ANTH 1000 Test 2 (Dr. Berk)

Mode of production

"A set of social relations through which labor is deployed to wrest energy from nature by means of tools, skills, organization, and knowledge"

Free markets

"free" because no traditional restrictions determine distribution (not linked to social status)`

the market via supply and demand

determines levels of production & consumption

balanced reciprocity

exchange with anticipation of equal return

generalized reciprocity

exchange with no expectation of immediate return

Agriculture

more food being grown and more labor-intensive when compared to slash and burn in horticulture

Negative

not close at all and very selfish

Means of production

other examples are mines, machines, factories, new technologies, human labor itself

Agriculture

permanent plots and fields that are cultivated continuously, larger populations supported by permanent food source

Terracing

takes rolling hills or steep sides and makes it flat and creates tiers and reduces runoff and erosion and more efficient use of water

negative reciprocity

the attempt to get something for nothing

Agriculture

these societies have increased inequality; food producers eventually become peasants in the society

Kula ring

value of these objects are not in currency; value is connected to the participants in this exchange; system based on trust and obligation and shame bc if the holder gets selfish and doesn't want to pass it on then they are shamed and status will be weakened; differentiated from bartering; they are priceless and value is in the exchange

Commodity fetish

we don't think of the human labor that goes into the production of the products we buy every day and we view the end product and not what goes into creating the product

Free market

when the market operates smoothest free of government intervention

agriculture

you have plows and terracing and animal labor and animal manure for fertilizer

Australopiths

-Ape-like from the top down -Human-like from the ground up

Genus Ardipithecus

-Bipedal, but apelike in size, anatomy, and habitat -Earliest hominin? Not definitive

Genus Paranthropus (Robust Australopiths)

-Large post-canine teeth -Smaller incisors and canines -Flatter faces -Large chewing muscles

Nose shape

The shape of what feature differs between New World monkeys and Old World monkeys?

Homologies

The similarities used to assign organisms to the same taxon are called what?

Immature birth

The skulls of newborns are not fully formed, are actually elastic, and continue to grow outside the womb

Economics

The study of such systems

Stone tools

The use of __________ __________ aided many species in their competition with other ones

Horticulture (slash-and-burn)

Then people grow on these plots of land for a few seasons to let the original land lay fallow and regenerate its nutrients

Catarrhines

Old World Monkeys and Apes?

Divine creation

Theories of evolution attempt to make sense of human origins, just as accounts of ___________ _____________ do

Behavioral modernity

There are debates over when AMH's achieved what?

Expansion and domestication

These changes were mostly related to population size

Bridewealth and dowry

These gifts create debt and durable alliances between descent groups

States; firms

These labor forces are controlled by ___________ and employed by ___________

Cosmologies

These texts place humans in an original "state of nature" that is preferable in many ways to the kinds of societies we live in now

Vertebrates

They are distinguished from previous life forms which were gelatinous masses basically

Oldowan pebble tools

They enabled some species to expand their diets and become omnivorous

Oldowan pebble tools

They get more refined and specialized over time

Primates

They will have kinship relations, they do not classify others as kins like we do

Primates

They will share food widely and routinely but not as widely and routinely as humans

Adaptations

This class focuses on how human ___________________ became increasingly complex and unstable after about 35,000 BP

Rift Valley

This geography indicates the separation of chimp and gorilla ancestors from Homo ancestors

Better tools (Acheulian)

This led to an increased reliance on hunting and animal protein for Homo erectus

Potlaching

Through the lens of classical economic theory, in which the profit motive is viewed as a human universal, ______________________ is irrational and wasteful

Foraging

Today, fewer than 30,000 people make their living by ___________________, and this number is constantly decreasing

Broad Spectrum Revolution

Took place from 15,000 BP to 12,000 BP

Homo neanderthalensis

Tools (Mousterian) improved on the Acheulian variety

Diets (the more adaptable you are, the less likely you are to become extinct)

Tools lead to new ________ so more adaptable so less likely to become extinct

Denisovans (because it had flaring sides)

Tooth unlike either Neantertal or AMH teeth

Denisovans

Tooth was NOT similar to teeth of Neanderthals and AMH bc it has flaring sides

Creationist cosmology

Traits are fixed and unchanged since creation and Linnaeus grouped things by similarity

Convergent evolution

Traits related through environmental pressures

Analogy

Traits that are result of evolution and not a common ancestor

Analogies; convergent evolution

Traits that dolphins and fish share are _______________ that evolved through _______________ __________________

Profit maximization

Trying to get what we want for less

Hominin

Uniquely human evolutionary lineage

Making a living and foraging for food

Until 10,000 years ago, there was no difference between these two things

Great Rift Valley

Up to this point, all hominin evolution took place in Africa mainly in East Africa in ________ ______ _________ in the savannah grasslands

Blade tools with Homo sapiens sapiens

Upper Paleolithic tools?

Molars

Use _______________ to chew so if you chew you will have bigger _________________

Taxation

Used to accumulate resources used to support a growing number of specialties including human labor and militaries

Orangutans

Very arboreal and very solitary so they are the exception that proves the rule

Gorillas

Very hierarchical in their groups

Polyandry

Very rare, almost exclusively in South Asia (Tibet, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka)

Inconclusive evidence

Was "Toumai" a hominin?

