ANTR 350 #3

Describe the function of the hippocampus

- "seahorse", one on each side of the brain - patient with no hippocampus- no ability to establish memories. Thinking skills still intact, retell the same story over and over again - turns short term memories into long term memories - alzheimers- basically no hippocampus

number of spinal nerves found in the following regions:

- cervical 8 - thoracic 12 - lumbar 5 - sacral 5 - coccygeal 1

Describe the function of the amygdala

- found inside of the temporal lobe in front of the hippocampus - involved in attaching emotions to experiences and memories, particularly fear - damage/disease produces a loss of appropriate responses to stiimuli - helps w protection from harm- PTSD

4 basic types of nervous system information and describe the function of each

1. somatic sensory (somatic afferent)- localized pain, temp (cold/hot), touch, vibration special senses: smell, vision, hearing, balance, taste 2. visceral sensory (visceral afferent)- baroreceptors (monitor BP), chemical irritation of stomach, stretch/distension of hollow organs including stomach/ bladder 3. somatic motor (somatic efferent)- innervates: skeletal/ muscle 4. visceral motor (visceral efferent)- innervates- smooth muscle in blood. vessels and hollow organs, cardiac muscle in the heart, glands

Define compartment syndrome and explain why the anterior leg compartment is most commonly affected by describing the anatomical structures that surround the anterior compartment

Although these compartments allow for the muscles within them to generally have the same innervation and blood supply, this organization can also lead to problems if there is an infection or trauma to the area. Imagine a closed off compartment that is beginning to fill quickly with blood, pus, fluid, etc., what would happen to the structures contained within the compartment? As the pressure in the compartment builds, the nerves, arteries, and veins may become compressed, cutting off blood supply and innervation to muscles and structures in that compartment, leading to ischemia. This condition is known as compartment syndrome and occurs in two variations: acute and chronic. The anterior leg compartment is predisposed to compartment syndrome because of the rigid structures that surround it; the tight crural fascia, the tibia, the interosseus membrane and the fibula.

identify the two compartments of the arm/brachium

Anterior & Posterior

List the structures that compose the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

CNS- composed of the brain and spinal cord - inside meninges PNS- composed of the nerves that extend off of the spinal cord to other parts of the body - outside meninges - nerves and ganglia- basically everything outside of the CNS - both have nerves and glial cells

Specify the body cavities that contain the organs of the central nervous system

Cranial: contained within the skull; location of the brain, cranial meninges, & CSF-Spinal: contained within the vertebral canal; location of spinal cord, spinal meninges, & CSF

list the muscles that contribute to the anterior and posterior axillary folds

The lateral border of pectoralis major muscle forms the anterior axillary fold. posterior wall: scapula, subscapularis muscle, teres major muscle, and latissimus dorsi muscle. The teres major muscle combines with latissimus dorsi muscle to form the posterior axillary fold.

specify the three compartments of the leg

The leg is divided into three compartments - (anterior, lateral, and posterior) by the tibia, fibula, and their interosseous membrane, as well as by intermuscular septa (singular=septum) that extend from a thickened connective tissue, known as crural fascia. Recall that this organization allows for the muscles in the same compartment to generally have the same action and innervation. The muscles of the leg will cross (and move) the joints of the ankle, foot, and toes. Recall that the digits of the foot are numbered from medial to lateral (I = great, big toe, V = pinky, little toe).

Cauda equina location

The roots from the lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal parts of the spinal cord form a structure called the cauda equina which hangs within the meninges below the end of the spinal cord. -Extends inferiorly from the conus medullaris; composed of anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal) roots

Describe the role of the spinal cord in communicating between the brain/brainstem and the peripheral nervous system

The spinal cord connects the brain and the body's main receptors, and serves as a conduit for sensory input and motor output.

explain the function of the blood-brain barrier

Within the neurovascular unit, endothelial cells are tightly cemented together by intercellular tight junctions. These tight junctions prevent solutes from passing between (paracellularly) and the absence of pinocytosis in these cells eliminates movement of solutes through the endothelium. Along with the basal lamina, pericytes, and astrocytes, this comprises the blood-brain barrier (BBB). There are three areas that give rise to the BBB: - In the cerebral blood vessels, a barrier is formed by tight junctions between endothelial cells and is regulated by pericytes and astrocytes. This allows for highly selective transcellular transport. - In the choroid plexus and pia mater, the barrier is formed by tight junctions between epithelial cells.

