due to third base wobble<div>Missense - single AA change, can be conservative or non-conservative</div><div>Nonsense - introduce stop codon</div>
Adherens junctions
Similar in structure and function to desmosomes, but connects neighboring cells via actin microfilaments
Monocots
Single cotyledon, long narrow leaf with parallel veins, scattered vascular bundels, and 3 part floral multiples, no taproot
Anaphase II
Sister chromatids are pulled apart, become separate chromosomes, chromosome number doubles
In centrifugation, what determines if a cellular component ends up in the pellet or supernatant?
Size and weight
What moves blood through veins?
Skeletal muscles squeezing the veins
Innate immune system outer walls:
Skin, cilia, stomach acid, symbiotic bacteria
Responible for 90% of digestion and nutrient absorption:
Small intestine
Lacteals are
Small lymphatic vessels that take fats to the rest of the body
Parietal lobe function:
Spatial / visual perception, touch / pain / temperature sensation
Types of associative learning:
Spatial learning, sensitization, habituation, observational learning, insight
Temporal lobe functions:
Speech, language, hearing
Male and female germ cells:
Spermatogonia and oogonia
Metaphase of mitosis description
Spindle apparatus guides chromosomes to metaphase plate
Protostomes undergo _______ cleavage, where the cells are misaligned
Spiral
Porifera
Sponge, asymmetrical, parazoa, diffusion, digests with amoebocytes<div>sessile, aquatic, earliest animals, reproduce sexually or asexually</div>
Cancellous bone is also known as
Spongy bone
Dominant generation of angiosperms:
Sporophyte
What is the type of natural selection where the average is favored, forming a bell curve?
Stabilizing selection
Echinodermata
Starfish, sea urchin, bilateral as larvae then five fold radial as adults<div>triploblasts, open circ system with no heart</div><div>spiny, water vascular system, tube feet, sexual or asexual reproduction, closest related phyla to chordates</div><div>deuterostome</div>
Middle lamina
Sticky cement similar in function to tight junctions
Cholecystokinin has what functions?
Stimulates pancreas to release digestive enzymes and gallbladder to release bile into duodenum
What allows gas exchange in plants?
Stomata and lenticels
Liver functions related to blood:
Storage<div>filters and detoxifies blood coming from digestive system</div><div>destroys erthyrocytes</div>
Site of keratinocyte stem cell proliferation,<div>light touch sensation in these cells</div><div>and melanin synthesis in these</div>
Stratum Basale<div>Merkel cells</div><div>melanocytes</div>
Keratinocytes secreting lamellar bodies, forming a water-barrier are found in:
Stratum Granulosum
Layer of epidermis important for strength and immunity
Stratum spinosum, with desmosomes and langerhans cells
Where do the light independent reactions of photosynthesis occur?
Stroma, where CO<sub>2</sub> concentrates
Left ventricle
Strongest chamber of heart, pumps oxy blood into aorta and systemic circulation
Chitin
Structural component in fungi cell walls and insect exoskeletons. Beta bonded with nitrogen on each monomer
Cellulose
Structural component in plant cell walls, is a beta bonded polysaccharide
Active transport
Substances travel against concentration gradient and require energy use
Nucleosides contain:
Sugar and base
Peripheral chemoreceptors
Surround aortic arch, sense oxygen, signal medulla oblongata to increase breathing rate when CO<sub>2</sub> is high
Guard cells
Surround stomata and control their opening/closing<div>Water influx causes opening </div>
What is the function of the periosteum?
Surround the outer surface of all bones and provide nutrients
Autonomic nervous system is further broken into...
Sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest)
Water uptake in the roots occurs via the... (2 pathways)
Symplastic: inside cell cytoplasm<div>Apoplastic: outside cell through cell walls</div>
Dense, fibrous joints that do not move:
Synarthroses
Smooth ER functions to..
Synthesize lipids, steroid hormones, and detoxify cells
Liver functions relating to proteins:
Synthesizes plasma proteins such as albumin<div>Converts ammonia to urea for excretion</div>
invaginations that quicken action potential propagation on muscle are:
T-tubules
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) will cause:
T3 and T4 production by the thyroid gland to increase metabolism
The thyroid produces _____, _____, and ______
T4, T3, and calcitonin
What is the largest terrestrial biome?
Taiga
When does cytokinesis start in plant cells?
Telophase with the formation of a cell plate<div>Created by golgi vesicles, produces middle lamella</div>
Fluidity of the cell membrane can be affected by..
Temperature: increasing temp increases fluidity and vice versa<div>Cholesterol: holds membrane together </div><div>Degrees of unsaturation of phospholipids (cis fatty acids cause a kink and higher fluidity)</div>
Connect muscle to bone:
Tendons
Metaphase I
Tetrads randomly line up double file on metaphase plate, further contributes to diversity
The _______ is known as the relay center of the brain
Thalamus
Where is taste information sent to?
Thalamus then gustatory cortex
What part of fertilization ensures same-species fertilization?
The acrosomal reaction recognition process
What is the littoral zone?
The area of the euphotic zone where sunlight penetrates all the way to the ocean floor
What forms the membrane attack complex?
The complement system
Where does filtration occur in the kidney?
The cortex / renal corpuscle which consists of the glomerulus and the Bowman's capsule
What is the site of sperm maturation and storage?