Domestication

Was emerging around 10,000 years ago

Tool use

Was more refined and advanced with bigger brain individuals

Domestication

Was more specialized and focused on a smaller number of food sources compared to broad spectrum foraging

Domestication

Was the gradual result of attempts to recreate the Hilly Flanks economy in new climates

Mode of production

Ways of organizing production

Amongst royals; hemophilia

We can see higher levels of genetic maladies in what group of people? What specific malady?

Cultures

We define our kin differently across _______________

Hogopan

We don't know what species specifically ____________________ is (between 6-8 million years ago)

Reliance on sight over smell

We have binocular vision and can see color and depth; good eyesight

Reliance on hand over nose

We have pads on our fingertips and toe tips that we rely on for sensory data

Spines

We have straighter ___________ than chimps

Social stratification

Wealth concentrated in the upper tiers so sharp social divisions based on unequal access of resources - what is this known as?

Ardi

Weighed about 120 pounds, and close to 4 feet tall

Denisovans

Went East instead of West, so went to Siberia which is where Asian descendants get Neanderthal DNA perhaps

Strepsirrhines

Were flourishing by 54 million years ago

1. Inbreeding avoidance 2. Familiarity breeds contempt 3. Prevention of domestic chaos 4. Marry out or die out

What are the four theories that explain why there is a taboo against incest?

Adaptive strategies

What are the methods for meeting the needs of subsistence and making a living?

Surplus takers, production organizers, and food producers

What are the three social classes in the State?

Slavery

What comes into existence after state formation?

Tails

What do the New World monkeys all have?

1. Share food widely and routinely 2. Cooperate in planning and carrying out complex, multistage tasks 3. Use spoken language 4. Classify others as kin of various types and interact with them for life

What do we imagine as distinctly human?

Body size and brain size

What increased together over time in hominin evolution?

Caste System in India

What is an example of endogamy?

Site indicates (based on remains) a very diverse diet including deer and elephant and fish just to name a few; evidence of controlled fire and huts so this may have been a permanent site. Hearths and fire places and controlled fire over long periods of time; fire is about 1 million years old but no campfires at that site so this was the first place

What is important about Terra Amata, 300,00 year old campsite in France?

Bipedalism (walking on two legs which is a major advancement in evolution), upright and running locomotion, holding a stone which could have been used as a weapon or tool perhaps

What is important to note in the photo of Australopithecus?

Seeds

What is larger in domesticated plants as compared to their wild equivalents?

Flat noses

What is the nasal morphology of Platyrrhines (aka New World monkeys)?

Individuals

What motivates people in different societies to produce, distribute, or exchange, and consume? Here the focus is not on systems of behavior but on the _____________________ who participate in those systems

Had large molars and zygomatic arches and sagittal crests - so this indicates a gritty, fibrous, chewing-intensive diet

What was the dentition and cranial morphology of Australopiths like?

Cutting

What were flakes used for?

Catarrhines

When they do have tails they cannot grasp stuff with them; terrestrial and live on the ground so stronger and more muscular which is an adaptation to terrestrial predators, found in Africa and Asia, greater degree of sexual dimorphism which is anatomical and often temperamental differences between males and females of a given species, males tend to be bigger than females, males are more fierce and aggressive

South Asia

Where are lorises found?

Hilly Flanks

Where did food production begin?

East Africa

Where did hominin evolution occur?

State

A form of social and political organization that has a formal, central government and a division of society into social classes

Economy

A system of production, distribution, and consumption of resources

Homo habilis

Where tool use was thought to have originated but new discoveries have shown that the Australopithecus had tool use

Strepsirrhines are solitary Haplorrhines are gregarious

Which are solitary and which are gregarious: Strepsirrhines vs. Haplorrhines?

Australopiths

While physically smaller than later species, they had relatively robust features

Less varied and less nutritious diets when compared to foraging diets; less protein and instead more fats/carbs

Why did domestication lead to declines in public health?

1. It provides a standard to assess human uniqueness 2. We are closely related and share an evolutionary history 3. It helps us make sense of behaviors that are thought to be distinctly human

Why do we study non-human primates?

The brains got bigger in bits then a sudden spike with this species in terms of brain size; it is punctuated equilibrium which is rapid change after periods of relatively small change

Why the rapid pace of evolution between Homo habilis and Homo erectus?

Levirate

Widow marries one of her deceased husbandʼs brothers

Sororate

Widower marries one of his deceased wifeʼs sisters (or another woman from her group if a sister is not available)

Hard husk = protection from animals and less likely to be eaten by animals

Wild wheat has a _______________ husk for what reason?

Brittle axis = support the next generation and break more easily so it can get into ground to make more for next generation

Wild wheat has a ________________ axis for what reason?

