AP Bio AP EXAM

Carboxyl

- COOH - hydrophilic

Mutation

-change in DNA sequence -Causes variation in alleles/genes

Stanley Miller's hypothesis, experiment & conclusions

1) Hypothesis: With the absense of oxygen and in presence of strong energy inorganic molecules can be result in organic molecules 2) Experiment: Set up closed system to mimic conditions thought to exist on early earth - flask of H2O served as primeval sea - water was heated so some vaporized & moved into higher flash containing "atmosphere" (a mix of gases) - sparks were discharged to mimic lightning 3) Conclusion: organic molecules may have been synthesized abiotically on early Earth

Neurotransmitters: Ionotropic & Metabotropic

1) Ionotropic: open up & allow ion flux across membrane - causes change in membrane voltage & rapid effects on action potential - ligand-gated channels; cause excitatory depolarizations 2) Metabotropic: cause signaling cascades to have slower, but longer lasting effect on cell - can change neuron activity, but use kinase & G-protein signaling & second messengers to influence target cells

Artificial Selection: Darwinian selection

1) Source: Breeders 2) Criteria that determines fitness: whichever traits are desirable for reproduction 3) End result of selective process: animals used to produce product

What is formed in the Kreb's cycle?

1. FADH2 2. NADH 3. ATP 4. carbon dioxide

How can you tell a biological molecule is a carbohydrate?

1:2:1 ratio of CHO - the empirical formula for carbohydrates is CH2O, the monomers of carbohydrates are sugars - carbohydrates are used for short term energy, storage, and structure

Gene Pool

All the genes, including all the different alleles for each gene, that are present in a population at any one time

Types of Animal Behaviors: Classical Conditioning

Associative learning, Pairing of repeated instances of an event to neutral stimuli - Ex: Pavlov's dogs

Causes of Radioactivity

Atoms are radioactive (unstable) if the forces among the particles of an atom are unbalanced because the nucleus breaks up into elements with lower atomic numbers which causes the nucleus to have an excess of internal energy.

Decreased cholesterol concentrations in membranes will result in increased membrane rigidity. A. True B. False

B. False

Proline

Backbone is unique: side chain wraps back around & interacts w amino group on one side - causes a kink and forms 180 loop in chains

Histidine

Binds w cations (Zn +2)

Upon chemical analysis, a particular polypeptide was found to contain 100 amino acids. How many peptide bonds are present in this protein? A. 101 B. 100 C. 99 D. 98

C. 99

Types of Animal Behaviors: Pheromones

Chemical signals used between species members to affect behavior - Ex: Moths mating pheromones, Ants' chemical trail signals

Metaphase

Chromosomes aligned on metaphase plate (in middle) attached to microtubules of the centrosomes - centrioles complete migration to opposite poles of the cell - sister chromatids/tetrads line up along the midline of the cell, paired up w each other and spindle fibers attach to them @ kinetochores - pulling them apart by their kineticores & separate them into eventual daughter cells

Hierarchical Classification (B to S)

Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

*Heterotrophs

Energy processing strategy: Examples:

*Richard Owen's Contribution to Natural Selection

Found the first dinosaur (Archaeopteryx fossil) - opposed darwin, believed evolution was more complex

*Different roles of glucose & ATP in cellular systems

Glucose: stored energy ATP: active, usable energy

Homozygous

Having two identical alleles for a particular gene

Arginine

Interacts w phosphate

ATP to ADP

Produces energy by

All-or-Nothing Responses and AP

Threshold: - 55, if charge does not meet threshold/get above threshold, then no signal is generated - if it meets threshold, then an action potential/signal is generated

How has modern science refined our understanding of evolution since Darwin/Wallace's publication?

Traits are not changed, but DNA which creates traits is changed - evolution occurs w changes in allele frequencies

How The Transition Fossils Supports The Evolutionary Theory

Transition fossils are fossils that show species from each time period - ex: whales evolved from land mammals to aquatic shown in fossils over time

Fitness

an organism's ability to survive and produce offspring

Neuron Structure

cell body, dendrites, axon

inner membrane of mitochondria

divides the mitochondrion into two internal compartments (the intermembrane space and the mitochondrial matrix. A highly folded membrane gives a large surface area, enhancing productivity for cellular respiration.

