AP Anatomy Final Exam Study Guide

Describe the anatomy of a capillary

1 cell thick, made only of endothelium

14. How many lobes are in each lung?

3 in the right, 2 on the left

45. How much blood on average does the human body contain?

5-5.5L

alculate the cardiac output of a patient whose heart rate is 57 with a stroke volume of 82 mL.

57 x 82 = 4674 mL/min

1. Describe the anatomy and physiology of platelets.

Anatomy - cell fragments shed by megakaryocytes Physiology - form blood clots to stop bleeding

13. What is the function of the chordae tendinae?

Anchor the AV valve flaps and prevent backwards flow of blood into the atria

2. What is the anterior segment filled with?

Aqueous humor

5. What type of blood vessel carries blood away from the heart? Toward?

Away - Arteries Towards - Veins

4. What type of lymphocyte produces antibodies?

B-lymphocytes

10. Briefly list the membranes of the cochlea.

Basilar - Floor of the cochlear duct Vestibular - roof of cochlear duct Tectorial - covers hairs in cochlea

15. Describe the pathway of the contraction signal through the conduction system of the heart.

Begins at right atrium in the SA node, and takes 2 pathways 1.) First pathway is from the right atrium to the left atrium through the interatrial pathway 2.) Second pathways is from SA node to the AV node, then down the Bundle of His and the purkinje fibers, then back up to both ventricles

29. In a cardiac action potential, involves the opening of calcium gated voltage channels. Why are these channels so special?

Calcium is what allows the muscles to contract, calcium gated channels are special because they do not allow summation of action potentials, must completely polarize before depolarizing again

25. Cardiac muscle tissue is different in anatomy than skeletal muscle despite both being striated. Using the terms, desmosomes, gap junctions and intercalated discs - describe cardiac muscle tissue.

Cardiac muscle cells are connected by intercalated discs that contain desmosomes that keep the cells connected and gap junctions that allow action potentials to spread from cell to cell

24. What tunic is pigmented and therefore, reduces scattering of light within the eye?

Choroid

7. What are lymph nodes?

Clusters along lymphatic vessels; embedded in connective tissues; filters lymph, macrophages in nodes destroy microorganisms, activates immune system

28. What are cones sensitive to?

Color

34. What is the transparent mucous membrane covering the inner surface of the eyelid called?

Conjunctiva

Describe the anatomy of a vein

Connective tissue coat on the outside, elastin muscle fibers in the middle, and endothelium + venous valves in the deep layer

1. What is the transparent portion of the fibrous layer of the eye called

Cornea

35. What is the outer transparent structure of the eye made of regularly aligned collagen fibers?

Cornea

19. Why can corneas be transplanted without rejection by the patient?

Corneas are not vascularized, no blood

13. Why is vestibular information important?

Critical for equilibrium and sense of balance

11. If you are having trouble hearing someone, how can you use your hands to increase the amount of sound your ears catch?

Cup your ears, expand the Auricle/Pinna

18. What is the cause of a murmur?

Defective heart valve, causes abnormal sounds in heart

30. What part of the ECG represents ventricular depolarization? Repolarization?

Depolarization - QRS complex Repolarization - T wave

51. What is the function of white blood cells?

Destroy pathogens and infected somatic cells

3. What do gustatory epithelial cells do?

Detect chemicals in food in the form of taste

6. Why is the heart called a "double pump"?

Each pumping cycle consists of two pumping actions, the first pumps oxygen deficient blood into the lungs, the other pumps oxygen rich blood to the rest of the body

32. Define the following: end-diastolic volume, end-systolic volume and stroke volume.

End diastolic volume - volume of blood in ventricles when filling is complete End systolic volume - volume of blood when ejection is complete Stroke volume - amount of blood left ventricle pumps out in a single beat

50. What hormone controls erythropoiesis? Where is it made?

Erythropoietin, kidneys

23. What does blood pressure actually measure?

Force of the blood against blood vessel wall

22. What is the area of the greatest visual acuity?

Fovea Centralis

4. What structure contains only cones?

Fovea Centralis

6. What area of the retina has the highest visual acuity?

Fovea Centralis

1. How does the sensation of taste work?

Gustatory cells react with food and water that is mixed with and dissolved in saliva, molecules bond to microvilli of gustatory cells

21. What detects linear acceleration?

Hair cells in the vestibule

Where are the hair cells for hearing located? Equilibrium?