Surplus

With the emergence of the State, new social classes emerged that depended on ____________________ production to live

Tool

________ users displaced other hominins, pushing them into drier, less diverse zones, and some ultimately to extinction

Apes and monkeys

___________ and ______________ are not the same and not interchangeable.

Chimps

___________ eat fruit in forest and woodlands, sometimes each other

Uruk

___________, the capital city of Sumer, had a population of about 50,000 people by 4,800 BP

Choppers

_____________ for pounding, breaking, or bashing

Gorillas

_____________ went to forest and eat green vegetation

Hominins

______________ evolved in open savannah grassland and ate gritty and dry and chewing intensive diets; gritty fibers

Food production

_______________ ________________ began in Hilly Flanks where wheat and barley grew in abundance and didn't require too much work from its inhabitants

Surplus takers; food producers

_______________ _________________ have most power but smallest group whereas _________________ ________________ are biggest group but have least amount of power

Sheep and goats

_______________ and ____________ were bred to be smaller, more docile, and to be more efficient producers of wool, hair, milk, fat, and meat

Hominin

________________ is a sub-category in hominid

Hunting and gathering

_________________ and _________________ were the primary subsistence practices for most of human history

Evolution

_________________ is not a clear transformation from one species to the next; there is competition and some are dead-ends and become extinct while some evolve

Strepsirrhine

__________________ nostrils tend to be surrounded by moist, naked skin

Domesticated

_____________________ animals are bred to be smaller and more docile and more efficient at production of hair and milk and fat and meat

Haplorrhine

_____________________ nostrils tend to be surrounded by dry, hairy skin

Fraternal polyandry

______________________ ___________________ is an effective strategy when resources are scarce (e.g. Tibet, Goldstein)

Domestication

__________________________ has produced huge social differences

Industrial Revolution

Before the _________________ _________________ (18th century), the vast majority of the world's population lived in economies based on four "adaptive strategies," all but one of which developed in the last 10,000 years

Neolithic Revolution

Began in the Middle East 10,000 years ago and then spread throughout the Old World

Homo erectus

Beginning with ______________, culture becomes a major selective factor and it is tied to larger brain and increased cranial capacity

Slash and burn

Benefits of burning the field is release of nutrients in the soil and clear the underbrush and kill parasites and bugs in the soil as well

Water (irrigation)

Between 6,000 and 7,000 BP, people learned how to bring _______________ into areas that did not have enough for agriculture

Zygomatic arches

Bigger cheeks to accommodate bigger chewing muscles

Genus Ardipithecus

Bipedal and feet were not has flat as later species, so didn't walk as far and lived in trees a lot

Australopiths

Birth canals are more narrow compared to humans

Bipedality

Birth canals can only get so big without compromising what?

"Toumai" (Sahelanthropus tchadensis)

Blends apelike and human characteristics; lived in mixed environment; anterior foramen magnum (bipedalism?)

Homo habilis and Homo erectus

Both evolved independently from each other with shared Austrolapith ancestors

Homo habilis

Brain size of about 650-800, had long arms and small bodies, used Oldowan pebble tools

Natufians

Built permanent villages in the Hilly Flanks

Middle East

By 10,000 BP, people in the ________________ ___________ were subsisting on domesticated crops and animals and living in permanent settlements

Broad spectrum economies

By 7,000 BP, people were abandoning ______________ ______________ ______________ in favor of economies based on a small number of domesticated sources of food

irrational

By extension, non-capitalist societies are falsely seen as what

Hilly Flanks

Can be conceptualized as Garden of Eden in the sense that this region had wild grains and wild game where human inhabitants could partake in this food option with minimal work to obtain it

Karl Marx

Capitalism?

Polygyny

___________________________ is more prevalent when there is a gender disparity within a given society

Old World monkeys

Catarrhines?

Bipedal locomotion

Changes in femur and thigh bones and hips to allow for this

-Larger bodies - lot bigger compared to monkeys and others -Live longer -Longer birth intervals and time in between reproduction, longer periods of infant dependency -Tendency of upright locomotion and posture when compared to monkeys -Larger brains which is connected to infant dependency -Shorter faces -No tails whatsoever

Characteristics of apes?

-Tend to have dry, naked skin around their nose -Tend to be diurnal, which means active during the day so they see better during the day and not at night -Tend to be gregarious or more social and groom each other which is a highly social activity

Characteristics of haplorrhines?

Apes (not monkeys and apes)

Chimps are ___________

The neanderthals

Clothes from animal hides and leather

Homo habilis

Coexisted with P. boisei (hyperrobust Australopithecine) for roughly half a million years

Homo neanderthalensis

Cold-adapted European hominin

Vertical economy

Consisting of four geographically close, but very different, environmental zones

Fire

Controlled _______ enabled Homo erectus to spread into temperate climates and ultimately leave Africa

1. More Complex Tools 2. Permanent Plots and Fields 3. Sedentary Lifestyle; Higher Population Density 4. Increased Specialization 5. Higher Productivity 6. Individual Ownership

Correlations and features of agriculture:

1. Depends of naturally available food 2. Small populations 3. Mobile and flexible 4. Relatively egalitarian 5. Gendered division of labor

Correlations and features of foraging:

1. Swiddens (burned clearings made for temporary agriculture); Slash and Burn 2. Hand-held tools such as hoes and digging tools 3. Low yields 4. Inequalities appear

Correlations and features of horticulture:

Polyandry

Cultural adaptation to mobility associated with customary male travel for trade, commerce, and military operations

Homo erectus

Culture became something of an acquired characteristic, passed down directly and indirectly to one's offspring such as how to make tools

European and Asian

DNA shows that ___________ and __________ descent have 1-4% neanderthal DNA

Neanderthal

DNA suggests that ____________________ ancestors split from Archaic Homo sapiens about 600,000 years ago

Bipedalism

Developed for tool use and to carry tools

1-4% of the Neanderthal genome incorporated within the DNA of living Europeans and Asians (but not Africans)

Did Neanderthals evolve into Homo sapiens sapiens or did they die out/were they outcompeted and went extinct?