Function of Epinephrine

fight or flight response

Lipid Bilayer

flexible double-layered sheet that makes up the cell membrane and forms a barrier between the cell and its surroundings - lets in only small nonpolar molecules

Corals have a symbiotic organism called a dinoflagellete that lives in one of their cell (germ) layers. That layer is called the

gastrodermis

What do you call the genes carried by all members of a particular population?

gene pool

chloroplast

is a specialized member of a family of closely related plant organelles called plastids. They contain chlorophyll, along with enzymes and other molecules that function in photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of plants and algae.

inner membrane of chloroplasts

is less permeable and studded with transport proteins. This is the inner membrane of the envelope.

inter membrane space of mitochondria

is the area between the inner and outer membranes. It has an important role in the primary function of mitochondria, which is oxidative phosphorylation.

What factors might determine whether the frequency of a new allele in a population will increase or decrease?

natural selection, mutation, genetic drift, and migration (gene flow)

Extracellular Matrix Structure & Function

network of connective proteins and molecules outside animal cell membrane - helps with cell communication (ecm fibers attack to 2 cells and transmit signals b/w them)

R&P of respiration

oxygen + glucose (C6H12O6) ➡ CO2 + H2O + energy - the cell has to release chemical energy in food molecules (like glucose) gradually, otherwise most of the energy would be lost as heat - oxidized: glucose, reduced: oxygen

Hardy-Weinberg Equation Parts

p2+2pq+q2=1 p2= dominant (AA) 2pq= heterozygous (Aa) q2= homozygous (aa) p+q=1 p= dom (A) q= ressi (a)

*Apoptosis

process of programmed cell death

When temperatures are too high and excess light is absorbed by coral, this disrupts the function of the photosystems in the symbionts' thylakoids. This results in the creation of what harmful product?

reactive oxygen molecules

Cell Wall Structure & Function

structure: rigid; contains cellulose function: provides support and protection of cells

Explain how asexual reproduction is different from sexual reproduction

- Asexual reproduction generates offspring that are genetically identical to a single parent - Sexual reproduction, two parents contribute genetic information to produce unique offspring (produces gametes which only have one set of genes, haploid, 1N)

Epistasis, Pleiotropy, & Environmental Factors on Gene Expression

- Epistasis: the interaction of genes that are not alleles, in particular the suppression of the effect of one such gene by another - the effect of a gene mutation is dependent on the presence or absence of mutations in one or more other genes, respectively termed modifier genes. In other words, the effect of the mutation is dependent on the genetic background in which it appears - Pleiotropy: When one gene has multiple effects on a single organism

How is metaphase 1 different from metaphase of mitosis?

- In metaphase I of meiosis, tetrads align on the metaphase plate - In metaphase of mitosis, individual chromosomes align there

Explain the relationship BN mono/di/polysaccharides

- Monosaccharides are simple sugars (one): often used to form larger molecules - Disaccharides are molecules that consist of two covalently bonded simple sugars, joined by glycosidic linkage - Polysaccharides are molecules that consist of hundreds or thousands (many) of simple sugars covalently bonded: made up of three or more monosaccharides (longer polymers) that have been joined together through dehydration synthesis. All three of these are carbohydrates used for energy or energy support and are made of sugars

*Evolutionary trend in cell division shown in the protist taxon

- There are similar proteins used in prokaryotic cell division - Mitosis had its origin in simpler prokaryotic mechanisms of cell reproduction, such as binary fission in a protist - This is supported by the same proteins involved in bacterial binary fission are related to eukaryotic proteins in mitosis - As eukaryotes evolved, the process of binary fission became more complex and gave rise to mitosis - In binary fission, the origins of the daughter chromosome move to opposite ends of the cell, and proteins anchor the chromosomes to specific sites on the membrane - The cell elongates, and a new plasma membrane grows separating the cells - Intermediate stages include dinoflagellates and diatoms & yeasts: these two stages are possible cases of the processes have not evolved over time - in both, the nuclear envelope remains intact - the normal function for most eukaryotic cells is the process of mitosis where the nuclear envelope breaks down and the chromosomes are separated by a spindle