ganglion

a collection of neuron cell bodies in the PNS

Conus medullaris location

between L1 and L2 - Tapered, terminal end of the spinal cord

Function: Frontal lobe. i. Prefrontal Cortex ii. Primary Motor Cortex

frontal- executive/ intellectual functions, personality/ motor control of skeletal muscle prefrontal cortex- essential for the planning and execution of complex new temporal structures of behavior, speech and logical reasoning. Two cognitive functions of temporal integration mediate the organization of these activities: short-term memory and preparatory set. suppress animal-like behaviors primary motor cortex- Primary motor cortex is a key brain structure involved in the acquisition and performance of skilled movement. The intrinsic connectivity of motor cortex is highly adaptive, and synaptic plasticity can be induced in response to various stimulation protocols.

sulcus

grooves/valleys of the cortex

List the common proximal and distal attachment sites for the hamstrings, medial thigh muscles and quadriceps muscle

hamstrings- proximal attachment: ischial tuberosity (sit bone), insertion/distal attachment: the back of the inside top part of the tibia (posterior medial condyle of the tibia). medial thigh muscles- Proximal attachments are: inferior ramus of pubis, ramus of ischium (adductor part), and ischial tuberosity (hamstring part). Distal attachments are: gluteal tuberosity, linea aspera, medial supracondylar line (adductor part), and adductor tubercle of femur (hamstring part). quadriceps- All of the quadriceps attach to the same place on their distal (bottom) end. They attach to the tibial tuberosity through the patellar ligament (tendon). On their proximal (top) end, the vastus medialis and lateralis attach along a slightly bumpy line on the back of the femur called the linea aspera.

gyrus

hills/ridges of cortex of the brain

Describe the function of the basal ganglia as it relates to movement

in the central hemisphere, coordinating/turning off sequence- NOT the actual on and off - involved in moving disorders (parkinsons, huntington disease, emotional symptoms may vary) - facilitate voluntary movements, inhibit involuntary movements - damage- insufficiency of movements you do want, involuntary movements you do not

actions of the thigh

primary action-knee extensioninnervation -femoral nerveiliopsoas, sartorius, quadriceps

Function of occipital lobe

primary visual cortex (detect visual information)

list the muscles found in each compartment- posterior

superficial layer- lateral to medial brachioradialis, extensor carpi radialis longus (ECRL), extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB), extensor digitorum, extensor digiti minimi (EDM), extensor carpi ulnaris (ECU), anconeus deep layer- supinator, abductor pollicis longus (APL), extensor pollicis brevis (EPB), extensor pollicis longus (EPL), extensor indicis reference appendicular muscle reading chart for more

identify the muscle most commonly torn in a rotator cuff tear

supraspinatus muscle.

describe the actions of the three main rotator cuff attachments

supraspinatus- proximal-supraspinous fossa distal-greater tubercle arm abduction infraspinatus- proximal-infraspinous fossa distal-greater tubercle arm lateral rotation subscapularis- proximal-subscapular fossa distal-less tubercle arm medial rotation

Describe the function of the following portions of the diencephalon: a. Thalamus. b. Hypothalamus

thalamus- receives all sensory information coming into the body - processes and conveys information going to the cortex - "executive assistant" to the cortex - damage/ disease produces sensory/motor/behavioral abnormalities hypothalamus- communicates with cerebrum and brainstem, changes the body to maintain homeostasis - receives information about food and water intake, blood pressure, temperature, etc and controls visceral function

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron - when a nerve impulse transmitted through the end of an axon come off of the cell body - 1st neuron- presynaptic neuron - 2nd neuron- post-synaptic neuron

Extrinsic back muscles

trapezius, latissimus dorsi, levator scapulae, rhomboids The extrinsic back muscles are located superficially on the posterior body wall. Some of these muscles connect the axial skeleton to the pectoral girdle, including the levator scapulae, rhomboid major and minor, and trapezius. Others, the latissimus dorsi muscle, connects the axial skeleton to the humerus

Specify the type of cell bodies located in the following structures: a. Ventral horn b. Lateral horn c. Dorsal root ganglion

ventral horn- somatic bodies lateral horn- visceral motor dorsal root ganglion- somatic and visceral sensory

Specify the type of fibers (axons) traveling through the following structures: a. Ventral root b. Dorsal root c. Spinal nerve

ventral roots- motor axons dorsal roots- axons of somatic sensory and visceral sensory neurons. spinal nerve- contains axons from somatic motor, visceral motor, somatic sensory and visceral sensory neurons.