The epididymis
What controls the size of the pupil?
The iris
Neurulation is the development of the nervous system. What is the fourth step in this process, after development of the neural tube?
The neural tube differentiates into the CNS. Mesoderm cells (somites) will form two masses alongside the notochord and become the vertebrae and skeletal muscles associated with the axial skeleton
What is gene flow?
The non-random moving of alleles between populations leading to variation through mixing
What controls how much light enters the eye?
The pupil
Germination:
The sprouting of a seedling from a previously dormant state, with water being an important environmental condition
What is ethology?
The study of animal behavior, whether inherited or learned
Inclusive fitness means:
The sum of animal's direct (genes animal passed on) and indirect (genes passed on by relatives) fitness. Increased by indirect fitness / kin selection
What defines cardiac output?
The volume of blood pumped from the heart in one minute<div>HR x SV</div>
What is not necessarily true for all Kingdom Fungi?
They are multicellular<div>some are unicellular, like yeast</div>
Gram positive bacteria
Thick peptidoglycan layer, <div>stain dark purple, </div><div>no outer membrane</div><div>very minor periplasm</div><div>no lipopolysaccharide</div><div>secrete exotoxins</div><div>contain teichoic acids for rigidity and structure</div>
Where do the light dependent reactions in photosynthesis occur?
Thylakoid membrane
Which structure is most similar to the inner mitochondrial membrane?
Thylakoid membrane in chloroplast
Where do the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur, and what are the products?
Thylakoid membrane, O<sub>2</sub>, NADPH, ATP
What type of cell junction is most common between digestive tract cells?
Tight junctions
Web of connective tissue that supports cancellous bone:
Trabeculae
How does gas exchange happen in arthropoda?
Tracheal system for insects and book lungs for arachnids
Cohesion-tension theory:
Transpiration, the driving force causes water to evaporate from the stomata and leads to transpirational pull<div>cohesive force in water pulls the water column upward</div>
Phloem:
Transports sugars from leaves (source) to roots (sink)<div>made up of <b>sieve cells </b>(long, tunnel, no organelles) and <b>companion cells</b> (connected to sieve cells, contain organelles)</div>
Xylem:
Transports water from roots (source) to leaves (sink)<div>made up of <b>Tracheids </b>(long, thin, water travels through tapered ends) and <b>vessel elements</b> (short, stout, water travels through perforations in cell walls)</div>
In the blastocyst stage, the cells of the blastula divide and differentiate to form:
Trophoblast, inner cell mass
Target other endocrine glands for further hormone release
Tropic hormones
Plasmodesmata
Tunnels with tubes between plant cells. Allows cytosol fluids to freely travel between plant cells
Dicots
Two cotyledons, broad leaf with network of veins, ring vascular bundles, floral parts in multiples of 4 or 5
What does Gause's Law state?
Two species cannot occupy the same niche and maintain population levels: one will outcompete the other
tumor suppressor genes follow the _______ hypothesis
Two-hit, need to lose both copies of the gene to make it cancer-causing
_________ transfers sound from outer to middle ear
Tympanic membrane
What type of survivorship curve exhibits constant survival probability, regardless of age?
Type II
Define Habitat:
Type of place where an organism lives. Includes abiotic and biotic factors
Stop codons
UAA, UAG, UGA
Ammonia in the body is converted into
Urea or uric acid
Closed circulatory system:
Use a pumping heart to move blood through vessels, includes annelida (earthworms) and chordates
What two evolutionary theories did Lamarck propose?
Use and disuse<div>Inheritance of acquired traits</div>
Anabolic processes involve
Using energy to build larger molecules
Site of fertilized egg implantation and development:
Uterus
What part of an antibody recognizes different antigens?
Variable region
The loop of Henle has selective permeability. It is surrounded by the _____
Vasa recta
Tracheophytes:
Vascular, grow vertically, and have roots<div>spends most of life in sporophyte stage</div>
In which blood vessel type is blood pressure the lowest?
Veins
Cytokinesis of plant cells
Vesicles migrate and fuse to form a <b>cell plate</b>
Occipital lobe function
Vision
Types of animal communication:
Visual, auditory, tactile (touch), and chemical
Mutualistic bacteria in the large intestine:
Vitamins B and K, metabolize acid, and ferment fiber
What oocyte component binds sperm in non-mammals?
Vitelline membrane
Connect haversian canals to the periosteum, which provides nutrients
Volkmann's canals
What measures stroke volume?
Volume of blood pumped from heart in one beat<div>calculated by subtracting end-systolic volume and end-diastolic volume</div>
What is blood plasma made up of?
Water, proteins, nutrients, hormones, ~55% of blood volume
What is stimulus generalization?
When an animal responds to stimuli not identical to the original conditioned stimulus
What is polygenic inheritance?
When many genes contribute to one phenotype
What is epistasis?
When one gene affects the expression of a second gene
Chiasmata are..
Where chromatids physically crossover during synapsis, causing genetic recombination
What type of cell would have the highest concentration of lysosomes?
White blood cell
Leukocytes
White blood cells
What extraembryonic membrane provides nutrients in egg-laying animals?
Yolk sac
What is the location of the first RBC formation in mammals?
Yolk sac
Thin actin filaments branch from the __________ to the middle of the sarcomere
Z line
What oocyte component binds the sperm in mammals?