Bilayer of Phospholipids

- why certain substances can/cant pass thru

*Functions of proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, why mutations in them can lead to cancer

- proto-oncogenes: stimulate cell division; mutation=on - tumor suppressor genes: inhibit cell division/slow down cell growth; mutation=off - can also result in cancer if mutations decrease their function - Ex. p53: inhibitor protein that is disabled by cancer - mutations that lead to loss of cell cycle control result in loss of control over growth, cell differentiation & death - mutations can build up causing cell clones to become a tumor, tumor may become metastatic if cell acquires ability to establish separate masses in distant tissues - these mutations affect genes which encode proteins involved in the control of other genes (transcriptional regulation), cellular metabolism (speeding up/slowing down cell growth), or cell cycle of division & growth - hormones & receptors, regulatory molecules such as cytokines & their receptors & DNA repair mechanisms

Habitat Isolation

-2 species that occupy different habitats may encounter each other rarely even though there are no physical barriers -Marine iguanas are isolated in their habitat from other iguanas

DNA Cladograms

-Compare differences in DNA bases -Species with most differences are the most distantly related -Species with least differences are the most closely related -Drawback: you may not have DNA from ancient species

Characteristic Cladograms

-Compare similar traits and group them -Drawback: Difficult to know whether structures are analogous or homologous, not as exact as DNA

Behavioral Isolation

-Courtship rituals that attract mates enable mate recognition, a way to identify potential mates of the same species -Blue footed boobies have a specific dance to attract mates of the same species

Mechanical Isolation

-Mating is attempted, but morphological differences prevent its successful completion -snail whorls in opposite directions make it mechanically impossible to reproduce

Fossil Cladograms

-Sort by date -Add traits -Drawback: Fossils aren't always in tact, time, data is spotty, not as exact as DNA

Temporal Isolation

-Species that breed during different times of the day, season, or year cannot mix their gametes -eastern and western skunk mate in spring and winter

Gametic Isolation

-Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize the eggs of another species -The gamete of one sea urchin is unable to penetrate the gamete of another so reproduction cannot occur

Primordial Soup

-Theory of the beginning of life -abiotic synthesis of organic molecules -polymers -protobionts -self-replicating molecules -Miller and Urey

Darwin's Theory

-Variation: multiple alleles -Overproduction: too many offspring are born -Competition: too few resources for the large amounts of offspring -Survival of the fittest: only those best adapted to find resources in the environment will survive -New alleles over long periods of time: evolution of a species took many many years/generations (gradualism)

Early Earth

-about 4.6 billion years old -reducing atmosphere -UV radiation, electricity

Microevolution

-changes noted over a short time (several generations) -Allele frequency changes due to mutation, selection, genetic drift, and gene flow -leads to macroevolution

Macroevolution

-changes seen over long time frames -may lead to speciation

Evolution

-collective chang in phenotypes/traits of organisms through time -is not purposeful -does not produce perfect organisms -studied through fossil records, biogeography, comparative embryology, molecular biology (DNA), and artificial selection

Protobionts

-concentrated area of organic molecules -separate internal/external environments -semipermeable -simple chemical reactions/metabolic processes -precursors of prokaryotic cells

Chloroplasts

-contain own DNA similar to DNA in bacteria -surrounded by 2 membranes, one is original and the other is from the host -same size as bacteria -derived from photosynthetic bacteria

Mitochondria

-contain own DNA similar to DNA in bacteria -surrounded by 2 membranes, one is original and the other is from the host -same size as bacteria -derived from purple bacteria

Pre-Zygotic Barriers

-impede mating or hinder fertilization if mating occurs -Habitat, temporal, behavioral, mechanical, or gametic isolation