list the muscles that move the shoulder joint

- - four rotator cuff muscles - the subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus and teres minor muscles - pectoralis major muscle- is a fan-shaped muscle on the anterior chest. The pectorlais major muscle has multiple portions, or "heads." - The clavicular head attaches proximally to the medial end of the clavicle, and the sternocostal head attaches proximally to the costal cartilages and sternum. Both heads have a common distal attachment to the intertubercular groove of the humerus. Both heads acting together with flex, adduct, and medially rotate the arm at the glenohumeral joint. - The clavicular head flexes the arm from an extended position, while the sternocostal head extends the arm from a flexed position. The pectoralis major muscle is innervated by the medial and lateral pectoral nerves. -pectoralis minor- is a small muscle, located deep to pectoralis major. It attaches proximally to the axial skeleton along the ribs then distally to the coracoid process of the scapula. - Contraction of this muscle causes depression and protraction of the scapula. It is innervated by the medial pectoral - serratus anterior muscle- is a large muscle that spans most of the rib cage. It is named for its serrated (saw-like) appearance. - This muscle attaches to the anterior ribs and then spans the rib cage to attach to the medial (vertebral) border of the scapula. Note that this muscle is located on both the anterior and posterior body wall, but is best seen on from an anterior view. - The serratus anterior muscle protracts and superior rotates the scapula. Due to its attachment to the medial border of the scapula, it also serves to stabilize the scapula against the posterior body wall. It is innervated by the long thoracic nerve. - The serratus anterior muscle- is innervated by the long thoracic nerve. This nerve runs along the lateral aspect of this muscle. Damage to the long thoracic nerve will result in a weakened or paralyzed serratus anterior muscle, resulting in a clinical sign known as a winged scapula. Recall that the serratus anterior muscle attaches to the medial border of the scapula. It functions to hold the scapula in its normal anatomical position against the rib cage. Thus, paralysis of this muscle will cause the medial border of the scapula to protrude, as the serratus anterior muscle will no longer be able to hold the scapula in place. -subclavius muscle- is a small muscle that spans from the first rib to the clavicle. It functions to depress the clavicle and stabilize the shoulder. It is innervated by the nerve to subclavius. - The deltoid muscle is a triangular shaped muscle - All three portions have a common distal attachment to the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus. - The anterior (clavicular) portion attaches proximally along the clavicle. flex the arm at the shoulder joint - the lateral (acromial) portion attaches proximally to the acromion process. abduct the arm at the shoulder joint - And the posterior (scapular, spinal) portion attaches proximally to the spine of the scapula. will extend the arm at the shoulder joint. - axillary nerve, arising from the brachial plexus and located in the axilla, is commonly injured. - injury to the axillary nerve most often occurs due to a dislocation of the humerus, a fracture at the surgical neck of the humerus, or from compression of the axilla, such as seen in an improper use of crutches. As the axillary nerve innervates the deltoid and teres minor muscles, an injury to this nerve would cause weakness or paralysis of these muscles. This would lead to numbness in the shoulder and an inability to abduct the arm past the first 15 degrees. -teres major muscle attaches proximally to the inferior angle of the scapula and crosses anteriorly to attach distally to the medial lip of the intertubercular groove. - Due to its similar trajectory to the latissimus dorsi muscle, it will have the same actions: extension, adduction, and medial rotation of the arm at the shoulder joint. It is innervated by the lower subscapular nerve.

compare and contrast axial and appendicular muscles

- Axial skeleton includes skull (mandible, hyoid, auditory ossicles), vertebral column, thoracic cage (ribs, sternum) - Appendicular are the limbs

Describe how motor information leaves the spinal cord and the structures involved

- Motor information leaves the spinal cord on the ventral side of the spinal cord.

Explain how the spinal nerves exit the vertebral column. a. Describe how the exit pattern changes after the C7 spinal nerve

- Spinal cord exits via the intervertebral foramen- Exit pattern- C1-C7 Exit superror to same number vertebrae- C7 Exits inferior to C7- T1-Co1 Exits inferior to same number vertebrae

explain why the biceps brachii can move 3 joints and specify the primary actions

- The anterior compartment of the arm contains the coracobrachialis, biceps brachii, and brachialis muscles. These three muscles will all be innervated by the musculocutaneous nerve. They will also all have similar actions: flexion of the arm and/or forearm. ​

describe the primary actions of each compartment of the leg

- The anterior compartment of the leg contains muscles that primarily act to dorsiflex the foot. These muscles are all innervated by the deep fibular nerve. Most muscles in this compartment will dorsiflex the foot at the talocrural joint. - The lateral compartment of the leg contains muscles that will evert and weakly plantarflex the foot. These muscles are all innervated by the superficial fibular nerve. ​Most muscles in this compartment will evert the foot at the subtalar joint. - The posterior compartment of the leg contains muscles that primarily act to plantar flex the ankle; they will also flex the leg, plantarflex the foot, and/or flex the toes. These muscles are all innervated by the tibial nerve. Most muscles in this compartment will plantarflex the foot at the talocrural joint. Take note of the exceptions to the typical innervation and actions of this compartment.