Zona pellucida (ZP3)
A ganglion is defined as:
a cluster of nerve bodies in <b>peripheral</b> nervous system
An operon is...
a group of genes controlled by a single promoter
A haplotype is...
a group of genes usually inherited together because they are located close to each other
Endomembrane system is..
a group of organelles and membranes that work together to modify, package, and transport proteins and lipids that are entering or exiting a cell<div>made up of nucleus, rough and smooth ER, golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles, cell membrane</div>
Large intestine functions:
absorb water, minerals, and vitamins
In alcohol fermentation, which molecule is the final electron acceptor?
acetaldehyde
Gibberellins:
affect stem and shoot elongation, elimination of dormancy of a seed, flowering, fruit production, leaf and fruit death
Jawless Fish
agnatha, lamprey, hagfish<div>Two chambered heart, gills, notochord in larvae and adult</div><div>cartilaginous skeleton</div>
seed-bearing tracheophytes:
all heterosporous<div>Gymnosperms and angiosperms</div>
ATP synthase works by...
allowing protons to flow down their gradient from the intermembrane space to the matrix<div>converts ADP + P<sub>i</sub> -> ATP, an endergonic reaction</div><div>4 protons / ATP</div><div>NADH from glycolysis and FADH<sub>2</sub> produce less ATP than NADH from Krebs</div><div>Net 36-38 ATP for whole process</div>
Dark field microscopy
allows imaging of unstained live cells, only scattered light is viewed
All hormones produced from the adrenal medulla are examples of _______
amino-acid (tyrosine) derived hormones
Capillary action in plants:
an adhesive force due to attraction between water and xylem causes water to climb up
The accumulation of protons in the thylakoid lumen generates ...
an electrochemical gradient that is used to produce ATP as protons move from the thylakoid lumen back into the stroma
A totipotent cell can differentiate into..
an entire organism
Arthropoda (insecta)
ant, grasshopper<div>have spiracles (allow air to enter)</div><div>Malpighian tubules act similar to nephridia, excrete uric acid</div><div>3 pairs of legs</div>
B cells manage release of...
antibodies, can also act as antigen-presenting cells
T cells must bind to _________ to be activated
antigen-presenting cells
Primary growth is vertical growth occuring at..
apical meristems, occurs before secondary growth
Solutes are reabsorbed into the blood as the filtrate travels up the ___________
ascending limb of the loop of Henle, causing the filtrate to be less concentrated
Under favorable conditions, fungi reproduce ______
asexually by producing a haploid spore which produces more spores via mitosis
Lub sound
atria are relaxed, ventricles contracting<div>noise comes from AV valves snapping shut</div>
P wave
atria depolarization
Flower petals:
attract animals to achieve pollination
As opposed to bone, cartilage is _____
avascular
What part of the eye has photoreceptors?
back / retina
Osmotic pressure brings fluid...
back into capillaries at the venule end
MHC I presentation to T cells will cause them to ...
become cytotoxic / CD8, kill infected cells with perforin and granzymes
Laminin
behaves similar to fibronectin<div>major component of basal lamina, a layer of ECM secreted by epithelial cells </div>
Trachea:
below larynx, has ciliated epithelial cells to filter air
Systole occurs ...
between the lub-dub sound
What exocrine hormones does the pancreas secrete?
bicarbonate, amylase, trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen
Rotifera
bilateral, triploblasts, cerebral ganglia, protonephridia and flame cells<div>not truly segmented, can reproduce sexually or parthenogenetically (clone of mother)</div>
Chordates
bilateral, triploblasts, eumetazoa, deuterostomes<div>ALL HAVE:</div><div>1. notochord - rod derived from mesoderm, forms primitive axis and supports body, replaced by bone usually</div><div>2. dorsal hollow nerve cord - forms spinal cord, basis of CNS </div><div>3. pharyngeal Gill slits - forms pharynx, gills, forms eustachian tubes in humans</div><div>4. muscular post-anal tail - lost during embryonic development in humans and many others</div>
Arthropoda (all)
bilateral, triploblasts, eumetazoa, <div>open circulatory system with hemolymph</div><div>fused ganglia nervous system</div><div>one-way digestion, protostome</div><div>more species than any other phylum</div><div>chitin exoskeleton</div>
Chloroplast thylakoid
bilayered organelle in stroma<div>Site of light dependent reactions</div><div>individual layer = thylakoid, stack = granum</div>
Homosporous plants:
bisexual gametophyte, produces one type of spore
The hollow, fluid filled center of the blastula is called a :
blastocoel
Deuterostome
blastopore becomes anus
Central chemoreceptors
blood brain barrier, sense low pH / buildup of CO<sub>2</sub>, signals to <b>increase</b> breathing rate
Inside the villus, nutrients are absorbed into:
blood capillaries
Ossification is the opposite of resorption
bone formation and bone loss
Peroxisome function
break down stored fatty acids and help with detoxification<div>contain catalase, which breaks down hydrogen peroxide</div>
Root pressure:
builds up in roots producing an osmotic gradient which drives water from soil into the roots
<div>Viral Reverse transcriptase will convert RNA to...</div>
cDNA, which can integrate into the host genome and enter lysogenic cycle
Parathyroid hormone is the opposite of ______, and will ___________.