No, this is a false assumption as if they were around as chimps 6-8 million years ago (as they were not), but we do share common ancestry w/ the African primates including chimps and apes

Did humans evolve from chimps?

No

Did we evolve from monkeys?

Smallpox (along with other diseases and epidemics)

Didn't exist until we started domesticating animals

-Not perfect: groups may possess some correlated features but not all -Not an evolutionary schema -Not mutually exclusive

Disclaimers about Cohen's typology?

Foraging

Does not encourage social stratification and the groups tend to be more equal

Hard axis = not going to break off when you are harvesting and moving them to storage

Domesticated wheat has a _________________ axis for what reason?

Brittle husk = easier for humans to eat and easier to access the seeds

Domesticated wheat has a _________________ husk for what reason?

Public health

Domestication involves more highly specialized diets because less food sources and options which leads to a decline in _______________ ________________

Foraging

Domestication was more specialized and focused on a smaller number of food sources compared to broad spectrum ____________________

Formalists

applied neoclassical economics to non-Western societies and portrayed them as "closet capitalists"

Animal butchering

Oldowan tools were used for tasks like what?

Homo floresiensis

On Flores near Indonesia?

Carrying capacity

Once they reached ___________________ _______________, the population spilled out into new ecological niches and marginal zones

Polygyny

One man, several wives

Mesopotamia

One of the first states?

Polyandry

One woman, several husbands

Lemurs

Only found in the wild in Madagascar

Rift Valley

Open grassland/ savannah ecologies

6

Our earliest ancestors have been around for __ million years and this is small relative to the history of the planet (3 minutes of the 24 hour day

Toumai

Outlier in terms of where is was found in Africa (Chad is in central Africa but hominin evolution occurred in East Africa)

Industrial

Outside __________________ societies, marriage is often more a relationship between groups than one between individuals

Surpluses

Patterns of more organization and bureaucratic ways were seen as a result of what?

Bipedalism

Pelvis, spine, and lumbar curve has to do with what?

In-laws

People don't just take a spouse; they assume obligations to a group of what?

Horticulture

Permanent food sources but smaller scale in terms of production, intensity, and labor when compared to foraging

Hilly Flanks

Place known as _____________ ____________ is the Garden of Eden in this new and improved cosmology

New World monkeys

Platyrrhines?

Molars

Early species have bigger ______________ to chew and eat gritty diet

Rift Valley

East Africa's ______ ______________ where the majority of early hominin evolution occurred

Vertical

Fertile Crescent is a ______________ economy

Terra Amata (in France)

Fire is about 1 million years old but no campfires at that site so this was the first place

Homo erectus

First species to leave Africa due to bigger brains and controlled use of fire

Vertical economy

Goes from highest to lowest

Catarrhines (Old World Monkeys)

Greater degree of sexual dimorphism which is anatomical and often temperamental differences between males and females of a given species

Orangutans

Habitat is being destroyed for palm oil from the trees

Homo erectus

Had larger brains and better tools (Acheulian)

Genus Paranthropus

Had massive chewing muscles so bigger canines and smaller canines/incisors; cheeks flare out to accommodate these chewing muscles

Diurnal

Haplorrhines tend to be ______________

Monkeys, apes, and tarsals

Haplorrhines?

Husk

Hard shell that protects the seed?

Natufians

Harvested 2000 pounds in 3 weeks so they had a surplus so they created storehouses -- so had permanent settlements to stay close to their surplus

Australopiths

Has 2 genera

Food production

Has existed for less than 1 percent of the time Homo has spent on Earth, yet has produced huge social differences

"Marry out or die out"

Has nothing to do with genetics or maladies; basically you just need to marry out and form coalitions in order to survive over time

Platyrrhines (New World Monkeys)

Have a prehensile tail and arboreal?

Primates

Have evolved and radiated over the last 65 million years

Mammals

Have hair and mammary glands

Haplorrhines

Have subsequently branched further into monkeys and apes

Vertebrates

Have vertebrae and backbones and spines

Incest

Having a taboo (broadly speaking) is a universa,l but in the specifics, it gets foggy based on who is considered your kin and who is not - what is this referring to?

Incest

Having a taboo against _____________ is a human universal

Polygamy

Having more than one spouse

Fire

Helped Homo Erectus move out of Africa

Tapetum (also found in alligators and deer)

Helps them see at night so essentially night vision

Karl Marx

His ideas come about when the emergence of the industrial revolution

- Gorillas went to forest and eat green vegetation -Chimps eat fruit in forest and woodlands, sometimes each other -Hominins evolved in open savannah grassland and ate gritty and dry and chewing intensive diets, gritty fibers

Hogopan split into different evolutionary lines in different ecological niches and their diets became specialized. Who went where and who ate what?