describe the clinical problem that can develop from weakness of the rectus sheath and abdominal wall and what contributes to the weakness

- The change in the decussation of the fascial fibers at the arcuate line creates a weakness in the abdominal wall at the juncture of the arcuate line and the lateral rectus sheath. Herniation through this area is called a Spigelian hernia. - intraparietal, meaning that they involve only one or two of the three layers of fascia. - may protrude partially through the abdominal wall but remain contained deep to the external layer(s) of the fascia. - his presentation means that these hernias may exhibit less characteristic exam findings than other ventral hernias, and they can be particularly challenging to detect on physical exam. They still have the potential for incarceration and strangulation, so diagnosis and treatment are vital. Imaging studies with either a CT scan or ultrasound can aid in their diagnosis. The treatment of these hernias is surgical with either an open or laparoscopic approach.

***Define the rectus sheath. Explain what structures form the rectus sheath and specify what muscle it encloses.

- The rectus sheath is a tendon sheath (aponeurosis) which encloses the rectus abdominis and pyramidalis muscles - It is an extension of the tendons of the external abdominal oblique, internal abdominal oblique, and transversus abdominis muscles. - The fascial coverings of the external oblique, internal oblique, and transversus abdominis muscles comprise the rectus sheath. - The rectus sheath extends from the inferior costal margin and the costal cartilages of ribs 5 to 7 to the pubic crest. The composition of the anterior and posterior rectus sheath will differ according to its position superior or inferior to the arcuate line. The arcuate line is an area of demarcation visible from the peritoneal surface of the abdominal wall, residing one third the distance between the umbilicus and the pubis - Contraction of the rectus abdominis and pyramidalis muscles causes flexion of the lumbar spine. Abdominal wall muscles also play a significant role in intra-abdominal pressure and provide support to the axial skeleton.

specify the locations where the spinal cord begins and ends

- The spinal cord begins just below the medulla oblongata of the brainstem and runs within the vertebral canal (spinal cavity) - before ending somewhere between T12 and L3 vertebrae. It tapers to a point as it ends to form the conus medullaris. - Begins at foramen magnum of the skull; extends down from the medulla oblongata.- Tapers off at level of L1 or L2 vertebra: the vertebral column of adults is longer than the spinal cord, because the vertebral column grows for a longer period of time.

specify the three main compartments of the thigh

- The thigh is divided into three compartments (anterior, medial, and posterior) by intermuscular septa (singular=septum) that extend from a thickened connective tissue, known as fasica lata, and attach to the posterior femur. - This organization allows for the muscles in the same compartment to generally have the same action and innervation.

list the four muscles that make up the rotator cuff

- These muscles will all function to move the arm and stabilize the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint. ​ - "SITS," as they include the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis muscles. - supraspinatus muscle- originates on the posterior scapula in the supraspinous fossa and inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus. - The supraspinatus muscle acts to abduct the arm at the shoulder joint for the first 15 degrees of movement - The supraspinatus crosses superior to the shoulder joint, thus, acts to abduct the arm at the shoulder, - infraspinatus muscle- originates in the infraspinous fossa of the scapula and inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus - infraspinatus and teres minor muscles cross posterior to the joint and thus laterally rotate the arm at the shoulder. - teres minor muscle- originates on the posterior inferior surface of the lateral border of the scapula and inserts on the greater tubercle. - Both the infraspinatus and teres minor muscles act to laterally rotate the arm at the shoulder joint -subscapularis muscle originates on the subscapular fossa on the anterior scapula and inserts on the lesser tubercle of the humerus. The subscapularis muscle acts to medially rotate the arm at the shoulder joint. - A rotator cuff injury can be caused by a variety of movements and can happen to anyone. In a rotator cuff injury the most common muscle involved is the supraspinatus muscle. This muscle is sandwiched between the joint capsule and the acromion of the scapula. Due to its close association to these structures, repetitive motions of the shoulder, especially abduction, can lead to inflammation of the tendon of supraspinatus. If severe enough, this tendon can rupture, leading to a rotator cuff tear.