Gene Flow

-individuals coming and going into and out of a population -Brings new variation to or away from a population

Post-Zygotic Barriers

-prevent hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult -reduced hybrid viability or fertility and hybrid breakdown

Sexual Reproduction

-recombination of alleles -New combinations of alleles creates variation, new phenotypes

Natural Selection

-traits that influence survival are selected for or against -If traits are highly beneficial for survival, those will survive and be selected for

A sample of plasmid DNA is at a concentration of 0.005 μg DNA/ μL of solution. With a micropipette you measure out 10 μL of the solution. How many μg of DNA did you measure? (Remember, the prefix micro- (μ) is one millionth of a base-unit and one thousandth of a milli-unit.)

0.05

Mono, Poly, & Paraphyletic groups in a phylogenetic tree

1) Monophyletic: taxon is equivalent to clade if it is this, signifies that it consists of an ancestral species and all of its descendants 2) Polyphyletic: includes distantly related species but does not include their most recent common ancestor - most recent common ancestor IS NOT part of the group 3) Paraphyletic: consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of its descendants - most recent common ancestor of all members of group IS part of the group Shared derived character: evolutionary novelty unique to a clade - hair in mammals (shared by all mammals not found in ancestors) Shared ancestral character: character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon - backbone in mammals (shared by all mammals found in ancestors)

RNA as the first hereditary material, & why scientists think this (3 characteristics).

1) RNA is capable of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions 2) Essential life processes like metabolism, translation, splicing, etc. evolved around RNA - central to information transfer in a cell 3) It has the tendency of self-replication - RNA can be copied abiotically

Galapagos finches: Darwinian selection

1) Source: climate change (drought) 2) Criteria that determines fitness: finches evolving to eat new seeds 3) End result of selective process: finches w/ larger/smaller beak depths

Evolution of resistance in a population of insects: Darwinian selection

1) Source: farmers attempting to kill bugs w pesticides 2) Criteria that determines fitness: insects evolving to survive spray 3) End result of selective process: new insects able to survive

Types of reproductive isolation

1) Temporal Isolation- breed at different times of the day, season, or year 2) Behavioral Isolation- different mating rituals to attract a mate 3) Mechanical Isolation- mating is attempted but morphological differences prevent mating 4) Gametic Isolation- sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize the egg of another species

1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics

1) energy can be neither created nor destroyed 2) each energy transfer increased the entropy (randomness) of the universe - nothing is 100% efficient, some useful energy will be lost to entropy - highly ordered living organisms do not violate law, they can have negative energy, not closed systems

Aldosterone

1. Decreased blood volume 2. Sensed by renal artery 3. increased renin 4. angiotensinogen 5. increased angiotensin I 6. increased angiotensin II 7. adrenal cortex 8. increased aldosterone 9. increased Na/K pump activity 10. increased [Na+] in medulla 11. water reabsorbed

*How to recognize the 5' and 3' ends of a DNA strand

1. 5': carries free phosphate group 2. 3': carries free hydroxyl group

Stress Hormone Feedback Loops

1. Adrenal glands help the body recover from stress and respond to emergencies - a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress

Metabolic trade-offs in excretion

1. Ammonotelic: excretes ammonia, no energy cost, very high water cost, very high toxicity, found in fish & worms - Adv: no energy cost - Disadv: very high water cost & toxicity 2. Ureotelic: excretes urea, medium energy cost (4 ATP/urea), medium water cost, low toxicity, found in humans, sharks, frogs, rats & pigs - Adv: low toxicity 3. Uricotelic: excretes uric acid, high energy cost (8 ATP/uric acid), low water cost, low toxicity, found in snakes, turtles & birds - Adv: low water cost & toxicity - Disadv: high energy cost Birds use more ATP to make uric acid, but more efficient in retaining H2O

B & T Cells

1. B Cells mature in bone marrow 2. T Cells mature in thymus

Competition and predation

1. C: -/- interaction, occurs when pops of 2 species use the same limited resource, negatively affects both pops 2. P: involves a predator killing and eating prey