Broader

Hominid is the ____________ category

Group (or groups in competition with other groups)

Homo erectus saw a transition to __________ selection or inclusive fitness

2

Homo habilis appears about how many million years ago?

2

Homo habilis came to the scene about ___ million years ago

Call systems

Primates do not use spoken language, but use __________ ________________ and can manipulate symbols

Grasping ability

Primates have 5 digits on their hands and feet plus an opposable thumb to hold and grasp things; they also have opposable toes which was due to arboreal lifestyle but we do not have opposable big toes; we also have nails and not claws

Brain complexity

Primates have larger brains compared to other mammals; amongst smartest of all living things

Industrialism

Produces large, mobile, skilled, specialized, and (differently) educated labor forces

Punctuated equilibrium

Rapid change after periods of relatively small change

Marriage

Refers to the customs, rules, and obligations that establish a special relationship between sexually co-habitating adults, typically (but not exclusively) male and female, between them and any children they produce (together or singly), and between the kin of the spouses

Pastrolism

Rely on herd animals and are nomadic with herd animals; milk heavy diets; travel seasonally with their herd

Behavioral modernity

Relying on symbolic thought, elaborating cultural creativity, and as a result becoming fully human in behavior as well as in anatomy

Systems

How are production, distribution, and consumption organized in different societies? This question focuses on __________________ of human behavior and their organization

-Tend to have moist, naked skin around their nostrils -Much smaller and brain to body size is smaller too -Tend to be solitary -Tend to be nocturnal and have a tapetum which helps them see at night and is essentially night vision

How are streppsirrhines different from haplorrhines?

Culturally specific

How cultures define their relatives, and thus incest, is variable and ________________ _______________

Immature birth means the brains grow outside the womb and overtime the skull hardens

How do you accommodate larger brains without compromising bipedality?

Negatively

How does the US view plural marriage?

Alluvial Plain

How to get water from rivers to _____________ ______________ to support even larger populations and have more surplus and live in towns

6

Human ancestors split off from chimp and gorilla ancestors about ___ million years ago

Domestication

Human are ancestral and forced into a life of _________________________ as a result of climate change

Australopiths

Human like from the ground-up (in terms of bipedality and bipedal locomotion)

Homo floresiensis

Human-like but with very small brains (400cc) perhaps a pygmy H. erectus?

Wheat; natural selection and human preferences

Humans selected traits in __________ and new phenotypes are favored as a result of ________________ _______________ and ________________ ________________

Foraging

Hunting and gathering with no domesticated plants and animals

Hogopan

Hypothetically existed between 8 and 6 million years ago

Nuer (example of same-sex unions)

If a man has only daughters and no sons, he can designate a daughter to be a "son" and she can take a wife and the wife can have relations with other men. Any children are the children of the designated "son" (daughter-son) and the wife

Balanced

If people fail to reciprocate then the bonds are weakened but if it is reciprocated then the bonds are strengthened

Endogamic - we need to marry people who fit into our "group" and who are similar to us

In the US, do we have exogamic or endogamic tendencies in regards to marriage?

Oldowan pebble tools

Represent the world's oldest formally recognized stone tools

Fraternal polyandry

Restricts number of wives and heirs, so land transmitted with minimal fragmentation

Convergent evolution

Just because you share traits does not mean you are related; it could be an analogy as a result of what?

The neanderthals

Large torso/short limb configuration

The neanderthals

Larger cranial capacity than modern humans (1430 cc)

The neanderthals

Last ancestry w/ this species lived 600,000 years ago

Streppsirrhines

Lemurs and lorises?

Homo erectus

Less gritty diet so changes in dentition and cranial morphology and reduced chewing muscles and cranial morphology; BUT had enlarged front teeth for ripping and tearing which shows animal protein in their diet; more refined brow ridge due to work done by front teeth and meat diet; strong upper bodies and strong jaws; skull is referred to as being football shaped

Homo erectus

Less robust cranial morphology and dentition, but very robust head and body

Labor

Links humans to the material world around us and is a fundamentally social activity

Orangutans

Live high up in trees so hard to study and live in forest

Gibbons

Live in parts of Asia and have long arms in relation to legs because they live in trees

Platyrrhines

Live in trees so have prehensile tails which means they can control it and grasp things, arboreal, more through tree with hand-over-hand motion, smaller and quicker and more agile which helps with arboreal lifestyle and helps them avoid predators, have flatter noses which is distinct from us

Homo habilis

Lived alongside P. boisei for half a million years

Homo erectus

Lived from 1.9 million years ago to 400,000 B.P.

Homo floresiensis

Lived in island environment; very small bodies and brains so more in line w/ chimp than other species; pygmy Homo Erectus that adapted to the environment

The neanderthals

Long noses (Thompsons Nose Rule) so more insulation from air; shorter limbs and large torsos to conserve body heat in colder climate

Domestication

Looking for food was how people made a living before what?

Primates

Lot of instruction amongst __________________ and showing the young how to do various tasks such as how to use tools

Acheulian stone tools with Homo erectus

Lower Paleolithic tools?