Describe the function of the cerebellum as it relates to movement

- allows for smooth and refines sequences of movement - "little brain" - grey and white matter, has its own cortex and lobes - located posteriorly and inferior to the occipital lobe and posterior to the pons, medulla oblongata, and 4th ventricle - communicates with the cerebellum and brainstem - responsible for coordination of skeletal muscle contractions to produce smooth movements - involved in control of equalibrium with inner ear - "ataxia" is a condition that causes the inability to coordinate voluntary motor control - goes "offline" while drinking

List the layers of meninges from superficial to deep

- between the bone of the skull and the brain, there are three layers of meninges - dura mater- leathery swim cap - thick, strong connective tissue - adjacent to inner skull and vertebrae and composed of fibroelastic cells - arachnoid mater- more fragile, cobwebs - composed of fibrous. tissues and contains large blood vessels that form capillaries with pia mater pia mater- very. tightly adhered to brain/spinal cord - connective tissue subarachnoid space- space between dura mater and arachnoid mater - under normal conditions, there should be no space between the bone and dura mater - epithelial space- over/outside dura mater space can form -there are some structures between the two thin layers of dura mater - dura venus sinuses- venus channels (large vein) which receives blood from the brain and CSF so they can be drained away - in contrast, in the vertebral column, there is an actual space filled with fat, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels between the bones and dura mater called the epithelial space

brachialis

- brachialis muscle is located on the anterior humerus, deep to the biceps brachii muscle. It attaches proximally to the anterior surface of the humerus and distally to the coronoid process and ulnar tuberosity of the ulna. The brachialis muscle is the primary muscle that flexes the forearm at the elbow joint. ​

somatic

- consciously aware of voluntary movements - skin, skeletal muscle tissue, bones, joints, and other types of connective tissue - you can pinpoint specific sensations in somatic structure - divided into two categories- general senses and special senses general- touch, pain, pressure, vibration, temperature and proprioception (knowing position of body limbs) special- vision, hearing, balance, taste smell

Describe the function of the three regions of the brainstem: a. Midbrain. b. Pons. c. Medulla oblongata

- midbrain- - communicates between the brain and the rest of the body - connects diencephalon to the rest of the body - communicates with cerebellum - involved in eye movements/visual/auditory reflex - moves eyes to sound - pons- connects midbrain to the rest of. the brainstem - communicates with cerebellum - involved in breathing and cranial nerve functions - houses fourth ventricle - medulla oblongata- - connects brainstem to spinal cord - communicates with the. cerebellum - breathing/ cranial nerve function - damaged in downward compression due to foramen magnum and cerebellum

visceral

- organs such as the stomach and heart, smooth muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, and glands - involuntary- no conscious awareness unless they're not functioning normally - ex- stretch of hollow organs like the stomach - conveyed to brain/spinal cord to maintain homeostasis

Parietal lobe. i. Primary Somatic Sensory Cortex

- parietal- sensory (body wall), understanding speech/ expressing thoughts and emotions The primary somatosensory cortex is responsible for processing somatic sensations. These sensations arise from receptors positioned throughout the body that are responsible for detecting touch, proprioception (i.e. the position of the body in space), nociception (i.e. pain), and temperature.

biceps brachii muscle

- the biceps brachii muscle has two "heads" (bi=two) that share a common distal attachment. The long head of the biceps brachii attaches proximally to the supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula and then crosses the shoulder joint to travel in the intertubercular groove. The short head of the biceps brachii attaches proximally to the coracoid process of the scapula and then runs medially to join the long head. - together, these muscle heads attach distally to the radial tuberosity of the radius. As both the long and short heads cross both the shoulder and elbow joints, they will act upon (move) both joints. The biceps brachii muscle will flex forearm at the elbow joint and weakly flex the arm at the shoulder joint. - Generally, as the length of the the tendon and the more joints crossed increases, the muscle will be more unstable and have a weaker action. - most important function is supination. Due to its distal attachment at the radial tuberosity of the radius, contraction of the muscle will pull the radius laterally when the forearm is flexed.