Hearing - spiral organ of corti Equilibrium - Vestibular Apparatus

37. Why is tetanus impossible for cardiac tissue?

Heart has slow Ca+ channels that do not allow muscles to experience summation; muscles must fully relax before being able to contract again due to the plateau phase

24. What are the components of the circulatory system?

Heart, vessels, blood

52. What are the steps of hemostasis?

Hemostasis - Blood clotting; Vascular spasm, then platelet plug formation, then blood coagulation

11. What is farsightedness called?

Hyperopia

4. List all the structures through which blood passes in the heart to the lungs and back and then to the body beginning with the right atrium.

Inferior and superior vena cava, right atrium, tricuspid, right ventricle, pulmonary valve, pulmonary artery, lungs, pulmonary veins, left atrium, mitral (bicuspid) valve, left ventricle, aortic valve, aorta, rest of the body, then back to inferior and superior vena cava

3. Explain the difference between innate and adaptive immune systems and their characteristics.

Innate - Group of nonspecific defense processes that occur immediately or within hours of the appearance of threat. Includes anatomical barriers like the skin, mucous, stomach acid, sweat, and body oils. Adaptive - Group of specific defense processes that take time to activate. Includes responses like cytotoxic T cells and antibody reproduction

23. Of the three layers of neurons in the retina, which layer has axons that form the optic nerve?

Innermost layer, ganglion cells connect to the optic nerve

16. What structure regulates light entering the eye?

Iris

5. What portions of the eye are pigmented?

Iris, choroid

48. What is hemoglobin?

Iron containing molecules that can loosely and reversibly bind with O2, each can carry 4 O2 molecules

8. Where do tears drain?

Lacrimal sac, then nose and throat

47. Why is the red blood cell of a biconcave shape?

Larger surface area for oxygen to bind

10. How would you describe the oxygen levels of the blood in the various chambers of t'he heart?

Left atrium and ventricle - high Right atrium and ventricle - low

14. What four components of the eye bend light rays?

Lens, Cornea, aqueous and vitreous humors

17. What causes the sounds of the heart?

Lub - mitral and tricuspid valves closing - beginning of systole, end of diastole Dub - aortic and pulmonary valves closing - end of systole, beginning of diastole

27. What is the function of the parietal pericardium?

Lubricate heart, prevent friction and damage

36. What is the purpose of the AV nodal delay?

Make sure that atria have pumped all blood to the ventricles before systole

11. What is the function of the cilia of the nasal mucosa? Tracheal mucosa?

Nasal - move mucous to the back of throat to be swallowed Tracheal - propel debris up to throat for ejection

18. Where in the brain is the visual cortex?

Occipital lobe

27. What two substances make up rhodopsin?

Opsin and retinal

17. If you look at the retina with an ophthalmoscope, what parts of the retina can you see?

Optic disc, macula lutea

26. What is the blind spot?

Optic disc, where the optic nerve exits the eye

4. What fills the middle ear cavity?

Ossicles

10. What is an allergy in terms of what happens in the immune system?

Over reaction to non-threatening substances

5. In the lungs, in what direction does oxygen diffuse? Into or out of the alveoli?

Oxygen diffuses into alveoli

43. What is the extracellular matrix of blood called?

Plasma

1. What are the characteristics of antibody structure?

Protein that is highly specific to one organism, composed of heavy and light polypeptides, has 2 binding sites for one specific organism

12. What arteries carry deoxygenated blood?

Pulmonary arteries

9. What are the major veins that return blood to the heart?

Pulmonary vein, inferior vena cava, superior vena cava

39. What factors affect the flow of blood in the body?

Pulse pressure, resistance like plaque, and vasoconstriction

26. Why does the left ventricle have a thicker layer of myocardium that the right ventricle?

Pumps blood to all of the body

10. What is the function of the conducting passageway?

Purify, moisturize, warm air

2. What do blood cells look like?

Red blood cells - biconcave discs, provides more surface area for oxygen to bind

32. What are the three types of cones?

Red, Blue, Green

20. What is the sensory layer of the eye?

Retina

8. What are tonsils? Where are they?

Ring of lymphoid tissue around the pharynx, simplest of lymphoid tissues, gather and remove pathogens from food or air.