Australopiths

Lucy was one - still smaller

Foraging

Main distinctions that matter are gender and age and this will determine your place in the larger scale of things

Australopith

Mainly from East and South Africa, not Central like "Toumai"

Sociality

Mainly monkeys and apes while lemurs are more solitary; humans tend to live in groups because this helps spread long-term attentive care to offspring

Bipedalism

Major indicator of hominin species

Means of production

Major productive resources, such as land (territory), labor, technology

Gorillas

Males: 400 pounds and 6 feet tall but basically fully terrestrial and typically eat all green vegetation

Old World monkeys and apes (Catarrhines)

Many have tails, but not all do?

Phylogeny

Many similarities between organisms reflect their common _____________________ — their genetic relatedness based on common ancestry

1. Learning 2. Tool use 3. Hunting (many chimps hunt monkeys often in organized planned execution) 4. Symbolic communication

Many things that we may consider uniquely human exist amongst our primate cousins including:

Living together

Marriage (or at least being engaged) in the US is a prerequisite before doing what with your significant other?

Incest

Marriage is often conceptualized as a way of avoiding what?

Sex, procreation, gender, and kinship

Marriage, everywhere, involves the legitimation of what four things?

Arranged marriages - and Americans typically do not believe in arranged marriages

Marriages based on these factors are often (negatively) viewed as what?

Homogamy (such as marrying someone with the same religion or in the same economic class as you)

Marrying people who are similar to you

The neanderthals

Massive brow ridges and front teeth; brains are bigger than our species; larger mid-section and shorter limbs

Radiated

Means expanded and moved out to new locations

Mousterian tools with neanderthals

Middle Paleolithic tools?

Oldowan pebble tools since it aided in expanding diets

Might help explain robust features?

Homo erectus

Modern body and limbs and bigger brain size of 900 to 1250 cc

Surplus takers

Ruling elite maybe monarchies or priests

"Toumai" in Chad in 2001 - prob lived 6-7 million years ago

SAHELANTHROPUS TCHADENSIS - what is the other name and where was it discovered?

Catarrhines (Old World Monkeys and Apes)

More terrestrial and greater degrees of sexual dimorphism?

Chimpanzees

Most closely related non-human primate species

Ardi (4.4 million years ago)

Most complete early hominid (potentially hominin) specimen (110 different pieces of fossilized bone found)

Gibbons

Most distantly related apes but more related to them than any non-ape primate

"Making a Living"

Satisfaction of the most basic material survival needs (food, clothing, and shelter)

Disease

Sedentary populations are breeding grounds for ____________

Exogamy

Seeking a mate outside one's own group

Endogamy

Seeking a mate within one's own group

Orangutans

Sexual dimorphism is significant

Incest

Sexual relations with a close relative

Homology

Shared traits and characteristics inherited from a common ancestor? Shared traits that indicate a common ancestor?

Homo erectus

Shift from Darwinian to increasingly (spiritually) Lamarckian selection

Swidden

Shift to a new plot to allow the other one to get its nutrients back

1. Grasping ability 2. Reliance on sight over smell 3. Reliance on hand over nose 4. Brain complexity 5. Parental investment 6. Sociality

Six primate tendencies?

Toumai

Small brain and flatter face like a human; shorter canines compared to chimps

Gorillas

Small groups typically and high degree of sexual dimorphism

Chimps

Smaller degree of sexual dimorphism (females are 88% of the size of males, which is same for humans)

Gracile

Smaller teeth and reduced cranial morphology; less rugged; smaller faces than robust

Sororate or levirate

Some customs preserve the relationship between two groups of kin in the case of spousal death

Homo sapien sapien

Some evolutionary lines were dead-ends while others ultimately resulted in __________ ____________ _____________-

Serial monogamy

Some in the US practice _______________ ___________________ which is when they have more than one partner but not at the same time

Africa

Sometime around 200,000 years ago, anatomically modern humans evolved from ancestors who had remained in _________________. Like Homo erectus before them, they spread out of Africa.

Denisovans

Split from ancestral neandertals around 400,000 years ago

Homo habilis

Still Australopith-like in many ways; bigger brain but not by much than them )half the size of human brain); small bodies and long arms which is more in line with ape than human; has Oldowan pebble tools; known as "handy man"; species most identified with the emergence of tool use

Cosmologies

Stories we tell ourselves about ourselves trying to explain how we got to where we are today

Nocturnal

Strepsirrhines tend to be _______________

Smaller; brains

Strepsirrhines tend to be __________________ than Haplorrhines and have smaller ___________________

Lemurs

Strepsirrhines?

Organization and oversight

Surplus production led to greater ___________________ and ___________________ of food stores

Behavioral modernity

Symbolic thought, bodily adornment, symbolic expression; includes tattoos, hairstyles, earrings are all examples of ________________ ____________________; also religion

The Hilly Flanks

The Fertile Crescent in the Middle East is also known as what?

Surplus

The Natufians built storehouses because they had a what?

