ANTH 003 Final Exam Terms

autosomal/nuclear DNA

ID: codes for the majority of the genome, more complete sequence significance: -Extractions of this from neandertal bones has been interpreted as documenting varying levels of evolutionary distance between this group and living human -Undergoes recombination of mother and father genes, mix up-characteristics of both, which creates a garbled genetics history

Holocene

Studies of such cold-and-warm patterns indicate that the time we live in, the Holocene, is not a separate epoch but simply another interglacial. In the Holocene, artifacts such as ceramics became even more "time-specific." In fact, ceramics were invented during this period, and their forms changed rapidly Pleistocene megafauna became extinct in the early Holocene, and some evidence suggests that in the Americas and Australia humans hunted these large animals to extinction.

Morton collection controversy

Samuel Morton -american physician and natural scientist -collection of skulls collected by this man in the 1800s (acquired from burial mounds, battlefields, surgeons, etc.) -used to take measurements to make statements of intelligence and brain size among "racial groups"

Potassium Argon Dating

a type of radiometric dating technique ID: a technique used to date materials such as rocks and carbon significance: presence of volcanic activity has permitted the use of radiometric dating techniques, like K/Ar, allowing archaeologists and other scientists to date items found among the rock layers

Ancient DNA

genetic material extracted from bones and used to study the genes of neandertals and other older species analyses of this provides thousands of independent, often neutrally evolving, features per individual important because it has revealed traces of neandertal DNA in modern humans, opening up the possibility of neandertals having interbred with modern humans in the past

Svante Paabo

ID: Swedish biologist specializing in evolutionary genetics. One of the founders of paleogenetics, he has worked extensively on the Neanderthal genome. significance:

petroluna

site in Greece, skull of heidelbergensis found here, 350kya-150kya, ancestor of Neandertal, among the first to inhabit Europe's cold latitudes

nariokotome

ID: a juvenile skeleton found in Nariokotome, on the west side of Lake Turkana, dating about 1.6 mya significance: -80% complete skeleton -The skeleton dates to about 1.6 mya, placing it on the boundary between the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs. In contrast to Australopithecus and H. habilis, the Nariokotome hominid has several quintessentially modern anatomical features. One of the most striking modern characteristics is the relatively short arms and long legs. That is, the H. erectus body plan is much more like that of a living human in its ratio of arm length to leg length. This change in limb proportions in H. erectus signals the beginning of a major alteration in the pattern of bipedal locomotion: H. erectus became completely committed to terrestrial life by adopting a fully modern stride. Life in the trees became a thing of the past. Features of the pelvic bones and overall size indicate that the Nariokotome individual was likely a young adolescent male. He was quite tall, about 166 cm (66 in). Had he survived to adulthood, he would have grown to nearly 2 m (a little over 6 ft) in height. This change in height in comparison with H. habilis and the australopithecines indicates an enormous body size increase in this taxon (Fig- ure 10.9). In addition, the Nariokotome boy's cranial capacity was about 900 cc. Researchers have debated the exact age of "Nariokotome Boy," also known as "Turkana Boy," but he was likely around 11 years old. Discovered in 1984, this Homo erectus fossil is one of the most complete hominid skeletons ever found. documented dental development by examining the teeth through cast reproductions and X-rays. All but the wisdom teeth—the third molars—had erupted, but the tips of the roots for some teeth were still undeveloped. Examined with modern dental aging methods, this developmental infor- mation indicates that the boy was about 11 when he died, more than 1 mya. To document the length of time it took for the Nariokotome boy's teeth to grow, the English dental biologist Christopher Dean and his associates counted the growth increments on the surface of teeth, known as perikymata. Each increment, or perikyma, represents about 8-9 days of growth. Counting the increments from the top of a tooth to the bottom of the tooth provides a precise measure of the amount of time it took for the tooth to grow. Based on perikymata counts, they estimated that theboy's first molar was formed at about age four, two years ahead of this tooth's formation in living humans, and that the boy died somewhere around ages eight-nine. Smith and Dean came up with two different estimates of age-at-death. But the pattern and timing of dental development documented by the perkymata study suggests that the boy's growth pattern was faster than modern humans'. If so, then modern humans' very slow growth may not have evolved in early H. erectus. If the boy grew relatively fast, as is indicated by the study of this skeleton, the growth spurt most likely had not evolved yet. Nevertheless, the growth was more like humans' slow growth than like apes' fast growth. Growth and maturation were on their way to becoming modern.

red ochre

New symbolic art -- body art Red ochre Evidence of red ochre in caves, residue

diasterna/gap between teeth

gap btw 3rd molar and jaw, robust feature

midfacial prognathism

ID: a condition where the face has a high degree of prognathism and the projection of the middle of the face is slightly beyond the jaws (in typical humans it is usually slightly regressed to the jaw or in line). prognathism - an extension or bulging out (protrusion) of the lower jaw (mandible). It occurs when the teeth are not properly aligned due to the shape of the face bones. significance: feature in early modern homo sapiens

hunter-gatherer

ID: significance: Gatherer-Hunters -more effective -Family-based -Overlapping gender roles -gathering often yielded more food

La Chapelle-aux-Saints

ID: location in France where many Neandertals skeletons were found significance: Many Neandertal skeletons, including some of the best-known from western Europe, are relatively late, postdating 80,000 yBP. The skeleton from La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France, is especially well-known because it served as the prototype for all Neandertals in the early twentieth century. It has the characteristic Neandertal cranial morphology, including a very wide nasal aperture, a projecting midface, an occipital bun, and a low, long skull The La Chapelle-aux-Saints skeleton is also one of the most complete Neandertal specimens. The skeleton was first described in great detail by the eminent French paleoanthropologist Marcellin Boule (d. 1942) in the early 1900s. Professor Boule's scientific writings tremendously infl uenced contemporary and later scientists' interpretations of Neandertal phylogeny, behavior, and place in human evolution generally, basically continuing the earlier opinions expressed by Rudolf Virchow (discussed at the start of this chapter). Boule argued that the Neandertal cranial and postcranial traits were simply too primitive and too different from modern people's to have provided the ancestral basis for later human evolution. He concluded that the La Chapelle individual must have walked with a bent-kneed gait—as in chimpanzees that walk bipedally—and must not have been able to speak. Simply, in his mind, Neandertals represented some side branch of human evolution—they were too primitive, too stupid, and too aberrant to have evolved into modern humans.