calcitonin, increase blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts and depressing osteoblasts
Polyspermy slow block is caused by:
calcium ions released in the egg stimulating a cortical reaction / exocytosis of cortical granules, which make the zona pellucida impenetrable
Food enters the stomach via the:
cardiac sphincter
Water and mineral absorption occur at the:
cecum (small pouch in large intestine)
Eubacteria and archaea similarities
cell walls<div>70S ribosomes</div><div>circular plasmid DNA</div><div>move with flagellum</div><div>binary fission</div>
Pepsin is made by ____ cells, breaks down ____, and is secreted in the _____
chief, proteins, stomach
Prophase II
chromatin condenses<div>nuclear envelope disappears</div><div>no crossing over</div>
One map unit is defined as...
chromosomal distance that would allow 0.01 crossover events per generation<div>20 MU - 0.2 crossover events per gen / 20% of recombination</div>
tunicates
closed and open circulatory systems<div>gills</div><div>sessile, filter feeders, sexual and asexual reproduction</div><div>benthic habitats (bottom of a body of water)</div><div>only have notochord as larvae</div>
Lancelets
closed circulatory system, no heart, gills, lack vertebrae<div>commonly used to study origin of vertebrates</div>
The _________ in the ear uses fluid and hairs to convert mechanical signal into a neuronal signal.<div>This is known as _________</div>
cochlea<div>transduction</div>
in pseduocoelomates....
coelom is partially surrounded, it is a hydroskeleton that helps with motility
Water absorption is completed in the:
colon
Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) allow for..
comparison between individuals, analyzes non-coding DNA
Microfilaments
composed of a double helix of two actin filaments<div>involved in cell movement</div>
Cell-cell junctions
connect adjacent cells<div>tight junctions</div><div>desmosomes</div><div>adherens junctions</div><div>gap junctions</div>
centrosomes
contain a pair of centrioles, which replicate during S phase so each daughter cell has one centrosome
Purkinje fibers
contract the ventricles
Inspiration / inhalation involves
contraction of diaphragm (pull lungs down) and external intercostal muscles (expand ribs)<div>decrease intrapleural pressure, volume increases as air is brought into lungs</div>
Cardiac cycle
controlled by cardiomyocytes, which have automaticity<div>SA node is pacemaker</div><div>AV node adds delay between contraction of atria and ventricles </div>
The pharynx:
controlled by epiglottis, diverts air into the larynx and food into the esophagus
Nitrifying bacteria will...
convert ammonia and ammonium to nitrites then nitrates which can be taken up by plants and made into amino acids and chlorophyll
Cori cycle is used to
convert lactate back to glucose once oxygen is available again<div>transports lactate to liver cells</div>
Epidermis of plant
covered by cuticle / waxy layer which limits water evaporation
Chloroplasts are not found in what type of bacteria?
cyanobacteria
microfilament functions
cyclosis / cytoplasmic streaming<div>Cleavage furrow during cell division </div><div>Muscle contraction with myosin motor proteins</div>
The complement effects are amplified by releasing ______
cytokines
The adrenal cortex will:
deal with long-term stress<div>release steroid hormones, glucocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids</div><div><br></div>
Expressivity
degree of a certain phenotype despite having the same genotype
Interferons will activate _____
dendritic cells
Q wave
depolarization through interventricular septum
Water is reabsorbed into the blood as the filtrate travels down the ____________
descending limb of loop of Henle, causing the filtrate to be more concentrated
Echinoderms and chordates are ______ while all other phyla are _________
deuterostomes, protostomes
The shaft of the long bone is called the:
diaphysis
IgA
dimer, confers passive immunity to infants through breast milk
Where does secretion from blood to the nephron tubule filtrate occur?
distal and proximal convoluted tubules
Root growth: root cap roots roots protecting the apical meristem<div>The root tip has three zones:</div>
division, elongation, maturation
Prokaryotes
do not have membrane bound nuclei or organelles<div>Eubacteria, archaea</div>
Sensory neurons send signals to the spinal cord through...
dorsal roots
Highly flexible and found in ears and epiglottis:
elastic cartilage
Indirect creation of bone through a cartilage model is called:
endochondral ossification
Hormones moving through the bloodstream are:
endocrine
Holoenzyme
enzymes bound to their cofactors
apoenzymes
enzymes not bound to cofactors
Integumentary system layers and functions:
epidermis, dermis, hypodermis<div>Vitamin D production, protects from pathogens</div>
What organs are made from the ectoderm?
epidermis, hair, nails, nervous system, lens of eye, teeth enamel, adrenal medulla
The end of a long bone that contains red bone marrow is called the:
epiphysis
Animals are...
eukaryotic, diploid, multicellular heterotrophic aerobes
Retinoblastoma gene is a tumor-suppressor which prevents....
excessive cell growth during interphase
Hormones moving through ducts are:
exocrine
Chloroplast stroma
fills are inside inner membrane<div>site of calvin cycle</div>
Platyhelminthes
flatworms, trematoda, flukes<div>bilateral with cephalization, triploblasts, two nerve cords</div><div>protonephridia (flame cells) involved in osmoregulation</div><div>sexual or asexual, parasite, most primitive triploblast</div>
Pleural space
fluid-filled space between parietal and visceral layers<div>lower pressure than atmosphere, creates <b>intrapleural pressure</b></div>
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes
follicle growth in females and sperm maturation in males
Antigen:
foreign molecule, target of immune response
Hyphae
form a network of fungi (mycelium)<div>can be septates or coenocytic where cytokinesis does not occur</div>
Glycocalyx
found mainly on epithelial cells, helps with adhesion, protection, and cell recognition
5' end of DNA has a:
free phosphate
Abscisic acid:
functions during plant stress, promotes dormant seeds, closes stomata, inhibits growth
In alternation of generations, gametes undergo _____ to give _____
fusion, zygote
Genomic imprinting refers to..
