Anthropology Chapter 5, CH.5 - SMARTBook

What is not an adaptive trend in anthropoids?

Decreased sociality

Endangered Primates

Deforestation is the main factor. Other factors are human hunting and capture for use in labs or pets. The apes are the most endangered.

The first (prosimianlike) fossils clearly identified as primates lived during the_____

Eocene

The Palezoic

Era of ancient life - fishes, amphibians, and primitive reptiles

The Mesozoic

Era of middle life - reptiles including dinosaurs

The Cenozoic

Era of recent life - birds and mammals. Two periods: Tertiary and Quaternary The Tertiary has five epochs: Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene. The Quaternary has two epochs: Pleistocene and Holocene *This is the era that anthropologists are concerned with

Lesser Apes include

Gibbons and siamnges

Anthropoid heritage that humans share with monkeys and apes:

Grasping Smell to sight Nose to Hand Brain Complexity Parental Investment Sociality

What is used as a basis for assigning organisms to the same taxon (zoological category)?

Homologies

What is the term for a trait that organisms have inherited from a common ancestor?

Homology

Primates

Humans, apes, monkeys, and prosimians are primates.

Ancient anthropoids began to have fewer offspring that required longer and more attentive care. What did this select for?

Increased sociality

Gorillas

Just one species: gorilla gorilla - and there are three subspecies of gorillas. The western lowland, the eastern lowland, and mountain gorillas. The mountain gorillas are the largest and rarest. The western lowlands are what you see in zoos. There are only 4 eastern lowland gorillas in captivity. Sexual dimorphism in gorillas: the male is twice the size They live in stable social groups, the troop is a common unit of primate social organization, (males/females/offspring) Silver line down the back resembles full maturity of a male and is the only breeding male of the troop which is why gorilla troops are called "one male groups"

The highest taxonomic level is

Kingdom. At this level animals are distinguished from plants.

What is not a hominoid?

Lemur

Hominids

Members of the zoological family that includes fossil and living humans

The earliest hominoid fossils are from the _____.

Miocene

Anthropoids

Monkeys, apes, and humans. Constitute the suborder Anthropoidea

Night Monkey or Owl Monkey

Of all the anthropoids this is the only nocturnal animal. It is a New World monkey.

During _____, anthropoids became the most numerous primates. This is also when New World monkeys diverged from the line leading to cararrhines.

Oligocene

Great Apes include

Orangutans, gorillas, chimps, and bonobos.

Bipedal

Part of the "grasping" concept - (two-footed)

Opposable thumbs

Part of the "grasping" concept - the thumb can touch other fingers

Convergent evolution

Process by which analogies are produced

The two suborders of primates

Prosimians and anthropods Prosmians are the older of the two suborders, Anthropods took over prosmian niches - Tarsiers and lorises survived by adapting to be nocturnal.

Gibbons

Smallest of the apes Male & Female are around the same size. Long arms and fingers with short thumbs: efficient for brachiation. Slender and agile. Use their long arms for balance. The preeminent arboreal specialists among the apes. Diet- mainly fruit, occasional insects or small animals.

Arboreal Theory

States primates became primates by adapting to arboreal life.

Which of the following is shared by all anthropoids?

Stereoscopic vision

Which of the following primate traits are believed to have developed as adaptations to life in trees?

Stereoscopic vision and an opposable thumb

Primatology

Study of nonhuman primates

What is the primate order subdivided into?

Suborders, superfamilies, families, tribes, genera, species, and subspecies.

The history of the vertebrate life has been divided into three main eras, which are:

The Palezoic, the Mesozoic, and the Cenozoic Each era is divided into periods and the periods are divided into epochs.

Taxonomy

The assignment of organisms to categories according to their relationship and resemblance.

Homologies

The similarities used to assign organisms to the same taxon. These similarities were jointly inherited from a common ancestor

Rough patches of skin on the buttocks

The specialized characteristic of Old World monkeys, used to sit on hard rocky ground and rough branches.