browridge/supraorbital torus

ID: ridge located above the eye sockets significance: SAHELANTHROPUS TCHADENSIS (7-6 MYA)-Its brain was primitive and like that of apes. Moreover, this hominid had a massive browridge, larger than that of modern gorillas. The Nariokotome skeleton is just one of many H. erectus fossils from East Af- rica. At Ileret, on the eastern side of Lake Turkana, the partial skull of a very small H. erectus—possibly a female—was found in geologic strata dating to about 1.6 mya. The skull's diminutive size and small browridges indicate the very high de- gree of variation in H. erectus. In contrast to the Narioko- tome boy's skull and the skull from Ileret, the skulls from Olduvai Gorge, Bouri, Buia, and Bodo are very robust, having thick cranial bones and very large brow- ridges. The Olduvai cranium's browridges are the largest of any known hominid, before or after (Figure 10.11). Only some of this greater size can be accounted for by the Nariokotome boy's immaturity, because the other three hominids were fully mature adult males. H habilis to H erectus - an increase in browridge size Compared to modern H. sapiens, archaic H. sapiens have a longer, lower skull, larger browridges, a bigger and more projecting face, more projecting occipital bones (sometimes called an occipital bun when referring to Neandertals), larger teeth (especially the front teeth), and no chin. The postcranial bones of archaic H. sapiens are thicker than modern people's.

Charles Dawson

The best-known Piltdown fossil was a skull unearthed by the am- ateur archaeologist Charles Dawson and by the paleontologist Sir Arthur Smith Woodward, of London's Natu- ral History Museum. Meticulously re- constructed by Woodward and Keith, the skull was modern in appearance, having a large cranial capacity (1,400 cc), well within the range of fully mod- ern H. sapiens. However, the teeth (two molars) were quite like apes'. Keith and his associates were excited, because here was the human ancestor having the predicted key physical attribute that defi nes humanity—a large brain. Woodward named the new fossil Eoan- thropus dawsoni (meaning "Dawson's dawn man"). The news spread around the world: the human ancestor had been found, it was old (perhaps Plio- cene), it had a big brain, and it was from England.

FOXP2

*the derived FOXP2 variant of modern humans was shared with Neandertals FOXP2: A key gene in human evolution (language and speech)? Mutation of this gene leads to deficits in "linguistic processing" and "orofacial movements" Two specific mutations in FOX2P are "fixed" in humans compared to chimpanzees There was a relatively recent (200,000 years ago) "selective sweep" in the FOX2P region of the human genome (selective sweep: a region of the genome that stays relatively unchanged because of selective pressure on beneficial mutations within that region) Implication: FOXP2 variants not a guarantee of survival Other mutations necessary as well? (brain structure/function?) Neanderthals perhaps could talk, but some question their language abilities

Levallois technique

A distinctive method of stone tool production used during the Middle Paleolithic, in which the core was prepared and flakes removed from the surface before the final tool was detached from the core. ID: a distinctive method of stone tool production used during the Middle Paleolithic, in which the core was prepared and flakes removed from the surface before the final tool was detached from the core -a name given by archaeologists to a distinctive type of stone knapping (the shaping of flint stone through the process of lithic reduction to manufacture stone tools) developed by precursors to modern humans during the Paleolithic period. It is named after nineteenth-century finds of flint tools in the Levallois-Perret suburb of Paris, France. Excavations at the site of Maastricht-Belvédère (Netherlands) have recovered several pieces of hematite in stratigraphic levels associated with the last interglacial, perhaps as early as 200-250 kya. The lithics show definite Levallois reduction and Mousterian tools are present. -mousterian tools are fashioned from the resulting flakes of this technique significance:

anatomically modern human

ID: significance: assimilation model -Assumes modern humans originated in Africa. Beneficial modern features from Africa spread among these archaic groups by means of a combination of steady migration and mating known as gene flow. The explanation for the origin of anatomically modern humans in Europe. If Neandertals are assimilated into in-migrating populations of modern people in Europe, then Neandertals do not go extinct in the classical sense of the word.

deliberate burial of the dead

ID: significance: Skhul - Earliest evidence for deliberate burial of the dead was found here, dating to about 115,000 years ago in northern Israel. -Suggested that it represented the origins of symbolic behavior, or at least religious beliefs and the concept of the self. Burial of the Dead Neandertals Skeleton of Neandertal found in France (La Chapelleaux-Saints) Deliberate burials Deliberate burial of dead Hyoid bone Somebody was buried and then dug up and moved elsewhere Bodies covered with red ochre, elephant bones tusks over bodies Atapuerca - Northern Spain Entrance of caves Discovered a labyrinth and at the end found human fossils (Sima de los Huesos) Many complete skeletons (~ 30 skeletons over half a million years old, H. heidelbergensis) Why so many in one place? international ? Primitive burial Ceremonial Single artifact - handaxe made of pink quartz (must've come from far away because quartz was not local) Complex mind capable of symbolism and beliefs shows that mental evolution began 1/2 mya