genes expressed depending on parental origin and are influenced by epigenetic factors
Glycogenolysis releases..
glucose-6-phosphate from glycogen
Nasal cavity contains
goblet cells (mucus) and ciliated epithelial cells (move debris)
Rhizoids:
hair-like projections on bryophytes that aid in water absorption and minor anchorage
Pathogens are..
harmful microorganisms that cause disease
Central vacuoles in plants will..
have a specialized membrane called the tonoplast which helps maintain cell rigidity by exerting turgor<div>Also function in storage and material breakdown</div>
Bohr effect on Hb
hemoglobin has decreased oxygen affinity when carbon dioxide is high
The F1 generation has all ______ offspring
heterozygous
Respiratory alkalosis
high blood pH because of rapid breathing (hyperventilation)
What will shift a hemoglobin curve to the LEFT?
high pH / low [H<sup>+</sup>], low temperature, low CO<sub>2</sub>, fetal Hb
Basophils contain granules with _____ and _____
histamine, heparin
Oxygenated blood in fetus goes to LA through..
hole in heart called foramen ovale
Centrioles
hollow cylinders made of microtubules (9x3)
Anaphase I
homologous chromosomes separated from each other<div>will not begin unless at least one chiasmata has formed within each tetrad</div>
Bacteria increase genetic diversity through...
horizontal gene transfer
What hormone maintains the corpus luteum after implantation of an embryo into the uterus?
human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
The limbic system is composed of (3) and is resonsible for (4)
hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala<div>emotion, memory, learning, motivation</div>
Where is the thyroid gland located?
in front of the trachea
The absolute refractory period is due to....
inactivation of voltage gated Na channels
Vitamin D will:
increase blood calcium, activated by PTH
Mineralocorticoids will:
increase blood volume and blood pressure by raising reabsorption of sodium
T3 and T4 willL
increase metabolism in body, negatively affect TSH secretion
Root hairs
increase surface area of roots for greater nutrient and water uptake
What effect would a very long loop of Henle have?
increased osmolarity gradient from cortex to medulla
Peptide hormones function through _______ stimulation while steroid hormones function through ________ stimulation
indirect, direct
The lac operon is an ______ operon, while trp operon is a ______ operon
inducible, repressible
Somatostatin will:
inhibit growth hormone and secretion of glucagon and insulin
The energy source for chemoautotrophs comes from:
inorganic molecules
Types of inherited animal behaviors? (4)
instincts, reflexes, fixed action patterns, imprinting
________ connects cardiomyocytes
intercalated discs<div>are made of desmosomes and gap junctions</div>
Thylakoid lumen
interior of thylakoid and site of proton accumulation, making it acidic
Hair structure, origin, and function:
keratin, made from hair follices, stands up via erector pili muscles, and offers sun and hypothermia protection
a junction between two grana is called a
lamella
Microtubles
largest of cytoskeleton, give structural integrity to cells<div>hollow and made up of tubulin dimers</div><div>also function in cell division, cilia, and flagella</div>
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation is carried out by the...
light dependent reactions<div>1. water is split (photolysis)</div><div>2. photons excite electrons in PS II, passing e<sup>-</sup> on</div><div>3. electron acceptor sends them to ETC</div>
Calvin cycle
light independent reactions<div>takes place in chloroplast stroma of plant mesophyll cells</div><div>fixes carbon dioxide that enters stomata</div><div>CO<sub>2</sub> + RuBP -> PGA by RuBisCo</div><div>PGA then phosphorylated and reduced to form G3P</div><div>G3P -> RuBP and eventually glucose </div>
Bile is made by the ____ and stored by the _____
liver, gallbladder
arthropoda (crustacea)
lobster, crab<div>some have gills</div><div>green glands (osmoregulatory structures) for aquatic species </div>
The hypodermis is made of and functions to:
loose connective tissue and fat, store fat
Respiratory acidosis
lowered blood pH because of inadequate breathing (hypoventilation)
A codon is _____ while anticodon is _____
mRNA, tRNA
Casparian strip:
made of fat and wax, is an impenetrable substance in cell walls of roots<div>forces water coming from the cell walls into the cytoplasm for filtering before entering the plant</div>
Middle ear is composed of (3) ossicles. What are they and what do they do?
malleus, incus, stapes<div>transfer vibrations through middle ear and amplify signal</div>
Semelparity:
mate once in a lifetime
Vital capacity
max amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation<div>inspiratory reserve volume + tidal volume + expiratory reserve volume </div>
inspiratory reserve volume
max volume of air that can be inhaled
expiratory reserve volume
maximum volume of air that can be exhaled
single nondisjunction occurs during...
meiosis I, results in 2(n+1) and 2(n-1) haploid daughter cells
In alternation of generations, sporophyte undergoes _____ to give _____
meiosis, spores
In coelomates...