Population, community and ecosystem

1. Pop: groups of indiv of same species occupying particular area 2. Comm: pops of dif species in one area 3. Eco: all the organisms in an area and the abiotic factors w/ which they interact

Factors which determine growth rate of a population (r)

1. Sex Ratio 2. Generation Time 3. Age Structure

Energy & Exercise

1. Short, quick bursts of energy - body uses ATP in muscles, as well as ATP made by lactic acid fermentation 2. Longer than 90 secs - CR, which requires O2, is only way to continue generating supply of ATP

Molecular Classes of Hormones

1. Steroid 2. Peptide 3. Amine

The Chloroplast

1. Stroma 2. Thylakoids 3. Grana 4. Outer membrane 5. Inner membrabe 6. Location of chlorophyll: thykaloid membrane

How xylem and phloem function

1. Xylem: transports water up - job is to transport minerals and water from roots and carry them to other regions of the plant (usually to the leaves). - Xylem cells are dead so there are no organelles taking up space, allowing for more capacity for water - Have no end walls so water can easily flow one way - Has thicker outer walls so it can easily withstand pressure changes as water moves through it 2. Phloem: Moves sugar down - has source cell (leaf) & sink cell (root) - job is to transport nutrients and food from leaves to growing parts of plants. - Phloem cells are alive as they have to facilitate active transport of sucrose throughout the plant - Have cross walls with thin sieve tubes in order to regulate which materials are flowing up and which are flowing down since there is a two way flow - Has thinner walls because it needs to be permeable for certain materials to pass through

Relationship b/n processes that occur in mitochondria & chloroplast

1. chloroplasts do photosynthesis and make glucose, O2, and ATP out of sunlight 2. mitochondria do aerobic respiration and make CO2, H2o, and ATOP out of glucose and O2

K and r selected species

1. r: unstable, density independent - small - not a lot energy used to make - many offspring - mature offspring - short life expectancy - each individual produces 1 - type III survivorship pattern (most die w/in short time, few live longer) 2. K: stable, density dependent - large - lots of energy used to make - few offspring - late maturity, often after prolonged period of parental care - long life expectancy - individuals reproduce more than 1

Identify the major abnormal processes that result in internal changes of chromosomal structure (as explained in Dr. Marble's video).

1. translocation 2. inversion 3. duplication 4. deletion

The earth is in fact recovering from an ice age that included a large amount of glaciation. This natural increase in temperatures, which by itself is very rapid, can be measured over the last few tens of thousands of years. However, since the industrial revolution the global temperature has increased at an even higher rate. How many more times higher has the global temperature increased due to human causes, as compared to the already very strong recovery from a natural ice age?

11x higher

1&2 degree succession

1: 100s/1000s of years, occurs if no soil was originally present 2: occurs when a comm is disrupted by a fire, logging, or farming but soil remains

Tissue from a plant was homogenized and assayed for the production of ATP from the various steps of respiration, the total of which was 83.5 moles. 5.2 mmoles of ATP was produced via glycolysis, 4.8 mmoles was directly produced by the Kreb's cycle and 73.5 mmoles was made from the the electron transport chain. If oxygen was removed from this preparation, and fermentation pathways began to function, how many mmoles of ATP would one predict the sample to make?

5.2 mmoles

Reactants and products of photosynthesis

6 CO2 + 6 H2O ➡ C6H12O6 + 6O2 - NADP+ accepts & holds two high energy electrons, along with H+, then it is converted into NADPH - NADPH can carry the high energy e- to chemical rxns elsewhere in cell 2 sets of photosynthetic rxns work together 1. LD rxs trap energy of sunlight in chemical form 2. LI rxns use that chemical energy to produce stable, high energy sugars from CO2 & H2O - photosynthesis & chemosynthesis enable autotrophs to obtain free energy directly from surroundings - heterotrophs use cellular resp to produce energy

Corals are animals, and like other animals, have a mouth and a digestive system to capture and break-down food. However, a significant amount of the energy the coral needs to survive in fact comes from the process of photosynthesis. About how much needed energy does the algal symbiont provide for coral metabolism?