Pleistocene

ID: 2.6 mya -the time period that spanned from 2.6 million to 11,700 years ago significance: -characterized by the presence of distinctive large land mammals and birds. Mammoths and their cousins the mastodons, longhorned bison, saber-toothed cats, giant ground sloths, and many other large mammals characterized habitats in North America, Asia, and Europe -the most recent episodes of global cooling, or ice ages, took place. Much of the world's temperate zones were alternately covered by glaciers during cool periods and uncovered during the warmer interglacial periods when the glaciers retreated. Did this cause the extinctions? It doesn't seem likely; the large mammals weathered several climate shifts. -also saw the evolution and expansion of our own species, Homo sapiens, and by the close of the time period, humans had spread through most of the world Beginning in the later Pleistocene, stone tools and other components of material culture changed more rapidly. During the Pleistocene (1.6 mya-15,000 yBP), periods of massive glaciation, or glacials, were followed by periods of relative warmth, or interglacials. Some hominid skeletons dating to the Upper Pleistocene have a mixture of archaic and modern skeletal features. Atapuerca, Spain -collected a handful of hominid fossils—a mandible, mandible fragments, and teeth—all dating to the Middle Pleistocene.

occipital bun

ID: A cranial feature of Neandertals in which the occipital bone projects substantially from the skull's posterior. significance: The immediate ancestors of modern people—archaic H. sapiens—are different from modern H. sapiens in a number of ways. Compared to modern H. sapiens, archaic H. sapiens have a longer, lower skull, larger browridges, a bigger and more projecting face, more projecting occipital bones (sometimes called an occipital bun when referring to Neandertals), larger teeth (especially the front teeth), and no chin. Some hominid skeletons dating to the Upper Pleistocene have a mixture of archaic and modern skeletal features. The Skhul 5 skeleton, from Israel, is an excel- lent example of a hominid with archaic features, including a somewhat forward-projecting face and pronounced browridges, and modern features, such as a distinctive chin and no occipital bun Neandertal features in- clude large nasal openings; a projecting face; an occipital bun; a long, low skull; large front teeth, some with heavy wear from use; a wide, stocky body; and shortarms and legs. That the earliest modern H. sapiens had clear Neandertal features (such as the occipital bun) strongly suggests interbreeding between Neandertals and early modern people.

cline

ID: A gradual change in some phenotypic characteristic from one population to the next. significance: One important finding from physical anthropologists' study of human variation is that specific biological traits generally follow a geographic gradient called a cline. Think, for example, of two patterns discussed in chapter 4: First, the frequencies of type B blood change gradually from East Asia to far western Europe. Second, the human gene that causes the disorder sickle-cell anemia, hemoglobin S, increases in frequency in areas where the parasitic disease malaria is endemic, and it decreases in frequency (to nearly zero) in areas where malaria is not endemic. Because living humans are a single, geographically diverse species, their variation is continuously distributed in ways like these and not grouped into discrete categories. Among the best examples of clinal variation are the skin pigmentations of living people. From equatorial to higher latitudes, skin color changes in a gradient from dark to light. Exceptions exist, such as the relatively dark skin of Native Americans in the Canadian Arctic, but the single strongest factor in determining skin pigmentation is exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Human variation, then, cannot be subdivided into racial categories. As said best by the physical anthropologist Frank B. Livingstone, "There are no races, there are only clines." Human variation can be understood far more meaningfully in terms of life history, the biology of growth and development.

mitochondrial DNA

ID: DNA of the cell's mitochondria significance: -the DNA of the cell's mitochondria that has been most commonly used to construct evolutionary trees -It has a higher rate of substitution (mutations where one nucleotide is replaced with another) than nuclear DNA making it easier to resolve differences between closely related individuals -extractions of this from Neandertal bones has been interpreted as documenting varying levels of evolutionary distance between this group and living human -genetic material is very tiny in comparison to the nuclear DNA -Only inherited through the mother's line, which allows tracing of a direct genetic line and can be used to trace descent

Kabwe

ID: Location where archaic homo sapiens were found significance: ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS IN AFRICA (350,000-200,000 YBP) One of several individuals found in the Kabwe (Broken Hill) lead mine in Zambia has enormous browridges, but the facial bones and the muscle attachment areas on the back of the skull for the neck muscles are quite small compared with those of Homo erectus in Africa (Figure 11.6). The cranial capacity is about 1,300 cc. The skull is similar in appearance to those of early archaic hominids from Europe. Both the Zambian and the European skulls have erectus like characteristics: a large face, large browridges, and thick cranial bones. However, H. erectus skulls, like their Asian counterparts, are higher, reflecting a brain expansion. This archaic Homo sapiens, also known as" Broken Hill Man" and "Rhodesian Man," was among the first early human fossils discovered in Africa. Found by miners searching for metal deposits in caves, it was originally thought to be less than 40,000 years old.

Upper Paleolithic

ID: Refers to the most recent part of the Old Stone Age, associated with early modern Homo sapiens and characterized by finely crafted stone and other types of tools with various functions. significance: Moreover, anthropologists are learning that late Neandertals participated fully in the Upper Paleolithic, the earliest cultures associated mostly with early modern Homo sapiens in Europe, producing stone tools that were modern in many respects, and certainly as complex as those produced by early modern humans. Moreover, the size, shape, and articulations of the Neandertal hand refl ect the kind of precise manual dexterity crucial for the fine-crafting of tools

Middle Paleolithic

ID: The middle part of the Old Stone Age, associated with Mousterian tools, which Neandertals produced using the Levallois technique. significance: Neandertals were associated with the culture known as Mousterian or the Mid- dle Paleolithic. This culture's stone tool technology, lasting about 300,000-30,000 yBP, includes a complex and distinctive type of fl aking called the Levallois. This technique involves preparing a stone core and then fl aking the raw materials for tools from this core (Figure 11.27). Contrary to the opinions of early anthropolo- gists, Neandertal technology was complex.

oase

ID: a 40,000-year-old human mandible, found in a Romanian cave significance: -Has a mix of human and Neanderthal traits; genetic analysis suggests the individual had a close Neanderthal ancestor 4-6 generations back. -In 2015 genetics research revealed that the fossil had a recent Neanderthal ancestor, with an estimated 5-11% Neanderthal autosomal DNA. The specimen's 12th chromosome was also 50% Neanderthal. -Important because it's the first early European found to have such a close Neandertal ancestor -Reveals that early modern humans interbred with Neandertals when they first came to Europe. fossil from Oase Up to 11% of genome is neandertals and 50% of chromosome 12 is Neandertal origin Either the one mating was found, or there are several cases