mesoderm surrounds coelom on all sides
Area between diaphysis and epiphyseal plate:
metaphysis
What hormones does the adrenal cortex release and what do they do?
mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone), causes kidney to increase salt and water reabsorption and potassium secretion in distal tubules
Residual volume
minimum amount of air to keep lungs from collapsing
Plant growth takes place via...
mitosis at meristems
In alternation of generations, spores undergo ____ to give _____
mitosis, gametophyte
In alternation of generations, zygote undergoes ______ to give ______
mitosis, sporophyte
IgE is found on....
monomer, basophils and mast cells, can trigger histamine
IgG
monomer, most abundant antibody, can cross placenta to give fetus passive immunity<div>causes opsonization</div>
IgD
monomer, not much information
Turner syndrome is...
monosomy of X chromosome in females, individuals are sterile
T cells differ from NK cells in that they are
more specific, require antigen presentation
Bryophytes:
mosses, hornworts, liverworts<div>small, short, moist habitats, horizontal growth,</div><div>are nonvascular, spend most of life in gametophyte stage</div>
Astrocytes :
most abundant glial cell, form blood-brain barrier
Angiosperms:
most abundant plant. flower-bearing, produce fruit (plant ovary, protects seed)<div>sperm is non-flagellated and dispersed by wind or animals</div><div>can exhibit double fertilization (1 female, 2 male)</div>
Collagen
most common structural protein<div>organized into fibrils</div>
Upper respiratory tract:
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx
Cilia and flagella have..
nine doublets of microtubules with two singlets in the center<div>produced by basal body</div>
Immuno-naive
no active immunity (as in fetuses and newborns)
Pain stimuli neurons are called:
nociceptors
Photosynthesis
non-spontaneous, endergonic, produces glucose after an input of solar energy<div>opposite of cellular respiration</div>
Innate immune system is also known as ______
nonspecific / generalized response
C<sub>3</sub> photosyntheis
normal photosynthesis, where 3C PGA is produced
What are the steps of the evolution of chordates?
notochord (lancelets) -> head (hagfish) -> vertebral column (Lampreys) -> jaw (sharks) -> lungs (ray-finned fish) -> lobed fins -> limbs with digits (amphibians) -> amniotic eggs (reptiles) -> milk (mammals)
Telophase and Cytokinesis II
nuclear membranes reform, chromosomes decondense into chromatin<div>Four haploid daughter cells produced in total</div>
Telophase and cytokinesis I
nuclear membranes reform<div>chromosomes decondense into chromatin</div><div>cleavage furrow in animals, cell plate in plants</div>
Density centrifugation most to least dense:
nuclei > mitochondria / chloroplast > ER fragments > ribosomes
Karyotyping
observing chromosomes under light microscope during metaphase, used to diagnose aneuploidies
Where does photorespiration occur and what does it do?
occurs in the stroma, producing a phosphoglycerate that moves to peroxisomes and mitochondria to make PGA<div>net loss of fixed carbon atoms and no new glucose is made</div><div>also called C<sub>2</sub> photosynthesis</div>
Where do smell signals go and integrate?
olfactory cortex, thalamus and orbitofrontal cortex
Polygyny:
one male multiple females
Motor unit definition:
one neuron and all its' muscle fibers
Passive immunity is when:
one organism passes antibodies to another
Identical twins result from:
one zygote splitting, two embryos with identical genetic material
Proto-oncogenes follow the _____ hypothesis
one-hit, gain-of-function in one copy of gene turns it into an oncogene
Fermentation
only relies on glycolysis<div>oxidizes NADH -> NAD<sup>+</sup>, can continue glycolysis</div><div>occurs in cytosol</div><div>lactic acid and alcohol are common types</div>
The blind spot of the eye where the optic nerve passes through is the:
optic disk
The bundle of axons that transmit visual information to the brain is the:
optic nerve
Centrosomes are..
organelles containing a pair of centrioles. Act as microtubule organizing centers during cell division
Microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs)
organize microtubule extension
Build bone and use blood calcium, maturing into osteocytes:
osteoblasts
Organic component of bone, containing many proteins:
osteoid
If implantation occurs, what happens?
outer layer of the placenta produces human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), which maintains the corpus luteum. Progesterone and estrogen levels are maintained
What are the hardy-weinberg equations, and what do the variables represent?
p + q = 1<div>p = frequency of dominant allele, q = frequency of recessive allele</div><div><br></div><div>p<sup>2</sup>+ 2pq + q<sup>2</sup> = 1</div><div>p<sup>2</sup> = frequency of homozygous dominant, 2pq = frequency of heterozygous, q<sup>2</sup> = frequency of homozygous recessive</div>
Sebaceous glands are located all over the body except:
palms and soles
Accessory organs in digestive system:
pancreas, liver, gallbladder
What type of cell would have a high concentration of golgi bodies?
pancreatic cells
Epitope:
part of antigen that is recognized by immune cell
An unfertilized egg develops to a viable organism in...
parthenogenesis
IgM
pentamer, largest, first, activates complement system
Natural killer cells use ______ and ______
perforin and granzyme
The efferent arteriole exiting the bowman's capsule go on to form the
peritubular capillaries
Cyclic photophosphorylation happens when...