75-80%

Assume 10 μL of DNA, with a concentration of DNA at 0.005 μg DNA/ μL of solution, was added to 490 μL of a bacteria/nutrient broth suspension. 150 μL of this new solution was subsequently plated onto a petri dish. If 14 colonies grew on a plate, calculate the transformation efficiency (# of colonies/ μg of DNA) of this trial.

933.3

Carbonyl (aldehyde)

@ end of carbon skeleton - glucose - hydrophilic

Distance of Vinegar Penetration in Agar Cubes

@ lower temps, distance penetrated is less

*FIGURE on page 15-16 Which of the following diagrams best represents hormone-activated gene expression? A B C D

A

How does the structure of the cytoskeleton contribute to its function?

A cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm. The function of cytoskeleton is organizing the structures and activities of a cell. It is composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. It gives mechanical support to the cell and maintains its shape. The network of structural proteins that extend throughout the cytoplasm, structural proteins, give cell structural support and anchor organelles. The network of fibers also helps organelles and chromosomes to move around in the cell (transport like a monorail).

Cooperativity

A kind of allosteric regulation whereby a shape change in one subunit of a protein caused by substrate binding is transmitted to all the other subunits, facilitating binding of additional substrate molecules to those subunits. - Ex: Hemoglobin has 4 subunits capable of binding O2, and one subunit binds O2, it changes shape of other 3 & makes them more likely to bind O2 as well

How structure of H2O molecules accounts for high specific heat & how it is useful for living systems

A large input of thermal energy is required to break the many hydrogen bonds that keep individual water molecules from moving about - resists temp change bc H bonds absorb heat when broken & release heat when formed, H2O moderates temp in cells - stabilizes ocean temps, creating favorable marine life environment

Mitochondrion

A mitochondrion is an organelle where cellular respiration occurs and most ATP is generated. It is found in all eukaryotes and has two membranes (inner and outer). Some cells have a singular large mitochondria but more often a cell has hundred or even thousands of mitochondria.

Function of a lysosome

A lysosome has three main functions: the breakdown/digestion of macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids), cell membrane repairs, and responses against foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses and other antigens. When food is eaten or absorbed by the cell, the lysosome releases its enzymes to break down complex molecules including sugars and proteins into usable energy needed by the cell to survive. If no food is provided, the lysosome's enzymes digest other organelles within the cell in order to obtain the necessary nutrients.

How structure & contents of lysosome are related to its function

A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that an animal cell uses to digest macromolecules - The membranous sac helps the lysosome to fuse with other vesicles to get their macromolecules from food or broken organelles, digestive enzymes help to break those down to monomers that can be reused as nutrients - The membranous sac also is able to engulf substances to aid in digestion - Enzymes are contained by a membrane because they are hydrolytic and would destroy the rest of the cell if released out of the membrane

What is a molecular clock? What assumption underlies the use of a molecular clock?

A molecular clock is a way to measure the absolute time of evolutionary change based on the observation that some genes and other regions of genomes appear to evolve at constant rates. The assumption underlying is that the number of nucleotides in genes is proportional to the time that has elapsed since the species branched from their common ancestor.

Cytoskeleton

A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement - anchors organelles, helps move chromosomes/organelles/cells

Polygenic Traits, Incomplete & Co-dominance

A polygenic trait is one whose phenotype is influenced by more than one gene. Traits that display a continuous distribution, such as height or skin color, are polygenic.

Eutrophication

A process by which nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, become highly concentrated in a body of water, leading to increased growth of organisms such as algae or cyanobacteria.