Orthograde posture

The straight and upright stance of apes and humans. Monkeys move differently, with their arms and legs parallel to one another, (same as a dog)

knuckle-walking

The terrestrial locomotion of chimps and gorillas. In it, long arms and callused knuckles support the trunk as the apes amble around, leaning forward

Phylogeny

Their genetic relatedness based on common ancestry

Orangutans

There are two existing species (orangutans=Asiatic apes that belong to the genus Pongo) & the two types are Bornean and Sumatra High endangered, confined to 2 islands. Sexual dimorphism is marked by the male being more than twice as much as the female. Diet: fruit, bark, leaves, and insects They are very solitary - their tightest social units consists of females and preadolescent young. Males forage alone.

Why are New World monkeys assigned to a different infraorder?

They were isolated from the catarrhines before the latter diverged into the Old World monkeys, apes and humans.

Prehensile Tail

Unlike Old World monkeys, many New World monkeys have this which is a grasping tail. The prehensile tail has tactile skin, permitting it to work like a hand.

Analogies

When species experience similar selective forces and adapt to them in similar ways

foraging, agriculture, pastoralism

Yehudi Cohen's five adaptive strategies included ...?

generalized reciprocity

a father who buys clothing for her daughter is engaging in ...?

ceremonial

a woman spends money to pay for expenses associated with a ritual honoring her ancestors. this is an example of what kind of fund?

the land produced far more yield in the long run; the yield is more dependable; most of the land can be used continuously instead of lying fallow for long periods of time

agricultural areas tend to be more densely populated than horticultural areas because ....?

domesticated animals; irrigation; terracing

agriculture often involves the use of ...?

linking villages together in a regional economic exchange system; sharing surplus wealth with more needy people; gaining prestige

among Indian tribes of the Pacific Northwest, the potlatch served the purpose of ...?

married outside their own band

bands in forager societies were exogamous, which meant people ....?

the Old World

before the Industrial Revolution, pastoralism occurred almost entirely in ...?

resources would be shared communally

buying a gift for a friend, then expecting the friend to buy a gift in return, would not be customary in a foraging band because ...?

manure for fertilizer; transportation; pulling equipment such as plows

domestic animals are used in agriculture for ...?

only breeding male

each gorilla troop has a silverback, which is usually the ____ in the troop

what motivates individuals to participate in economic systems; the systems that different societies use for production, distribution, and consumption

economic anthropologists attempt to discern ....?

consider the broad picture by studying nonindustrial economies

economists tend to focus on capitalist societies in modern countries, while anthropologists ...?

egalitarian

foraging societies tend to be ...?

Brachiation

hand over hand movement through the trees

move their planting area from one plot of ground to the next

horticulturalists who use slash-and-burn techniques typically ...?

shifting cultivation

horticulture is also called ...?

land; labor; machinery

horticulture is cultivation that does not make intensive use of ...?

they are influenced to a greater degree by regional forces such as war and international policies; they all depend to some extend on government assistance; they maintain contact with neighbors who produce food

how are today's foraging societies different from those of the past?

age; kinship

in a forager society a person might belong to multiple bands based on ...?

larger, more permanent, dense communities increase contact among the residents; governments are installed to keep order and to coordinate the use of resources; permanent fields keep people tied to the land instead of being nomadic

in agricultural societies ...?

has no strong feelings about it because it does not belong to the person who made it

in industrial economies, the term "alienation" is used to describe a situation in which a worker has produced something but ....?

money is used to buy and sell items; the goal is to maximize profit; the law of supply and demand dictates the value of things

in market exchange ...?

gender; age

in most foraging societies, there were only minor differences in prestige, which was based on ...?

work and social life are intertwined

in nonindustrial societies ...?

agriculture; pastoralism; horticulture

in nonindustrial societies the adaptive strategies that are based on food production are ...?

crops are cultivated in a plot of ground, often for only a year or two; grass and debris are burned in place; trees and bushes are cut down to clear a plot of land

in slash-and-burn horticulture

workers are paid money for their labor; there is a social gap between the workers and the people who own and manage the enterprise

in the capitalist mode of production, which of the following are true?

regions where there are major obstacles to food production

in what sort of environment is a foraging society most likely to continue, even in modern times?

the loss of forests that are cut down to make room for fields; a loss of environmental diversity; the proliferation of pollution and disease organisms in irrigation ditches and paddies

intensive agriculture has caused ...?

contains salt that eventually makes the field unusable

irrigation can damage the land because sometimes the water ....?

increases the fertility of the soil and therefore the value of the land; establishes a unique ecosystem that enriches the soil; makes it possible to cultivate a plot of land for many successive years

irrigation is used in agriculture because it ...?