photosystem I passes its electrons back to the first ETC, causing more proton pumping and ATP production, but no NAPDH
Cell walls in different organisms
plants - cellulose<div>Fungi - chitin</div><div>Bacteria - peptidoglycan</div>
Sieve cells and companion cells are connected via:
plasmodesmata
The hindbrain gives rise to the metencephalon and the myelencephalon which then give rise to... (2,1)
pons, cerebellum<div>Medulla oblongata</div>
Stomata
pores underneath leaf for gas exchange
MHC II is used to...
present foreign antigens to activate immune cells
p21 functions to...
prevent phosphorylation
X-inactivation is...
process of inactivating one X chromosome, forming a Barr body and preventing excess transcription<div>may cause carrier to become affected if wrong allele is inactivated</div>
Heterosporous plants:
produce two types of spores: micro (male) and mega (female)
C<sub>4</sub> photosynthesis
produces oxaloacetate, occurs in hot environments<div>PEP carboxylase fixes CO<sub>2</sub> -> PEP</div><div>converted into malate in the mesophyll cell</div><div>Malate transferred to bundle sheath cells, then decarboxylated </div><div>pyruvate converted back into PEP</div>
Reproductive cloning
producing a copy of an organism from a somatic cell<div>multipotent cell must be converted to a totipotent cell</div>
During the luteal phase, the corpus luteum will produce ___________ to thicken the uterine lining
progesterone and some estrogen
Penetrance (heredity)
proportion of individuals who have the phenotype associated with a specific allele
Reduced hemoglobin
protonated, lowers oxygen binding affinity but increases CO<sub>2</sub> affinity
Extracellular matrix
provides mechanical support between cells<div><br></div>
Nuclear lamina
provides support to the nucleus and regulates DNA and cell division
Pulse Chase experiments
pulse: AA are labeled, incorporated into proteins<div>chase: prevents radioactively labelled protein production</div><div>radioactive proteins can be tracked</div>
Right ventricle
pumps deoxy blood through pulmonary semilunar valve to pulmonary artery<div>When it contracts, it is sending blood (SL valve open)</div><div>When it relaxes, it is filling (AV valve open)</div>
Western blotting
quantifies amount of protein after SDS PAGE<div>treated with primary and secondary antibody</div>
FLIM provides a...
quantitative measure of concentration of ions, molecules, and gases in a cell
FRAP provides a...
quantitative measure of how and where biomolecules move in a live cell
Hamilton's rule of altruism:
r x B > C<div>r - genetic relatedness between altruist and relative</div><div>B - # of genes passed on by relative after being saved by altruist</div><div>r x B = indirect fitness </div><div>C - direct fitness</div><div>for altruistic behavior to occur, r x B must be greater than C</div>
What does the nucleolus make?
rRNA
larynx:
receives air, contains voice box
Right atrium
receives deoxy blood from vena cava <div>passes through Tricuspid AV valve to right ventricle</div>
Esophagus:
receives food and connects to stomach
Left atrium
receives oxy blood from pulmonary vein, passes through bicuspid / mitral to left ventricle
Atrial natriuretic peptide will:
reduce blood volume and blood pressure by increasing glomerular filtration rate, decreasing sodium reabsorption and inhibiting RAAS
Cytokinins:
regulate cell differentiation and division with auxins, can prevent aging
What are the functions of the hypothalamus?
regulate thirst, hunger, temperature, ANS, pituitary gland, produce ADH
Expiration / exhalation involves
relaxation of diaphragm and external intercostal muscles, closes rib cage through elastic recoil<div>increases intrapleural pressure as volume in lungs is decreased</div><div>internal intercostal muscles can contract during a forced expiration</div>
GRH will cause
release of GH
TRH will cause
release of TSH
Sympathetic nervous system effects:
release sugar<div>increase heart rate</div><div>dilation of bronchioles to allow for more air</div><div>dilation of pupil </div>
RAAS pathway
renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I<div>ACE converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II, the active hormone</div>
Vascular cambium is..
ring of meristematic tissue located between <b>primary xylem (center) </b>and <b>primary phloem (edge)</b><div>Cells produced inside become <b>secondary xylem (wood)</b>, while outside become <b>secondary phloem (bark/cork)</b></div><div><b>New xylem is produced every year, while new phloem replaces old phloem</b></div>
Amylase is secreted in _____ and breaks down ______
saliva, carbohydrates
Electron tomography
sandwiches TEM images to create 3D images of internal structure
The protective connective tissue that surrounds the eye is the:
sclera
Capacitation of sperm is triggered by...
secretions in the uterine wall
Gel electrophoresis
separates DNA based on charge and size, smaller fragments travel further from the positive anode
Single nucleotide polymorphisms can..
serve as marks for genetic diseases
under unfavorable conditions, fungi reproduce....
sexually, two hyphae fuse their cytoplasm (plasmogamy) and produce a diploid cell<div>diploid cell then produces a spore producing structure which produces spores via meiosis</div>
The adrenal medulla:
short term stress, stimulated by sympathetic nervous system, releases catecholamines
Cnidaria and annelida use ________ for respiration
simple diffusion
Chyme (acidic, semi-digested food) exits to the _____ via the ____
small intestine, pyloric sphincter
What makes up the spliceosome?