Shanidar

ID: a Neandertal site significance: Some of the most interesting Neandertals are from the Shanidar site, in northern Iraq's Kurdistan region. These Neandertals—seven adults and three young children—have provided important insight into the lives, lifestyles, and cultural practices of late archaic H. sapiens (Figure 11.14). Shanidar 1, an older adult male dating to at least 45,000 yBP, is one of the most complete skeletons from the site. The face is that of a typical Neandertal, especially in its wide nasal aperture and projecting face. This individual's life history is written in his bones. A healed fracture on his left eye orbit may have caused blindness. Severe arthritis in his feet might have resulted from the constant stresses of traversing difficult, mountainous terrain in this area of Iraq. Shanidar 1's upper incisors are severely worn, probably from his use of the front teeth as a tool for grasping and holding objects in the same or a similar way as the much earlier hominid from Atapuerca. This extramasticatory wear on the front teeth is determined by culture—Neandertals used their front teeth as a part of their "tool kit." Use of the front teeth as a tool has remained a hallmark of human behavior into recent times in a wide variety of cultures, ranging from Eskimos, who chew hides for clothing and other material culture, to Native Americans, who chew plant material to prepare it for basketry. Shanidar 1 also had personal reasons for using his front teeth as a tool. When he was excavated, by the American archaeologist Ralph Solecki in the late 1950s, his lower right arm was missing. The American physical anthropologist T. Dale Stewart has suggested that the lower arm may have been amputated or accidentally severed right above the elbow at some point after Shanidar 1 reached adulthood. The upper arm was severely atrophied, probably owing to disuse of the arm during life. The loss of the use of the arm meant that Shanidar 1 had to use his teeth to perform some simple functions, such as eating or making tools. His survival likely depended on the use of his front teeth. An important implication of this and other injuries is that Shanidar was cared for by his social group into adulthood, despite his reduced physical abilities. Severe conditions like his are not present in earlier hominids, so Neandertal social behavior may have become more modernlike, at least in terms of treating the injured. This adult male's healed injuries are the first evidence in the fossil record of such behavior. This Iraqi cave site was excavated in the late 1950s by an American archaeological team. Evidence found with the Neandertal skeletons suggests that the Neandertals intentionally buried their dead and possibly performed some type of burial ceremony.

La Ferrassie

ID: a Neandertal site, cave in France significance: most complete neandertal skull found with all teeth preserved, female and male remains found, first evidence of sexual dimorphism, deliberate burial, adult male female infants and fetuses, teeth strange wear --> scraping of hide

hyoid

ID: a bone associated with the ability to speak significance: -The shape of the hyoid bone is unique to hominids and reflects their ability to speak. For information about long-past speech, anthropologists rely on indirect evidence within the skeleton. For example, the hyoid bone, in the neck, is part of the vocal structure that helps produce words. The unique appearance of the human hyoid helps anthropologists conjecture about the origins of speech. A. afarensis -The hyoid bone of the child's neck is very much like an ape's. The apelike characteristics of the bone associated with speech indicates the strong likelihood that this hominid did not have speech. One compelling line of evidence strongly suggests that Neandertals were able to speak. The Kebara Neandertal skeleton includes the hyoid bone, a part of the neck that can survive from ancient settings. The hyoid bone is the only part of the skeleton that does not articulate directly with another bone—it is essentially free floating in the throat. Various muscles and ligaments attach it to the skull, mandible, tongue, larynx, and pharynx. Collectively, these elements produce speech. The morphology of the Kebara Neandertal's hyoid is identical to that of a living human's. The Kebara people talked.

Lake Turkana

ID: a lake located in Kenya where many human ancestral species have been found significance: Ethiopians produced a hydroelectric dam → starving Lake Turkana → possible desertification Turkana people won't be able to use the lake Active oil resources Oil price dropped and it was abandoned Human evolution → the lower the lakes are, the more fossils to be found the region, on the western side of Kenya's Lake Turkana, was an ideal natural laboratory for studying human adaptation, especially how the native Turkana respond to this dry grassland's harshness and unpredictability. Dating to around 6 mya, the fossils of at least five preaustralopithecines were found in the Tugen Hills, on the western side of Kenya's Lake Turkana. The discoverers, the French paleoanthropologists Brigitte Senut and Martin Pickford, named these hominids Orrorin tugenensis (the genus means "original man" in Tugen's local language). A. anamensis dates to about 4 mya and was found within Allia Bay and Kanapoi, in, respectively, the eastern and southern ends of Lake Turkana, Kenya In addition to A. garhi, other australopithecine species lived in East Africa and South Africa. In East Africa, the species included earlier and later forms of robust australopithecines called Australopithecus aethiopicus (named for Ethiopia, the country where they were fi rst found) and Australopithecus boisei (named for a bene- factor who supported the discoverer's research), respectively. The earlier hominid, from the west side of Lake Turkana, dates to about 2.5 mya and had a brain size of about 410 cc. The later hominid, from Olduvai Gorge and around Lake Turkana, dates to 2.3-1.2 mya and had a brain size of about 510 cc.