Specify the two compartments of the forearm/antebrachium

- the forearm is divided into two compartments by deep fascia; the interosseous membrane, and the fibrous intermuscular septa. - This creates an anterior compartment that contains the flexor muscles, and a posterior one that contains the extensor muscles.

list the muscles that move the scapula at the scapulothoracic joint

- trapezius- large, triangular shaped muscle that spans most of the back - attaches proximally to the superior nuchal line, the external occipital protuberance of the skull and the spinous processes of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae. - There are multiple distal attachments for the trapezius muscle: the lateral portion of the clavicle and the acromion process and spine of the scapula - The superior (upper, descending) portion of the muscle elevates the scapula, the middle (transverse) portion retracts the scapula, and the inferior (lower, ascending) portion depresses scapula. - Both the superior and inferior portions also aid in superior rotation of the scapula during abduction of the arm at the shoulder joint. The trapezius muscle is innervated by the (spinal) accessory nerve (CN XI) - latissimus dorsi- is another triangular-shaped muscle located inferior and deep to the trapezius muscle. - The latissimus dorsi muscle has a proximal attachment to the spinous processes of the inferior thoracic vertebra, the thoracolumbar fascia (a thick connective tissue), and the iliac crests. - The distal attachment is at the inferior margin of the intertubercular groove of the humerus, near the distal attachment for the pectoralis major muscle. - As the latissimus dorsi muscle travels from the posterior body wall to attach anteriorly to the intertubercular groove of the humerus, it will function to extend the arm at the shoulder joint. It also will adduct and medially rotate the arm at the shoulder joint. it is innervated by the thoracodorsal nerve - levator scapulae- muscle is a narrow muscle located deep to the trapezius muscle - It attaches proximally to the transverse processes of cervical vertebrae and attaches distally to the superior angle and superior medial border of the scapula. - The levator scapulae muscle functions to elevate and inferiorly rotate the scapula. It is innervated by anterior primary rami from the third and fourth cervical levels (C3 and C4) and the dorsal scapular nerve. - rhomboid major and minor muscles- are known for their rhomboid shape. They are located deep to the trapezius with the much narrower rhomboid minor muscle located superior to the rhomboid major muscle, although they often are seen as one muscle. - The rhomboid muscles attach proximally to the spinous processes of the thoracic vertebrae and attach distally to the medial border of the scapula. CHART IN APPENDICULAR MUSCLES READING

describe the primary actions of each compartment- posterior

- ​The posterior compartment of the forearm contains the multiple muscles that are innervated radial nerve. Many of these muscles have a common proximal attachment to the lateral epicondyle, known as the common extensor tendon - They will also all have similar actions: supination and/or extension of the forearm, wrist, and/or fingers.​​

List the three major arteries that supply the cerebrum with blood. a. Explain which areas of the cerebrum each artery supplies. b. Describe what symptoms would be associated with damage to each of the arter

1. anterior cerebral artery - midline frontal and parietal lobes, and medial side of brain in frontal and parietal lobes - numbness and paralysis of lower limbs and pelvis no the opposite side of the body 2. middle cerebral artery - lateral parts of frontal and parietal lobes, as well as anterior temporal lobe - numbness and paralysis of face and arm on the opposite side of the body, language problems in broka's and wernike's area 3. posterior cerebral artery - occipital lobe - visual defects

nerve

A bundle of nerve fibers in the PNS

Describe the flow of cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) through the central nervous system

CSF is produced by the choroid plexus in both lateral ventricles, then move to the third ventricle which is in between the right and left thalamus, then moved to fourth ventricle between pons and cerebellum and out of the brain - flows from the lateral ventricle into the third ventricle, a smaller midline cavity. via the interventricular foramen - cerebral aqueduct- narrow canal that lets CSF flow between the third and fourth ventricle - fourth ventricle- continuous with the spinal cord central canal, which extends almost the spinal cord's full length - central canal- closes off starting around the second decade of life - ventricles store CSF and provide a continuous flow of CSF between the brain and spinal cord- it's unknown how CSF circulates - arachnoid villi- small one-way valves that drain CSF from the subarachnoid space - hydrocephalus- CSF interrupted by blockage/physiological malfunction- "water on the brain"- expansion of the ventricular space can lead to brain compression - damage to the cerebra acqueduct would prevent flow of CSF from the spinal cord and brain

Describe how sensory information enters the spinal cord and the structures involved

DORSAL Sensory information enters the spinal cord through the dorsal root entry zone on the dorsal side of the spinal cord.

explain the significance of a muscle location; in particular the importance of an anterior location compared to a posterior location

Front of the body/Back of the body Front: move the body forward Back: move the body backward

specify the space CSF is sampled from in a lumbar spinal puncture

Insert needle between L3 and L4 (or L4 & L5)- Spinal cord tapers off and allows this

Define a reflex arc, listing the steps and CNS structures involved

Reflex Arc: 2 Components- Afferent limb: Sensory → CNS- Efferent limb: Motor → Effector organ (skeletal muscle)

Categories of appendicular muscles

The appendicular muscles can be categorized in multiple different ways. We will organize and discuss them in compartments and regions, including the pectoral girdle, shoulder, arm, forearm, and hand of the upper limb and the pelvic girdle, gluteal region, thigh, leg, and foot of the lower limb.