Sexual Selection

A process in which individuals w certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals of the same sex to obtain mates - sympatric speciation can be driven by sexual selection Cause of Change: selection of more desirable traits How Pop Evolves: pop will produce more offspring w the given desirable trait, creating a more fit pop Real-World Ex: differences in dewlap appearances with anoles - a type of natural selection bc environment (aka potential mate) is selecting desirable trait

Second Messengers

A small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecule or ion, such as calcium ion or cyclic AMP, that relays a signal to a cell's interior/target molecule in response to a signal received by a signal receptor protein - benefits: speed and amplification

Sodium/Potassium Pump

A special transport/carrier protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that uses ATP to actively transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell against their concentration gradients - At resting potential Na/K pump is bringing 2 K+ into the cell and 3 Na+ out

Adaptive Radiation & why it has followed mass extinctions

A type of divergent evolution (when two or more biological characteristics have a common evolutionary origin but have diverged over evolutionary time) - Periods of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill different ecological roles, or niches, in their communities - follows mass extinctions bc many niches are vacant and can be filled

In a control reaction to measure photosynthesis in plants, the % transmittance of a plant sample mixed with DPIP under a bulb emitting white light for 10 minutes changed from 20% to 90%. What would you expect the % transmittance to be if the bulb was covered by a blue plastic filter? A. 80% B. 95% C. 10% D. 20%

A. 80%

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is important in maintaining homeostasis in mammals. ADH is released from the hypothalamus in response to high tissue osmolarity. In response to ADH, the collecting duct and distal tubule in the kidney become more permeable to water, which increases water reabsorption into the capillaries. The amount of hormone released is controlled by a negative feedback loop. Based on the model presented, which of the following statements expresses the proper relationship between osmolarity, ADH release, and urine production? A. As tissue osmolarity rises, more ADH is released, causing less water to be excreted as urine. B. As tissue osmolarity rises, less ADH is released, causing less water to be excreted as urine. C. As tissue osmolarity rises, more ADH is released, causing more water to be excreted as urine. D. As tissue osmolarity rises, less ADH is released, causing more water to be excreted as urine.

A. As tissue osmolarity rises, more ADH is released, causing less water to be excreted as urine.

Epinephrine is a protein hormone found in many animals. Epinephrine stimulates a signaling pathway that results in the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver cells. Which of the following describes the initial steps in the process whereby epinephrine stimulates glycogen breakdown? A. Epinephrine binds to a cell-surface receptor; the activated receptor stimulates production of the second messenger, cAMP. B. Epinephrine binds to a cell-surface receptor; the activated receptor catalyzes the conversion of glycogen to glucose. C. Epinephrine diffuses through the plasma membrane; the hormone dimerizes in the cytosol. D. Epinephrine is taken into the cell by endocytosis; glycogen is converted to glucose in the endocytotic vesicle.

A. Epinephrine binds to a cell-surface receptor; the activated receptor stimulates production of the second messenger, cAMP.

Identify all of the following statements about bacterial transformation that are FALSE. A. Cells must first be treated artificially in the laboratory before they are capable of undergoing transformation. B. Transformed cells are capable of passing their newly-acquired traits onto succeeding generations. C. Cells can only be transformed when they are in a competent state. D. Transformation may only be performed using plasmid DNA containing antibiotic-resistant genes (R factors).

A. Cells must first be treated artificially in the laboratory before they are capable of undergoing transformation. D. Transformation may only be performed using plasmid DNA containing antibiotic-resistant genes (R factors).

If the progenitor cell of a gamete has 12 pairs of chromosomes during G1 of interphase, how many chromosomes will the following cells have? - After S Phase of Interphase

After the S phase the chromosomes have duplicated = 24 chromosomes

By looking at the data shown in Figure 2A and the subsequent model shown in Figure 3, what is the effect of insulin on GLUT4? A. It stimulates insertion of GLUT4 into the membrane. B. It causes more GLUT4 production by the Golgi. C. It opens GLUT4 up and allows glucose movement. D. It induces GLUT4 re-uptake into the endosome.

A. It stimulates insertion of GLUT4 into the membrane.

*FIGURE on page 10 Which of the following best describes the reproductive ability of C. elegans following the ARD induced in the first experiment? A. Mating with a well-fed male consistently produced more offspring than did reproduction via self-fertilization. B. The numbers of progeny produced by self-fertilization and by mating with well-fed males were not statistically different. C. C. elegans stopped reproducing after 20 days without food. D. There was no relationship between days without food and average brood size.