Dmanisi

ID: a member of H.erectus named after a location in the Republic of Georgia where ancestral species have been found significance: The earliest evidence of Homo erectus in Asia consists of four skulls, other bones, and many stone tools found, by the Georgian paleontologist David Lordkipanidze and his colleagues, in Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia. The date for this important site, 1.7 mya, indicates that H. erectus colonized western Asia very soon after it first began to evolve in Africa. Compared with some members of the African H. erectus, these hominids' faces and jaws were smaller and their browridges were less developed—all habilislike facial characteristics. However, in overall shape the Dmanisi hominids' mandible and face strikingly resemble those of both the Nariokotome boy and the Ileret skull from East Africa. Also, like those of the Nariokotome skeleton, the leg bones are relatively long compared with the arm bones, at least as shown in the two partial skeletons—a child and an adult—found at the site. The oldest H. erectus from Dmanisi has a cranial capacity of only about 650 cc. The strong resemblance between the Dmanisi H. erectus and at least some of the East African H. erectuses indicates that the Asian H. erectus originated in Africa.

vindija

ID: a site in Croatia significance: The Neandertal record begins in eastern Europe, at the Krapina site in Croatia, dating to 130,000 yBP (Figure 11.17). The record ends with fossils from Vindija, Croatia, dating to 32,000 yBP. Measurement of stable isotopes of both nitrogen and carbon in the bones of Neandertals—from Scladina Cave (Belgium), Vindija Cave, and Marillac (France)—indicates that Neandertals ate lots of meat, at or nearly at the level of carnivores living at the same time and place (Figure 11.29). The chemical signature of diet, then, is a powerful indicator of Neandertals' effectiveness in acquiring and consuming animal protein. That is, it shows that Neandertals were successful hunters. The earliest modern H. sapiens were present as early as 32,000 yBP at Mladecˇ (Czech Republic). The latest archaic H. sapiens, the Neandertals, survived until at least 28,000 yBP at Vindija (Croatia). The overlap in dates between Neandertals and early modern humans indicates that the two groups coexisted in eastern Europe for at least 4,000 years. So far, only the Neandertal from Vindija has yielded enough nuclear DNA to provide a picture of the Neandertal genome. Interestingly, the structures of Neandertal and modern DNA overlap somewhat. Because nuclear DNA better represents the total genome, these findings indicate the strong possibility of gene flow between Neandertals and early modern humans. Vindja - in Crotia The hotter the climate, the less likely you can extract DNA 3 bones out of a cave - Neandertal bones, first ancient DNA sequence achieved from these bones 1-4% of genomes come directly from neandertals foxP2 - fixed in neandertal populations

Skhul

ID: a site in Israel significance: -Israel, This site offered evidence for the first indication of modern humans outside of Africa, about 100,000 yrs old. The remains of seven adults and three children were found, some of which may have been deliberate burials (Skhul 5 for example a burial with the mandible of a wild boar on the chest. The skull displays prominent ridges and jutting jaw, but the rounded braincase of modern humans. When found, it was assumed to be an advanced Neanderthal, but is today generally assumed to be a modern human, if a very robust one) -Earliest evidence for deliberate burial of the dead was found here, dating to about 115,000 years ago in northern Israel. -Suggested that it represented the origins of symbolic behavior, or at least religious beliefs and the concept of the self. -Performed not just by modern humans but also by Neandertals -the people and the evidence/actions is preceded by neandertals but then also followed by neandertals -could be the dating is worng -modern humans were coexisting -they were traveling through -modern human invasion then repelled by neandertals -their groups didn't just go away, they occupied the areas and interacted Overall, the features we claim that define modern humans appeared at different times in history, and some appear among our archaic ancestors even though we regard the features that define a modern human recent some features appear, disappear, then reappear in later species of homo.

Piltdown man

ID: a skull found by amateur archaeologist Charles Dawson and Sir Arthur Smith in a gravel deposit in East Sussex, England near Piltdown Common significance: -they believed to have found the human ancestor with the predicted key physical attribute that defines humanity-a large brain -the skull was modern in appearance with a large cranial capacity but two of the molars were quite like apes -tests eventually showed that the skull was a fraud, made to look the way it looked and perhaps purposely planted where it was found

Homo antecessor

ID: a species that lived 1.2 million to 800,000 years ago significance: 500, 000 ya H. heidelbergensis Earlier are H. antecessor -Believed to be the possible common ancestor of Neandertals and Homo sapiens. These remains, from Gran Dolina, are the subject of debate as some researchers believe that the juvenile they came from belonged not to Homo erectus but to a new species of hominid, Homo antecessor. -first came to light in the 1990s, is known almost entirely from one cave in northern Spain's Atapuerca Mountains. While working at the Gran Dolina site from 1994 to 1996, a team of Spanish researchers found 80 fossils belonging to six hominid individuals that lived roughly 800,000 years ago. The hominids' teeth were primitive like those of Homo erectus, but aspects of the hominid's face—particularly the shape of the nasal region and the presence of a facial depression above the canine tooth called the canine fossa—were modern, resembling features of modern people. The unique mix of modern and primitive traits led the researchers to deem the fossils a new species -One problem is that most of the known H. antecessor specimens represent children, Gibbons reported. Only two of the six individuals found at Gran Dolina are thought to be adults, about 20 years old. Since most of the features tying H. antecessor to modern people were found in juveniles—whose bodies and physical features change as they grow up and go through puberty—it's possible that H. antecessor adults didn't really look much like H. sapiens at all. And if that's the case, then it's hard to argue the species had an ancestor-descendent relationship with us. The issue won't be settled until researchers find good examples of complete adult H. antecessor fossils.

denisovans

ID: an extinct species of human in the genus Homo with a DNA signature unlike any other significance: -strange distribution-southeast asia--not continuous with southeast Asia but it's there -"ghost" species, an entire branch unknown -scientists sequenced a sliver of a fossil pinky bone from Denisova cave in Siberia (a cave which has also been inhabited by Neanderthals and modern humans) and found genetic evidence of a new kind of human, related but not identical to neandertals -It was found that they also had mixed with modern humans so that Melanesians carry up to 5% Denisovan DNA.