Traits shared by apes and humans distinct from monkeys and other animals:

larger bodies, longer life span, longer interval between births of infants, tendency toward upright posture, larger brain, the muzzle or face is shorter is less projected, and no hominoid has a tail

capital; land; labor

means, or factors, of production include ...?

deserts; very cold regions; islands

most of the foraging societies in the world today are in locations such as ...?

some economies combine features of both types of cultivation

nonindustrial economies are typically arranged along a cultivation continuum because ...?

the entire group of men, women, and children moves with the herd to different places throughout the year

pastoral nomadism is a system where ...?

often pay large amounts of rent to landlords and taxes to government; produce food without modern farming technology; live in societies organized by the state

peasants are small-scale agriculturists who ...?

social life, the economy

studies of societies often reveal correlations between what two factors?

Prosimians

suborder Prosimii Includes lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers.

The classification of organisms based on their relationships and resemblances is known as

taxonomy

canals must be dug to divert spring water throughout the terraces; the retaining walls must be maintained each year; building the terraces requires great effort

terracing is a labor-intensive form of agriculture because ....?

cutting laterally into a steep hillside to form level plots of ground that resemble steps

terracing is an agricultural technique that involves ...?

chimps

thanks to studies by scientists such as Jane Goodall, more is known about the full range of behavior and social organization of what kind of apes

the band

the basic social organization of a foraging society was typically ...?

the Middle East

the earliest known sites where people cultivated crops and domesticated livestock are in ...?

consisted of fewer than 100 people; consisted of people related by kinship or marriage; sometimes split up for part of the year

the foraging social unit called a band ...?

Gigantophithecus

the largest primate to ever live

did not exist before Europeans introduced domesticated sheep

the pastoral economy of the Navajo in what is now the southwestern United States ...?

chimps; gorillas

there are dietary differences between chimps and gorillas. for example, ____ prefer fruits and are omnivorous, but ____ eat green bulk vegetation

false

true or false: because correlations are universal, they indicate that all foraging societies share certain cultural features

false

true or false: some apes have tails

adaptive strategies

unrelated societies are most apt to resemble each other when they have similar ...?

the government of Botswana forced them to leave their ancestral territory because it was being converted into wildlife reserve

what event do critics claim turned the previously free Basarwa San Bushmen of Botswana in Africa into communities dependent on food aid and government handouts?

subspecies

what is the most exclusive classificatory unit of the zoological taxonomy

hominoid

what is the zoological superfamily that includes extinct and living apes

foraging

what type of society consists of people who "live off the land" by gathering resources from nature instead of cultivating crops or raising domestic animals?

the entire village sometimes relocates to stay near the crops; some villages remain in one place for many years while the crops are shifted around it; the decision to move the village or leave it in place mostly depends on how large the buildings are

when horticulturalists shift their plantings from plot to plot ...?

the forests of central and south america

where do new world monkeys live

replacement; subsistence; social

which of the following are among the funds, or aspects of living, in which most people must invest their resources?

negotiations between buyers and sellers must remain open for a short time; buyers and sellers do not need to meet personally; buyers and sellers attempt to obtain the largest possible gain

which of the following are characteristic of bargaining?

primates have five-digited feet and hands that are suited for grasping; primates' most important means of obtaining informaiton is sight rather than smell.

which of the following are characteristics of primates

women often play a major role in food production; for large jobs, some societies assemble teams, while others use small groups or individuals over a longer time period; men handle large animals, but in some cultures women do the milking

which of the following are common divisions of labor in nonindustrial societies?

reciprocity; the market principle; redistribution

which of the following are principles that Karl Polanyi defined for orienting exchanges cross culturally?

likely fruit eaters; adapted for tree climbing as well as knuckle-walking on the ground

which of the following are traits that pierolapithecus shared with other apes, such as chimps and gorillas

some hunt mostly big-game animals; some hunt and gather various animals and plants

which of the following are true of the world's foraging societies?

chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans

which of the following comprise the great apes of the hominoid superfamily

its rib cage; its lower spine; its wrist

which of the following features distinguishes pierolapithecus from the lesser apes

humans

which of the following have longer legs than arms

the use of digging sticks

which of the following is a characteristic of horticulture in nonindustrial societies?

kingdom

which of the following is the broadest of the classificatory units of zoological taxonomy

arboreal; skilled brachiators; live in primary groups

which of the following statements about gibbons are true

primates tend to be social animals, which live with others of their species; learned behavior is an important part of primate adaptation

which of the following statements about primates are true

chimps are very vocal; chimps exhibit dominance relationships though attacks and displacement

which of the following statements about the behavior of chimps are true

humans; apes

which of the following tend toward orthograde posture

body size tends to be larger; tendency toward upright posture; longer interval between infant births

which of the following traits are shared by apes as distinct from monkeys and other primates

of the 2,000 Basarwa who wanted to return, only 189 were allowed to do so; the Basarwa were required to obtain permits for hunting; the Basarwa would be allowed to use only enough water for subsistence needs

why were critics displeased with the legal verdict that allowed the Basarwa of southern Africa to return to their ancestral lands?

Why don't prosimians directly compete with anthropoids?

Because prosimians are nocturnal and anthropoids are active during the day

Chimpanzee

Belong to a genus, Pan, which has two species: Pan troglodytes (the common chimp) and Pan paniscus. Like humans, they are closely related to the gorilla. Common chimps live in tropical rain forests and woodlands. Gorillas eat larger quantities of green bulk vegetation, but chimps (like orangutans and gibbons) prefer fruit. Chimps are omnivores, capture small mammals, bird eggs, and insects. Chimps are lighter and more arboreal than gorillas. And has much less sexual dimorphism. Female chimps are more likely to migrate and mate outside their natal group than males. Chimps are very vocal.

Bonobos

Belong to the species Pan paniscus. They never leave the protection of trees. Same size as chimps. Female bonobos rule over male bonobos. Bonobos are known as peace-loving, and male bonobos remain closely bonded to his mother for life. They have frequent sex however dont exceed the reproductive rate of chimps.

Primary groups

Composed of a permanently bonded male and female and their preadolescent offspring

Proconsul group

Contains the last common ancestor shared by the Old World monkeys and apes.

common in most cultures

division of labor based on age and gender is ....?

Pierolapithecus

discovered by in 2004, ____ was an ape species that lived during the middle miocene about 13 million years ago

Particular to humans there are two kinds of primates:

- Those whose ecological adaptations are similar to our own: terrestrial monkeys and apes (primates that live on the ground, not trees) - Those that are most closely related to us: the great apes; specifically the chimps and gorillas

Hominoid

A term that refers to great apes and humans

correlation

A(n) ______ is an association or covariation between two or more variables

All New World Monkeys are ______, however Old World monkeys include both _____ and _____.

All New World are arboreal, Old World are both terrestrial and arboreal.

cenozoic

Anthropologists are concerned with the _____ era, which is the era of recent life--birds and mammal

The difference between terrestrial and arboreal primates

Arboreal primates are smaller and smaller animals can reach a greater variety of food. Arboreal monkeys are lithe and agile, they escape predators through alertness and speed. Terrestrial primates are larger but this is an advantage in a sense that they can fight off predators. Sexual dimorphism tends to be more marker on terrestrial species. (It is hard to tell the difference of a male or female arboreal monkey) Among terrestrial monkeys, the core group consists of females - among apes it is made up of males.

Pierolapithecus catalaunicus

could be the last common ancestor of humans, chimps, gorillas, and orangutans.

agriculture

cultivation that requires somewhat more intensive labor than horticulture is called ....?

The anthropoid suborder has two infraorders:

platyrrhines (New World monkeys) platyrrhines: flat nosed catarrhines (Old World monkeys, apes, and humans) cararrhines: sharp nose *get their name from placement of nostrils

being moved from local people to a central collection point; being used by officials at the distribution center; finally being sent back out to the local people according to the dictates of the officials

redistribution involves goods or services ...?

farms and other encroachments of food-producing civilization, the modern world economic system, state governments

some foraging societies arise after people move to inhospitable locations to escape from ...?

bonobos

sometimes called the pygmy chimpanzee, ____ live in the forests of the democratic republic of congo.