Appendicular muscle function

The appendicular muscles function to move your upper and lower limbs, including the pectoral and pelvic girdles. Although some of these muscles have attachments to the axial skeleton, they are considered appendicular muscles as they move the appendicular skeleton.

Scapula anatomical movements

The scapula has specific anatomical movements associated with it. These include elevation (upward movement) and depression (downward movement) and protraction (abduction), as seen with hunched shoulders, and retraction (adduction), as seen in proper posture. The scapula can also perform superior (upward) rotation and inferior (downward) rotation, in which the glenoid cavity of the scapula is angled upward or downward, respectively. Superior and inferior rotation occurs primarily during abduction and adduction of the arm at the shoulder. When the arm is abducted, the glenoid cavity moves superiorly, while when the arm is adducted, the glenoid cavity moves inferiorly.

describe the function of the corpus callosum

a tract that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres can also be viewed from a midsagittal view.

Describe the first function listed for, and the location (CNS or PNS) of, the following glial cells: a. Astrocytes. b. Ependymal cells. c. Microglial cells. d. Oligodendrocytes. e. Schwann's cell

a. Astrocytes- CNS- most common in CNS neuroglia. star-shaped cells that perform many functions in the CNS like contribute to the blood-brain barrier, secretion and absorption of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft, establishment of the physical structure of the brain by holding neurons in the correct 3D space b. Ependymal cells- CNS- line the ventricles of the brain, assist in production and circulation of CSB c. Microglial cells- CNS- defend neurons from pathogens, immune cells d. Oligodendrocytes- CNS- provide support and insulation to axons within the CNS by creating the myelin sheath that surrounds them e. Schwann's cell- PNS- long, flat cells that wrap around axons forming a myelin sheath

describe the function of myelin

an insulating layer composed of fats and proteins that protects nerves and allows nerve impulses to travel quickly

List the muscles found in each compartment- humerus

anterior - medial to lateral - superficial: pronator teres, flexor carpi radialis (FCR), palmaris longus, flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU) - intermediate: flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS) - deep: flexor digitorum profundus (FDP), flexor pollicis longus (FPL), pronator quadratus posterior- lateral to medial - superficial: brachioradialis, extensor carpi radialis longus (ECRL), extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB), extensor digitorum, extensor digiti minimi (EDM), extensor carpi ulnaris (ECU), anconeus - deep: supinator, abductor pollicis longus (APL), extensor pollicis brevis (EPB), extensor pollicis longus (EPL), extensor indicis ***review charts in appendicular muscles lecture

Describe the primary actions of each compartment

anterior compartment- The anterior compartment of the forearm contains the multiple muscles that are innervated either by the median nerve or the ulnar nerve. Many of these muscles have a common proximal attachment to the medial epicondyle of the humerus, known as the common flexor tendon - They will also all have similar actions: pronation and/or flexion of the forearm, wrist, and/or fingers.​ posterior compartment- contains the multiple muscles that are innervated radial nerve. Many of these muscles have a common proximal attachment to the lateral epicondyle, known as the common extensor tendon - They will also all have similar actions: supination and/or extension of the forearm, wrist, and/or fingers.​​

list the muscles found in each compartment- anterior

anterior- superficial from medial to lateral- pronator teres, flexor carpi radialis (FCR), palmaris longus, flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU) intermediate layer- flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS) deep layer- flexor digitorum profundus (FDP), flexor pollicis longus (FPL), pronator quadratus reference appendicular muscle reading chart for more

List the muscles found in each compartment of the thigh

anterior- 11.12 chart - sartorius, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, rectus femoris - All four muscles have a common distal attachment to the tibial tuberosity of the tibia through the quadriceps tendon, which houses the patella - As the quadriceps tendon continues distally to attach to the tibial tubersoity, it changes its name to the patellar ligament. posterior- 11. 13 chart From lateral to medial these are the biceps femoris (long and short heads), semimembranosus, and semitendinosus. These muscles are often referred to as the hamstrings. medial- 11.14 chart The medial compartment of the thigh contains muscles that will adduct the hip. These muscles are all generally innervated by the obturator nerve. Most muscles in this compartment will adduct the thigh at the hip joint. Take note of the exceptions to the typical innervation and actions of this compartment. ​ - gracilis, pectineus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magnus, obturator externus