Homo florensiensis

ID: a species that lived in Asia (Indonesia) around 100,000-50,000 ya (nicknamed "the Hobbit") significance: -stone tools made by this species date to between about 190,000 and 50,000 years old. H. floresiensis individuals stood approximately 3 feet 6 inches tall, had tiny brains, large teeth for their small size, shrugged-forward shoulders, no chins, receding foreheads, and relatively large feet due to their short legs. Despite their small body and brain size, H. floresiensis made and used stone tools, hunted small elephants and large rodents, coped with predators such as giant Komodo dragons, and may have used fire. -The diminutive stature and small brain of H. floresiensis may have resulted from island dwarfism—an evolutionary process that results from long-term isolation on a small island with limited food resources and a lack of predators. Pygmy elephants on Flores, now extinct, showed the same adaptation. The smallest known species of Homo and Stegodon elephant are both found on the island of Flores, Indonesia. However, some scientists are now considering the possibility that the ancestors of H. floresiensis may have been small when they first reached Flores.

Homo rudolfensis

ID: a species that lived in Eastern Africa (northern Kenya, possibly northern Tanzania and Malawi) around 1.8-1.9 mya significance: -term comes from the original name (Lake Rudolf) for the Lake Turkana in northern Kenya -fossils possess large brain volumes (750-800ml) but also very large, australopithecine-size molar teeth and muscles -larger braincase, longer face, and larger molar and premolar teeth There is only one really good fossil of this Homo rudolfensis: KNM-ER 1470, from Koobi Fora in the Lake Turkana basin, Kenya. It has one really critical feature: a braincase size of 775 cubic centimeters, which is considerably above the upper end of H. habilis braincase size. At least one other braincase from the same region also shows such a large cranial capacity. (are H. rudolfensis male and H. habilis female? OR are they both different sexually dimorphic species?)

Homo habilis

ID: a species that lived in Eastern and Southern Africa 1.7-1.8 mya (2.4-1.4mya) -name means "handy person" (bc it was thought that these were the people responsible for the creation of the tools found at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania) significance: -considered to represent the evolutionary transition from the australopithecines to Homo -fossils originally from Olduvai and now from East Turkana -possesses a brain size of btw 510-650 ml (slightly larger than those of the australopithecines) -smaller than other species of early Homo, but larger than australopithecines -has less broad molar and premolar cheek teeth than australopithecines -retained some ape-like features, including long arms and a moderately-prognathic face

Homo neanderthalensis

ID: a species that lived in Europe and southwestern to central Asia, about 400,000 - 40,000 years ago) significance: -they are the closest extinct human relatives -defining features of their skulls --> the large middle part of the face --> brow ridge-pronounced, archaic trait) --> angled cheek bones -->large nose for humidifying and warming cold, dry air --> possessed large brain cases --> low and long skulls (oblong) --> large projecting faces lacking a chin --> head shape "en bombe" completely round --> occipital bun --> teeth-gap behind teeth (larger Jaw) --> lack of chin -their bodies were shorter and stockier than ours (powerful robust bones and not very tall), body morphology is an adaptation to living in cold environments - torso and trunk - fat stores -brains larger than humans at 1550ml versus the average 1300ml -they made and used a diverse set of sophisticated tools, controlled fire, lived in shelters, made and wore clothing, were skilled hunters of large animals and also ate plant foods, and occasionally made symbolic or ornamental objects -capable of complex behaviors - there is evidence that they deliberately buried their dead and occasionally even marked their graves with offerings, such as flowers (Shanidar cave in Iraq, a neandertal was found buried and the soil that surrounded it contained huge piles of wildflower pollen). No other primates, and no earlier human species, had ever practiced this sophisticated and symbolic behavior Occupied Europe and Middle East 150,000-30,000 yrs ago One part of the fossil record that's really good is of Neandertals Some people see it as immutable, others as an evolving pop, others see it as completely replaced Complex behavior and intentional, deliberate burial of the dead

Homo heidelbergensis

ID: a species that lived in Europe; possibly Asia (China); Africa (eastern and southern) about 700,000 to 200,000 years ago significance: -In 1908 near Heidelberg, Germany, a workman found the type specimen of H. heidelbergensis in the Rösch sandpit just north of the village of Mauer. This mandible was nearly complete except for the missing premolars and first two left molars; it is heavily built and lacks a chin. -There has been a suggested evolutionary scheme with the addition of Homo heidelbergensis as an evolutionary descendant of H. erectus and the common ancestor of both modern humans and the neandertals. This is the Out of Africa idea with Homo sapiens evolving from H. heidelbergensis in Africa. This early human species had a very large brow ridge, and a larger brain case and flatter face than older early human species. It was the first early human species to live in colder climates; their short, wide bodies were likely an adaptation to conserving heat. It lived at the time of the oldest definite control of fire and use of wooden spears, and it was the first early human species to routinely hunt large animals. This early human also broke new ground; it was the first species to build shelters, creating simple dwellings out of wood and rock.

Homo erectus

ID: a species that lived in Northern, Eastern, and Southern Africa; Western Asia (Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia); East Asia (China and Indonesia) 1.8-1.9 mya, contemporary with other early species of Homo (1.89mya-143,000ya) significance: -the species believed to have migrated out of Africa and into Eurasia, the Middle East -the most reasonable of the early Homo species to be considered ancestor to later in time hominids (modern humans) -possessed very large brains 800ml (like H.rudolfensis) -reduced size in back chewing teeth (like H. habilis) -most complete fossil individual of this species is known as the 'Turkana Boy' - a well-preserved skeleton (though minus almost all the hand and foot bones), dated around 1.6 million years old -growth rate similar to that of a great ape -Found in Java, walked there -Walked to Australia -Dmanisi - member of H. erectus -Skulls found in northern China

Homo naledi

ID: a species that lived in South Africa around significance: -A trove of bones hidden deep within a South African cave represents a new species of human ancestor -appears very primitive in some respects—it had a tiny brain, for instance, and apelike shoulders for climbing. But in other ways it looks remarkably like modern humans. Homo naledi - South African version of H. habilis? 1550 specimens - large collection of bones Dinaledi chamber (South Africa) -passages 6-8 in wide - indicating they had a small build Human bones and no animal bones No known dating technique to date the bones Solution cavities -burial?