Nuer

The designated "son" and wife have a social relationship not a sexual one

Economics

The discipline we call __________________________ developed as part of industrial society, as a way of understanding how goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed in modern, cash-based market economies

2.5

The evolution of our genus, Homo, has taken place during the last 2.5 million years

Alluvial Plains

The first states developed in the ____________ ______________

Iraq; Iran

The first states developed in the alluvial plains (Tigris and Euphrates/Mesopotamia) of what is now _________ (then Sumer) and _________ (then Elam) between 6,000 and 5,500 BP

3.3

The first stone tools appeared about _____ mya

2-5

The hominins (ancestors of humans and only humans) evolved into several species about __________ million years ago

Chimps and humans

The idea of a "missing link" between ____________ and ___________ is based on a false assumption

Anterior (towards the front)

The more ______________ your forum magnum the more upright you are

Posterior (toward the back)

The more ______________ your forum magnum, the less upright you are

Europe

The neandertals (Homo neandertalensis) lived in ______________

Formalists

argue that groups that are not capitalist are still capitalists at heart and will operate as such

Hogopan

It was not a gorilla, chimp, or human, but we don't know what it was specifically

Ardi

-Was a female and pretty small -Large hands, opposable thumbs, and opposable big toes -Might be hominins, not just hominids - status open for debate

1. High plateau 2. Hilly flanks 3. Piedmont steppes 4. Alluvial plain

4 parts of the vertical economy?

1. Greater organization of harvest 2. Greater limitation of access 3. Increased routinization of distribution 4. New limits on consumption

4 results of having a surplus?

1. Larger and more densely populated than previous settlements 2. Productive farming economies supporting dense populations, often including cities 3. Taxation 4. Monumental architecture 5. Had some form of record-keeping, usually a written script (like cuneiform) 6. Social stratification

6 key attributes of early cities/states?

Gorillas

6-8 million years ago was our last shared ancestor with them

Foraging

Adaptive strategy that existed more than 10,000 years ago?

Food production

Advent of ___________ ______________ is mentioned explicitly in the Book of Genesis

Punishment (through hard work, you will eat from the ground)

Agriculture in the book of Genesis is _______________________

Irrigation

Allowed for even bigger surpluses?

Bipedalism (and bipedal locomotion)

Allows you to see over the grass in the grassland, see great distances, less exposed surface area so could regulate body temp better, frees up your hands to carry things such as offspring, provisions, and even tools

Parental investment

Almost all give birth to a single baby and not litters, but there are exceptions. Primate babies take a lot longer to develop because of their developed brain; babies are helpless for the first few months and rely on parents

Gender; kin

Americans marry out of our _____________ and our own __________

Religion, economic class, etc.

Americans, however, marry in great proportions into the same:

Hominins

Ancestors of humans and only humans

8

Ancestral hominids (which evolved into chimps, gorillas, and humans) appeared about ____ million years ago

Immature birth

Another reason why infants are dependent on us (extended periods of parental investment) bc their brains are no where close to done when they are born

Cosmology

Anthropology is a new and improved ____________________

Australopiths

Ape-like from top-down (such as dentition, cranial morphology, less upright than humans, smaller brain and bodies, sexual dimorphism)

Food producers

Are doing the labor and are often commoners and slaves

No, this would be an ethnocentric judgement. A taboo against incest is a human universal, but cultures differ on who they define as their kin and thus what they define to be incest.

Are some cultures more permissive in regards to incest than others?

Homo erectus

Arrived roughly 100,000 years after H. habilis

Birth canals

As brain sizes got larger, ________ ___________ got larger to accommodate larger skulls and the larger brains inside them

Utopia

As societies became more urban, industrial, and stratified, humans have conceptualized these other ways of life as a form of ____________

Resources; large

As some animals went extinct, certain groups disappeared permanently so the humans had to pursue new _____________________ and overtime they focused less on _____________ animals

Carrying capacity

As they exceeded _________________ _________________, people spilled into regions that did not support grains and wild game

Taxonomies

Assign and organize organisms into categories according to their relatedness and resemblance

Correlations

Associations or co-variations between two or more variables

The neanderthals

Ate meat and lots of it; not a diverse diet instead heavily focused on meat; not a lot of vegetation to gather in ice-age Europe; improved stone tools helped them hunt animals

Denisovans

Based on wisdom tooth and finger fragment they reconstructed the entire genome of the species

"Familiarity breeds contempt"

Basically means the more we know people, the less we like them

Fraternal polyandry

Basically when brothers share a wife

Analogies

Bats and birds are another example of what?

Natufians

Became sedentary to remain close to wild grain

The State

Because larger surpluses meant more oversight and greater administration, what emerged?

Bridewealth

Gifts given by groom's family to bride's family

Fire

Enabled our ancestors (and closely related ancestral species) to cook vegetables and meat, feed younger and older members softer foods, and eliminated certain parasites from their diet

Irrigation

Enabled people to live in large towns and cities on the alluvial plain, which had rich soils

Polyandry

Ensures at least one man at home to accomplish male activities

Polygyny

Even when _____________ is encouraged, most people tend to be monogamous

The neanderthals

Evidence of interbreeding with Homo sapiens sapiens, but not significant enough to suggest interbreeding to extinction -- basically out-competed by Homo sapiens sapiens

Hominids

Evolved into chimps, gorillas, and humans

A. africanus

Example of gracile Australopiths?

Polyandrous

Expanded __________________ households allow brothers to pool resources

The neanderthals

Face pulled forward, long broad noses, heavy brow ridges, slanting foreheads, massive faces, and large jaws

Natufians

First worked out the initial adaptation to this array of climates

Australopithecus

Firstly recognized Hominin species?