List the muscles found in each compartment of the leg

anterior- 11.15 tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis longus, ​fibularis tertius lateral- 11.16 fibularis longus, fibularis brevis, posterior- 11.17, 11.18 superficial layer- gastrocnemius, soleus, plantaris deep layer- tibialis posterior (TP), flexor digitorum longus (FDL), flexor hallucis longus (FHL), popliteus

list the primary actions of each compartment of the thigh

anterior- The anterior compartment of the thigh contains muscles that are primarily innervated by the femoral nerve. most muscles in this compartment will flex the thigh at the hip joint and extend the leg at the knee joint. posterior- The posterior compartment of the thigh contains muscles that will extend the hip and flex the knee. These muscles are innervated by divisions of the sciatic nerve, ether tibial or common fibular. ​Most muscles in this compartment will extend the thigh at the hip joint and extend the leg at the knee joint.

describe the primary actions of each compartment- anterior

anterior- flexion of the arm/forearm - contains the multiple muscles that are innervated either by the median nerve or the ulnar nerve. Many of these muscles have a common proximal attachment to the medial epicondyle of the humerus, known as the common flexor tendon - They will also all have similar actions: pronation and/or flexion of the forearm, wrist, and/or fingers.​ posterior- Extension of the arm/forearm

Explain why the biceps brachii is a strong supinator compared to the brachialis, which does not supinate the arm

biceps brachii biceps brachiidistal-radial tuberosity primary action-supination brachialis distal-ulnar tuberosity - the bicep brachii is on the anterior surface of the humerus. It is distally connected to the radius by the radial tuberosity. Radius moves when supinating.-the brachialis (strongest flexor) is deep to the bicep brachii. It is distally connected to the ulna at the ulnar tuberosity of ulna. Ulna does not move when supinating

Describe the function related to speech and language and location of: a. Broca's area. b. Wernicke's area

broca's area- speech- next to primary motor cortex, makes production of speech sound possible wernicke's area- language- make speech sounds to language, make them connect, without we can't parse language. post stroke video of patient who's language doesn't make sense

Describe the role each of the following parts of a neuron in receiving, integrating, and sending nerve impulses: a. Cell body (soma). b. Dendrite. c. Axon

cell body (soma)- act as a control center, receives, integrates, and sends nerve impulses. - dendrites and axons come off of the cell body dendrite- act as receivers and conduct impulses to body cells axon- extend from the body cell to carry nerve impulses to other neurons, muscle tissue, or. gland cells - extends off the axon hillock - axon terminates at end of axon (brach), in extended tips called synaptic knobs

1. Explain which space each of the following hematomas would be located within and briefly describe the key symptoms associated with each (In the Clinic section): a. Epidural hematoma. b. Subdural hematoma. c. Subarachnoid hematoma

epidural hematoma- An epidural hematoma develops when the skull is damaged at pterion and the sharp edges of the bone damage the middle meningeal artery, which normally supplies the dura mater with blood. When this artery is cut, it releases blood that begins pushing the dura mater away from the skull, pooling into a mass of blood that can compress the brain. At that point, they most likely are relatively fine. But, as blood begins to pool between the dura mater and the skull, usually over a few hours, they will begin to complain of dizziness, headache, nausea, possibly blurred vision, and then, if not treated, they will lose consciousness and could die. To prevent this, the pooled blood must be removed in order to free the brain from compression. subdural hematoma- subarachnoid hematoma- A subarachnoid hematoma occurs when the arteries supplying blood to the brain burst or are otherwise damaged. These arteries are found in the subarachnoid space, and one of the most common causes of arterial rupture in the brain is hypertension. When an artery in the subarachnoid space bursts, there is a huge spike in intracranial pressure,The most common site of this shearing is below the dura mater and above the arachnoid mater, causing blood to pool there in what is known as a subdural hematoma. Because venous blood travels under less pressure than arterial blood, the onset of symptoms can take days to be noticed. Most people just experience a dull headache that won't go away.

list and compare the two main categories of back muscles

intrinsic- axial, deeper - only attach to/ move the axial skeleton - move neck/ vertebrae/ spine/ trunk extrinsic- appendicular, superficial - appendicular muscles - distal attachment site is the appendicular skeleton - moves the pectoral girdle/arm (humerus) - these muscles function to stabilize the scapula and aid in movements of the arm.

efferent

motor- information traveling from the CNS to muscle tissue in the body - causes muscle tissues to contract

Function of temporal lobe

primary auditory cortex, interpretation of olfactory sensations ( sounds information about soundscape)

afferent

sensory- information from the body traveling to the CNS - ex- pain, touch, temperature