Venus figurines

ID: female figurines significance: Venus of Hohle Fels Dated to about 37,000 BP, this statue from the German Upper Paleolithic is the oldest known representational art work in the world. However, it shares many features with later images of females, including emphasis on sexual features and a lack of detail of the face. This is one of the oldest pieces of art in Eurasia. From the Upper Paleolithic site of Hohlenstein in Germany, this human-lion, carved in ivory(about 30 cm high) has recently been dated to about 36,000 years BP. -Moveable art A step beyond-taking the time out to make art so there's a culural value related/added to that

Jean-Jacques Hublin

ID: french paleoanthropologist at the Mark's institute of research significance: studied teeth at the lab, using them to learn about diet and age(growth rate of children

shovel-shaped incisor

ID: incisors with a flat top and bump on the bottom back of the tooth significance: -Native Americans have these -Neandertals had it -the shape persists -the population variation of this feature is not necessarily explained by the single origin model because this feature was common before the single origin model, before modern homo sapiens -strongly suggests that there was some persistence -Inuit women used their teeth to scrape hides to soften them, perhaps our ancestors had them because they were also softening hides

Zhoukoudian

ID: location known as Dragon Bone Hill near Beijing significance: this cave was excavated in the 1920s-40s, revealing the remains of Homo erectus. The site yielding the most impressive H. erectus remains in East Asia. After being discovered in the 1920s, the cave was excavated into the early 1940s. Deposits dating to 600,000-400,000 yBP contained, in fragments, the bones and teeth of 40-50 individuals, as well as many stone tools and food remains. Tragically, the entire collection of priceless bones was lost during World War II, late in 1941. Fortunately, shortly before the loss, the eminent German anatomist and anthropologist Franz Weidenreich (1873-1948) had thoroughly studied the bones and teeth, written detailed scientific reports, and made cast replicas, drawings, and photographs (Figure 10.18). This record has allowed scientists to continue studying the Zhoukoudian remains. Excavations at Zhoukoudian revealed evidence for controlled fire use, including burned animal bones, burned stone tools, burned plants, charcoal, ash, ostrich egg shells, and hackberry seeds. The presence of burned plant and animal remains indicates that in addition to constructing fire to stay warm in a very cold climate, Homo erectus used fire to cook food. Prior to using fire, hominids ate both plants and animals raw. But cooking these foods made them easier to chew and, as a result, made their predecessors' very powerful jaws and large teeth less necessary. Indeed, the jaws and teeth of these Middle Pleistocene hominids were smaller than earlier hominids'. This size reduction was almost certainly related to the cultural innovations of the Middle Pleistocene, including both controlled use of fire and more advanced tool technology. Cooking also improved access to nutrients released by heating some foods to certain temperatures.

Dali

ID: location where early archaic sapiens were found significance: The Ngandong skulls share a number of features with other Asian early archaic H. sapiens, especially with Narmada (Madhya Pradesh, India) and Dali (Shaanxi Province, People's Republic of China) skulls (Figure 11.8). The crania are large and robust. The browridges are quite large, although not as large as in H. erectus. Like the Ngandong cranium, the crania of (a) Narmada and (b) Dali are robust with thick cranial bones. The cranial capacity, however, indicates the brain size was much larger than in Homo erectus but somewhat smaller than in modern humans.

Atapuerca/Sima de los huesos

ID: pit in a cave located in Atapuerca, Spain significance: -located at the bottom of a 13-metre (43-foot) deep "chimney" reached by scrambling through the cave system of the Cueva Mayor -excavation team has located more than 5,500 human bones dated to an age of at least 350,000 years old, corresponding to the Middle Pleistocene and representing around 28 skeletons of the species Homo heidelbergensis -(mtDNA) from a 400,000-year-old femur has been sequenced, the oldest hominin mtDNA recovered as of 2013. The mtDNA was found to be closer to the mtDNA from Denisova hominins than to the mtDNA from Neanderthals. In 2016 nuclear DNA analysis determined the Sima hominins are Neanderthals and not Denisova hominins and the divergence between Neandertals and Denisovans predates 430,000 years ago. The excavators suggest that the concentration of bones in the pit may represent the practice of burial by the inhabitants of the cave. A competing theory cites the lack of small bones in the assemblage and suggests that the remains were washed into the pit by natural agencies.

chin

ID: projection at the bottom of the skull significance: Modern people—people who essentially look like us—tend to have a high, vertical forehead, a round and tall skull, small browridges, a small face, small teeth, and a projecting chin (anthropologists call the latter a "mental eminence"). The immediate ancestors of modern people—archaic H. sapiens—are different from modern H. sapiens in a number of ways. Compared to modern H. sapiens, archaic H. sapiens have a longer, lower skull, larger browridges, a bigger and more projecting face, more projecting occipital bones (sometimes called an occipital bun when referring to Neandertals), larger teeth (especially the front teeth), and no chin. Some hominid skeletons dating to the Upper Pleistocene have a mixture of archaic and modern skeletal features. The Skhul 5 skeleton, from Israel, is an excel- lent example of a hominid with archaic features, including a somewhat forward-projecting face and pronounced browridges, and modern features, such as a distinctive chin and no occipital bun archaic sapiens - no chin Skulls from two key locations in southern Africa provide important information about early modern H. sapiens that date to after 100,000 yBP. Among the fragmentary remains from Klasies River Mouth Cave, anthropologists have found a chin, a distinctively modern characteristic, that dates to at least 90,000 yBP. A nearly complete skull from Hofmeyr, dating to 36,000 yBP, bears a striking resemblance to Pleistocene modern Europeans. Klasies River Mouth Cave Excavations at this site in southern Africa revealed evidence of early modern Homo sapiens. (b) One of the most important features found on these cranial remains is a chin on the mandible. Skhul Cranium This skull possesses many characteristics associated with modern humans, including a chin, a less projecting face, small and gracile cheeks, and a high, vertical forehead. The browridges are still distinct, but are much reduced compared with archaic Homo sapiens'.