22. What is the heart's normal pacemaker? Why?

SA node, sends rhythmic pulses through heart, ensures pumps are evenly dispersed and delay between first pump and second pump is long enough

Where are the receptors for hearing located?

Spiral organ of corti in the cochlea

17. What is the hearing organ of the cochlea called of the ear?

Spiral organ/Organ of Corti

15. What ossicle is shaped like a stirrup?

Stapes

35. Define the following: systole, diastole, resistance, flow rate, pulse pressure.

Systole - ventricular ejection of blood Diastole - filling of heart with blood Resistance - factors that impede blood flow Flow Rate - volume of blood passing through per unit of time Pulse Pressure - difference between systolic and diastolic

18. What is the gel-like structure (but called a membrane) embedded with the tips of the cochlear hair cells?

Tectorial membrane

15. List the structures of the respiratory zone.

Terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar duct, alveolar sac, alveoli

1. Where does the pulmonary artery carry blood to?

The lungs

28. What is the function of the gap junctions in cardiac tissue?

Transmit electric potentials

6. What is the primary function of the lymphatic system?

Transport lymph, fluid containing white blood cells, throughout the body

8. What is the function of each of the four valves in the heart?

Tricuspid - prevent blood in right ventricle from flowing back into right atrium Pulmonary - prevent backflow into right ventricle Mitral (Bicuspid) - prevents blood in left ventricle from flowing back into left atrium Aortic - prevent backflow into left ventricle

20. What separates the external acoustic meatus from the middle ear?

Tympanic membrane

What is the boundary between the middle and external ear

Tympanic membrane

7. Distinguish between the visceral and the pariental pericardium with respect to location on/around the heart.

Visceral pericardium - the deep layer of the pericardium Parietal pericardium - the superficial layer of the pericardium

37. What is the fluid of the posterior segment of the eye?

Vitreous humor

1. Define respiration in terms of cells, blood and air.

a. Cellular respiration is intrinsic . b. Blood respiration is extrinsic c. Air respiration is pulmonary

16. Describe the wall of the alveoli.

a. Made of type 1 alveolar cells, extremely thin, huge surface area, small volume

9. What are the pieces of the conducting passageways of the respiratory system?

a. Nose b. Pharynx c. Larynx d. Trachea e. Bronchi f. Bronchioles g. Terminal bronchioles

2. Describe the tissue that makes up the lungs.

a. Pleura - double layered serous membranes that surround each lung, contains the pleural cavity which the lungs expand into during pulmonary respiration b. Left lung is smaller than the right lung and has only 2 lobes while the right lung has 3 lobes c. Bronchi - the two main passages that the trachea splits into; large tubes made of hyaline cartilage in C shapes d. Bronchioles - smaller and more numerous than bronchi, are made of elastin fibers and smooth muscle, lead into terminal bronchioles e. Alveoli - walls are lined with simple epithelial cells called alveolar cells, have connective tissue to support it

9. What is the difference/similarity between hyperopia and presbyopia?

a. Similarities - both are inability to accommodate eye to close images leading to farsightedness b. Differences - presbyopia comes with age and is due to flexibility loss of lens, hyperopia occurs from irregularly shaped eye

12. What hard and soft structures separate the nasal and oral cavities?

a. Soft structures - adenoid (lymphoid tissue in the back of the nasal cavity) soft palate b. Hard structures - hard palate

4. What is the function of the nasal cavity?

a. Warm, moisturize, filter air coming through lungs

What structure equalizes both sides of the tympanum

auditory tube

31. The optic track (the portion of the optic nerve that exits the optic chiasm and ends in the visual cortex) carries information from what parts of each eye?

b. Right medial retina goes to left side of optic lobe c. Left medial retina goes to right side of optic lobe

12. What is pitch?

frequency of sound waves

5. What makes up the immune system (organs, vessels, etc)?

lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils, and Peyer's patches

25. What happens to the lens during accommodation?

strengthens and becomes rounder