ANTH 114: Chapter 10

revolution

an attempt to overthrow an existing form of political organization and put together another type of political structure in its place.

government

an interrelated set of status roles that becomes separate from other aspects of social organization, such as kinship, in exercising control over a population.

sumptuary laws

laws limiting the consumption of certain goods to particular classes of people

How are national borders implicated in problematic contemporary political issues?

Migration from one country to another involves millions of people worldwide. Some of these people are refugees, seeking asylum from oppressive governments or oppressive cultural practices, such as genital mutilation or coerced abortion. Others are migrants, fleeing poverty and seeking work in bordering nations. Because of terrorism and illegal immigration, many borders (for example, in Israel and the United States) are now militantly policed and guarded by walls or fences, both of which promote protests and often violent conflict.

What are some of the functions of political organization and law? What are some of the means for achieving these aims?

Political organization and law address the universal human problems of coordinating and regulating human behavior through making and enforcing decisions affecting the common good and resolving conflicts, through both formal and informal means. Informal social control is achieved through gossip, ridicule, and ostracism; formal sanctions include exile, death, and punishments meted out by courts, judges, police, and other institutional forms of regulation.

What are the four major types of political organization identified by anthropologists and what is the basis of this typology? What are the differentiating characteristics of the two least specialized forms of political organization?

Political organization varies according to the degree of specialization of political functions, the extent to which authority is centralized, and the number of groups found in the society (social complexity). Four major forms of political organization are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states. Band societies, found mainly among foragers, have little integration of groups beyond the level of the band, with no central leadership or formal means of social control. Tribal organization, found mainly among horticulturalists and pastoralists, is based on localized kin groups who act independently, but under certain conditions may also act collectively.

What are the main characteristics of the different systems of social differentiation within egalitarian and rank societies?

Egalitarian and rank societies are both non-stratified systems of social differentiation. Egalitarian societies, mainly found among foragers and in some horticultural societies, give every individual and group in society equal access to basic resources, power, and prestige. Rank societies, or chiefdoms, recognize differences in prestige among individuals and groups, but no one is denied access to the resources necessary for survival. Rank societies are organized through kinship and chiefly position maintained largely through redistribution of goods.

What are some dimensions of ethnicity? Why do some anthropologists argue that ethnic conflicts are not about ethnicity?

Ethnicity refers to perceived differences in culture, language, and religion between groups of people who experience themselves as sharing an ethnic identity. Anthropologists emphasize that ethnic conflicts are not about these cultural differences but rather are differences exploited in situations of conflict over political power and economic resources.

How do chiefdoms and states differ from each other and also differ from bands and tribes?

In chiefdoms, kinship is the most important principle of social organization. Unlike tribes, however, chiefdoms concentrate power in the office of the chief, which heavily depends on his control over the redistribution of food and other goods. A state is a hierarchical, centralized form of political organization in which a central government has a legal monopoly over the use of force. States are characterized by social stratification and, unlike chiefdoms, are not organized through kinship.

How does political organization relate to social differentiation? What are the major types of systems of social differentiation?

Social differentiation is a key feature of political organization. Anthropologists have identified three major systems of social differentiation: egalitarian, rank, and stratified societies. Each of these it is typically associated with different economic, social, and political features.

What are some of the economic, social, political, and cultural features of state societies?

State societies, which usually rest on agriculture, provide economic surpluses that permit the development of centralized government, cities, occupational specialization, trade, taxation, social stratification, and bureaucracy. In state societies, the government controls the legitimate use of force, which it may use against its citizens and other peoples, but states also maintain themselves by developing ideologies that justify the elite's control of the population (hegemony).

What are stratified societies and what kinds of social systems are they identified with?

Stratified societies are associated with the state. Social, political, and economic inequality are institutionalized and maintained through a combination of internalized controls, political power, and force. Kinship ties between the upper and lower classes no longer integrate the society, there are wide gaps in standards of living, and some people have no access to basic resources.

How is the connection between social stratification and the state illustrated in the ethnography of the Asante kingdom?

The Asante state consisted of political elites and peasants, with the king at the top of the social system. The centralized government controlled the sources, distribution, and ritual display of wealth, maintaining itself through an ideology which held that accumulated wealth in the hands of the elite benefited the whole society.

What is a nation-state? How do national governments attempt to maintain their grip on power and control?

The nation-state is a government or territory identified with a (relatively) culturally homogenous population and a national history. It maintains power by drawing cultural boundaries between its members and outsiders; by promoting historical narratives that support nationalism; by creating laws that suppress minority cultures; and by sponsoring celebrations that highlight the national identity.

tribe

a culturally distinct population whose members consider themselves descended from the same ancestor.

mediation

a form of managing disputes that uses the offices of a third party to achieve voluntary agreement between the disputing parties.

state

a hierarchical, centralized from of political organization in which a central government has a legal monopoly over the use of force.

law

a means of social control and dispute management through the systematic application of force by a politically constituted authority.

bigman

a self-made leader who gains power through personal achievements rather than through political office.

band

a small group of people related by blood or marriage, who live together and are loosely associated with a territory in which they forage.

rank society

a society characterized by institutionalized differences in prestige but no important restrictions on access to basic resources.

egalitarian society

a society in which no individual or group has more privileged access to resources than any other

chiefdom

a society with social ranking in which political integration is achieved through an office of centralized leadership called the chief.

nation-state

a sovereign, geographically based state that identifies itself as having a distinctive national culture and historical experience.

ethnicity

perceived differences in culture, national origin, and historical experience by which groups of people are distinguished from others in the same social environment

authority

the ability to cause others to act based on characteristics such as honor, status, knowledge, ability, respect, or the holding of formal public office.

power

the ability to compel other individuals to do things that they would not choose to do of their own accord.

leadership

the ability to direct and enterprise or action

rebellion

the attempt of a group within society to force a redistribution of resources and power

hegemony

the dominance of a political elite based on a close identification between their goals and those of the larger society.

political organization

the patterned ways in which power is used in a society

political ideology

the shared beliefs and values that legitimize the distribution and use of power in a particular society