Caste - Caste System in India (endogamy)

Five stratified levels that are fixed at birth. Social stratifications based on wealth; preferences for arranged marriages and marrying people within your _____________ so you do not damage your reputation - what is this referring to?

Karl Marx

Focused on the importance of human labor in transforming raw materials into desired products

Economic Anthropology

Focuses not just on cross-cultural comparison but also individual motivations within their own personal economic systems

Homo habilis; Australopithecus

For decades the first stone tools were associated with the first member of our genus, ________ ________ ("Handy man") but the ________________________ garhi has presented evidence of tool use

Love, sex, and choice

For most Americans, marriage is supposed to be based on what three things?

-Explicitly about economics -Made by parents -Against the will of one of the participants -For reasons other than love, or for impersonal reasons

For most Americans, marriage should not be:

Incestuous union: ego's father's child with second wife Non-incestuous union: ego's mother's child with second husband

For the Lakher of SE India, what is and is not considered an incestuous union?

Utopian

Foraging societies are not __________________, but these agricultural worlds live better lives than industrialized worlds.

Denisovans

Found in Southern Siberia?

Middle East, China, India/Pakistan, and Egypt

Four early states emerged in similar ecologies near the river valleys with lots of available water; all emerged by about 4000 years ago. What are they?

1. Men marrying later in life 2. The inheritance of a widow from a deceased brother 3. Increased prestige or household productivity 4. An infertile wife

Four reasons for polygyny?

Kenya

Further, in 2015 researchers discovered stone tools that were 3.3 mya in ___________

Foraging

Gender division of labor so men hunt and women gather

Phylogeny

Genetic relatedness based on common ancestry

2

Genus Homo came on the scene roughly ___ mya

Robust Australopiths

Genus Paranthropus?

Broad spectrum

Getting a broad spectrum of food from different sources and eating all kinds of foods from different sources

Dowry

Gifts given by bride's family to grooms' family

Cave paintings

Independent invention in human cultural history because these are found in different places throughout the world

Horticulture

Inequalities appear and decent groups and ways to keep the same plot of land in the same family

The Market Principle

Infinite Wants, Scarce Means, Profit Maximization, and Rationality

Domestication

Involved the alteration of both plants and animals?

Lobola

Is a form of bridewealth specific to Mozambique?

Brow ridge

Is a response to ripping and tearing work done by your front teeth

Hilly Flanks

Is a subtropical woody zone that flanks two rivers

Piedmont steppes

Is a treeless plain

Sagittal crest

Is also a result of chewing muscles and has to do with the shape of the back of your head

Marriage

Is always a relationship based on exchange or refusal to exchange

Industrialism

Is based on machines and chemical processes (fuel), which make the development of manufacturing, mass production, and mechanization possible

Bridewealth

Is compensatory to compensate for removing her from her origin and domestic unit and because her children will not belong to her father's family

Alluvial plain

Is flat and lower elevation and very fertile and rich soil

Dowry

Is for taking care of the bride and for providing for her and is often seen in male-dominated societies; often has a negative association and makes the woman out to be a burden

Hominin

Is more specific label, after the split perhaps?

Marriage

Is often a system of alliances between families and descent groups

Horticulture

Is smaller scale and less permanent than agriculture

Economic anthropology

Is the study of economics in comparative perspective

Marriage

It is an intensely personal choice.

Monkeys

It is common to refer to chimps as _________________, but this is incorrect in terms of taxonomic labels

Economic Anthropology

It is the part of the discipline that debates issues of human nature that relate directly to the decisions of daily life and making a living

Homo

Nevertheless, tool use was most widespread and developed amongst the genus __________

Platyrrhines

New World Monkeys?

Domestication; Hilly Flanks

New colonists in the less desired regions of the vertical economy stumbled upon _______________ in an attempt to recreate the ____________ ______________ economy in regions that did not support wild grain and wild game

1. Decline in public health 2. Diseases and epidemics 3. Poverty, inequality, and crime 4. Large-scale warfare 5. Environmental degradation

New problems in the cities/states?

Toumai

No post cranial remains so just the skull but the skull was shattered into fragments; not enough data to decide what it was

Natufians

Nomads without permanent settlements to follow food; became more sedentary in Hilly Flanks region bc of grains and wild game

Evolution

Not all changing at a steady rate bc ___________________ does not have a predetermined end point

Literacy

Not all states had writing but _______________ helped facilitate the flow and storing of information

Carrying capacity

Number of people that can be supported by the food base

Production organizers

Officials and artisans and oversee the food producers

Agriculture

bigger yield and radical alterations of the environment

Generalized

close and not selfish

Balanced

close but not as close and a little selfish

Means

in agriculture societies, ____________ of production are land and farms

Capitalism

is the only form of economic rationality in neoclassical economics

Capitalism

is viewed as the only form of economic rationality

Agriculture

larger-scale, more permanent, more labor intensive, and more radical alterations of the environment

Generalized

meat sharing is _________________ reciprocity

Economics

modern __________________ is based on the assumption that people have infinite wants but have limited means to get everything so we try to get what we want for less which is profit maximization and is viewed as rational