small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and proteins<div>known collectively as snRNPs</div>
Polyspermy fast block consists of :
sodium ions diffusing into egg, depolarizing membrane and preventing sperm binding
The peripheral nervous system is divided into...
somatic (voluntary motion) and autonomic (involuntary) nervous systems
A multipotent cell can give rise to...
some of the three germ layers, not all
Pressure flow hypothesis:
source cells produce sugar and load into phloem -> high [sugar] creates a gradient pulling water into phloem, <div>turgor pressure in phloem increases resulting in bulk movement of sugar from leaves to roots</div>
Adaptive immune system is a ______
specific immune response, targets specific antigens
Apocrine glands are located at __________ and function to:
specific sites, secrete into a hair follicle<div>produce earwax (ceruminous) or milk (mammary)</div>
Arthropoda (arachnida)
spider, scorpion<div>Four pairs of legs, land habitats, book lungs (vascularized tissue to increase SA)</div><div>jointed appendages</div>
male plant sex organ, composed of anther (microspore) and filament (supports anther)
stamen
The ________ transfers vibrations from middle to inner ear via the ______
stapes, oval window
All hormones made by the adrenal and reproductive organs are examples of...
steroid hormones
Cell fixation types and details:
sticking cells to slide and preserving them in life-life state<div>1. heat fixation, run over a bunsen burner</div><div>2. staining adds color and often kills cells</div>
Growth hormone / somatotropin will:
stimulate cells to grow and divide
Prolactin will:
stimulate mammary gland development and increase milk production after childbirth
Luteinizing hormone (LH) will:
stimulate ovulation and corpus luteum formation in females, and testosterone production in males
Angiotensin II effects in the body:
stimulates aldosterone release, Na<sup>+</sup> reabsorption in the proximal tubule, vasoconstrictor (increases TPR), increase thirst
PTH ______ calcium reabsorption in the tubules, while calcitonin _______ it
stimulates, inhibits
What is the function of the plant endosperm?
storage material, provides the embryo with nutrients
During non-cyclic photophosphorylation, protons are pumped from the _____ to the _____
stroma to the thylakoid lumen
Type 1 epithelial cells
structural support
"Which layer of the integumentary system helps the body conserve heat and protects the body from injury by acting as a ""shock absorber""?"
subcutaneous layer
Nucleotides contain:
sugar, base, phosphate group
Bundle sheath cells will:
surround and protect the vascular bundle
Lichens are...
symbiotic autotrophs where a fungi pairs with algae or cyanobacteria
Heart rates above 100 bpm are ______ while heart rates below 60 bpm are ______
tachycardic, bradycardic
Opsonization definiton
tags antigens for subsequent phagocytosis
Respiration is:
the exchange of gases between outside environment and inside of an organism
Recombination frequencies of less than 50% mean..
the genes are linked
Eccrine / sweat glands are located on ________ and are important in _________
the whole body, thermoregulation
Rigor mortis occurs when..
there is no ATP available to release myosin from actin
Gram negative bacteria
thin peptidoglycan layer<div>stain pink</div><div>contain periplasm between innter and outer membrane</div><div>LPS present, no teichoic acids</div><div>have endotoxins</div>
Frontal lobe functions:
thinking, memories, emotions
Calcitonin is produced in the _____ and works by __________.
thyroid, decreasing blood calcium levels by depressing osteoclasts
Lower respiratory tract:
trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
integrin
transmembrane protein that facilitates ECM adhesion and signals to other cells how to respond to the extracellular environment
Cornea:
transparent, focuses light and protects the eye
Chylomicrons will..
transport lipids to lacteals
Klinefelter's syndrome is a...
trisomy of sex chromosomes in males, XXY <div>Causes several disorders</div>
p53 is a...
tumor-suppressor gene, guardian of the cell, upregulated to prevent cancer
Fraternal twins result from:
two separate eggs being fertilized by two separate sperms
Test-cross pairs...
unknown genotype with homozygous recessive
No circulatory system:
use simple diffusion, includes bacteria, protists, fungi, invertebrates
alcohol fermentation
uses 2 NADH to convert 2 pyruvate -> 2 ethanol<div>NADH -> NAD<sup>+</sup></div><div>involves decarboxylation into acetaldehyde</div>
Lactic acid fermentation
uses 2 NADH to reduce 2 pyruvate into 2 lactic acid<div>happens in muscle cells and RBC, which do not have mitochondria</div><div><br></div>
Fluorescence microscopy
uses fluorophores and a dichroic filter to allow certain wavelengths of light to be reflected and others to pass through
CAM photosynthesis
uses temporal isolation of carbon dioxide to prevent photorespiration in hot environments<div>stomata are closed during the day to avoid water loss</div><div>they open at night to let CO<sub>2</sub> in, and function as C<sub>4</sub> photosynthesis</div>
Similar functions to lysosomes are performed by ______ in plants
vacuoles
Efferent neurons send signals to the muscles through....
ventral roots
R wave
ventricular depolarization
Phase contract microscopy
view thin samples, light refracted through a ring creating a phase shift and high contrast
Total lung capacity
vital capacity + residual volume<div>maximum volume of lungs</div>
Tidal volume
volume of air that moves through lungs between inhalation and exhalation
The stele is formed by...
xylem, phloem, and pith, which is actually ground tissue but functions like vascular tissue!
To implant in the uterine wall, the blastocyst undergoes _______
zona hatching