Homo sapiens

ID: species to which all living humans belong (evolved in Africa and lived 200,000 years ago to present) significance: -the name was applied in 1758 by the father of modern biological classification , Carolus Linnaeus -During a time of dramatic climate change 200,000 years ago, they evolved in Africa. -brain case shape-short, rounded, tall -brow ridge-high forehead -nose-smaller nose -chin-protruding chin -Modern humans can generally be characterized by the lighter build of their skeletons compared to earlier humans. Modern humans have very large brains, which vary in size from population to population and between males and females, but the average size is approximately 1300 cubic centimeters. Housing this big brain involved the reorganization of the skull into what is thought of as "modern" -- a thin-walled, high vaulted skull with a flat and near vertical forehead. Modern human faces also show much less (if any) of the heavy brow ridges and prognathism of other early humans. Our jaws are also less heavily developed, with smaller teeth.

Mousterian

ID: the stone tool culture in which Neandertals produced tools using the Levallois technique -a style of predominantly flint tools (or industry) associated primarily with Neandertals and dating to the Middle Paleolithic, the middle part of the European Old Stone Age significance: -Excavations at the site of Maastricht-Belvédère (Netherlands) recovered several pieces of hematite (mineral mined as the main ore for iron in stratigraphic levels associated with the last interglacial, perhaps as early as 200-250 kya) -Refitting of a number of cores with removed flakes documents that the red ochre is directly associated with the Middle Pleistocene sediments -The lithics show Mousterian tools are present. "Across Europe, from Spain to Russia, the evolution of the EUP traditions from the preceding Mousterian technocomplexes is evident at literally hundreds of sites." Bednarik -Levallois flake, from which Mousterian tools were fashioned The stone tool culture in which Neandertals produced tools using the Levallois technique. -a style of predominantly flint tools (or industry) associated primarily with Neandertals and dating to the Middle Paleolithic, the middle part of the European Old Stone Age Excavations at the site of Maastricht-Belvédère (Netherlands) recovered several pieces of hematite (mineral mined as the main ore for iron in stratigraphic levels associated with the last interglacial, perhaps as early as 200-250 kya) Refitting of a number of cores with removed flakes documents that the red ochre is directly associated with the Middle Pleistocene sediments. -The lithics show Mousterian tools are present. "Across Europe, from Spain to Russia, the evolution of the EUP traditions from the preceding Mousterian technocomplexes is evident at literally hundreds of sites." Bednarik -Oldowan Pebble Tools -Levallois flake, from which Mousterian tools were fashioned

out of africa model

Modern biology, behavior, and culture originated in Africa. Modern humans spread from Africa to Europe after 50,000 yBP. Modern humans replaced all populations once arriving in Europe, with no gene fl ow. The theory of human evolution and migration espoused by most anthropologists. The Out-of-Africa model easily explains the single species of living humans by emphasizing a single origin of modern people and eventual replacement of archaic H. sapiens throughout the Old World. Whatever species existed was completely replaced by modern humans -Multiple streams of hominids starting to leave Africa close to 2 million years ago. In the final distinct wave of migration, Homo sapiens traveled to the Middle East 100,000 to 120,000 years ago. These early humans replaced all the hominids they met along the way as some journeyed to Europe and others traveled to Asia. -proposes that modern humans evolved once in Africa between 100 - 200 thousand years ago -modern humans subsequently colonised the rest of the world without genetic mixing with archaic forms -supported by the majority of genetic evidence The fossil record and (to a lesser extent) the genetic record indicate, how- ever, that neither the Out-of-Africa model nor the Multiregional Continuity model adequately explains modern humans' origins. The Out-of-Africa model correctly accounts for the origin of modern human variation, but it incorrectly asserts that no gene fl ow occurred between Neandertals and modern Homo sapiens.

assimilation model

Modern humans evolved fi rst in Africa, then spread to Europe and Asia. Once they arrived in Europe and Asia, modern humans underwent gene fl ow with Neandertals. Assumes modern humans originated in Africa. Beneficial modern features from Africa spread among these archaic groups by means of a combination of steady migration and mating known as gene flow. The explanation for the origin of anatomically modern humans in Europe. If Neandertals are assimilated into in-migrating populations of modern people in Europe, then Neandertals do not go extinct in the classical sense of the word.

multi-regional model

Modern humans evolved from earlier archaic populations in their respective regions (Africa, Europe, Asia). Throughout evolution, there is always signifi cant gene fl ow on the borders of populations. There is continuity of morphology in all regions of the globe. Focuses exclusively on the archaic-to-modern transition period in Africa and argues for gene flow and hybridization between distinctive archaic groups there. (this theoretically precedes all other models) The Multi- regional Continuity model emphasizes the importance of gene fl ow across population boundaries—separate species of humanity never arose owing to the constant inter- breeding of human groups throughout human evolution. -the multi-regional scenario said that modern humans did not originated exclusively in Africa. Rather modern humans evolved from local populations everywhere i.e. eg. modern Chinese evolved from Homo erectus (which migrated there from Africa several hundred thousand years ago) in China with some gene flow between regions. -supported by physical evidence, such as the continuation of morphological characteristics between archaic and modern humans -For us to accept multi-regionality, we would expect a much older date than 171,500 ya from mitochodrial genomes, as it would represent the common ancestor of Homo erectus rather than of Homo sapiens. The fossil record and (to a lesser extent) the genetic record indicate, how- ever, that neither the Out-of-Africa model nor the Multiregional Continuity model adequately explains modern humans' origins. The Multi- regional Continuity model is not correct about modern H. sapiens' regional devel- opment. However, it is correct about gene fl ow and the notion that Neandertals have contributed to modern H. sapiens' gene pool.