A. Mating with a well-fed male consistently produced more offspring than did reproduction via self-fertilization.

Types of Animal Behaviors: Agnostic Behavior

Aggressive behavior due to competition for food or other resources - Ex: Wolves fighting over a carcass

*FIGURE 1&2 on page 10 Based on the experimental results, which of the following is the best evolutionary explanation for the occurrence of ARD in C. elegans ? A. The ability to enter ARD provides a strong selective advantage because reproduction can occur despite periods of food scarcity. B. Acquiring the genes for ARD gives individuals a selective advantage because they produce more offspring than do individuals who cannot enter ARD. C. Individuals who can enter ARD are selected for in the population because they live longer than do individuals who cannot enter ARD. D. Individuals who can enter ARD have high fitness because they can reproduce even when food is scarce.

A. The ability to enter ARD provides a strong selective advantage because reproduction can occur despite periods of food scarcity.

Light production in the growing colonies of bacteria is one method to easily verify that transformation occurred in your experiment. Select ALL of the following that would also indicate that transformation occurred in the experiment. A. The bacteria survive on the ampicillin containing plate. B. The bacteria cause a pathogenic response if injected into mice. C. Sequecing of DNA extracted from the transformed bacteria would identify a gene to make ampicillin. D. Sequecing of DNA extracted from the transformed bacteria would identify a luciferase gene.

A. The bacteria survive on the ampicillin containing plate. D. Sequecing of DNA extracted from the transformed bacteria would identify a luciferase gene.

Actin filaments grow by polymerization of a multitude of subunits. A. True B. False

A. True

Types of Animal Behaviors: Insight

Ability to generate a behavior that results in a desired outcome. Reasoning & problem solving - Ex: Chimps using tools to get food

What does "glycosylation" of a protein mean? A. addition of sugar molecules to specific amino acids B. removing introns from proteins C. covalently linking sulfhydral amino acids of proteins D. removing the targeting sequence of proteins

A. addition of sugar molecules to specific amino acids

Which of the following are NOT cytoskeletal proteins? A. chemokines B. spectrin C. actin D. microtubules

A. chemokines

DNA microarrays can be used for A. determining which genes are expressed higher in different cell types. B. knocking out genes to alter phenotypes and determine the function of genes. C. determining the sequence of nucleotides in a particular gene. D. amplifying small samples of DNA to assist in DNA fingerprinting.

A. determining which genes are expressed higher in different cell types.

Where are cell-secreted and integral membrane proteins synthesized? A. on rough endoplasmic reticulum B. within the nucleolous C. on free-floating cytoplasmic ribosomes D. within the nucleus

A. on rough endoplasmic reticulum

Based on your knowledge of the polarity of water molecules, the solute molecule depicted in the center is most likely (4 water molecules surrounding unknown molecules, all with oxygen towards it) A. positively charged B. negatively charged C. hydrophobic D. nonpolar

A. positively charged

What cellular region allows cells to interact and stick to each other? A. the extracellular matrix B. smooth ER C. mitochondria D. vesicles

A. the extracellular matrix

Leukocyte Extravasation

AKA diapedesis, the movement of leukocytes out of the circulatory system and towards the site of tissue damage or infection

Endergonic Rxns

Absorbs free energy from its surroundings - stores free energy in molecules (G increases), ΔG is positive - nonspontaneous & magnitude of ΔG is amount of energy needed to drive the rxn - "uphill" - photosynthesis

If a protein acetylated a positively-charged side chain on a histone protein, what effect would that have on transcription?

Acetylation of Histones: positive to neutral charge - loosens attachment to DNA, permitting more RNA polymerase interactions (increases transcription levels) - unraveling histones makes DNA more likely to be expressed, turning on gene expression

Sodium-Potassium Pump

Active - energy of 1 ATP used to transport 3 Na+ ions out and 2 K+ ions in - creates [ ] gradient for both these ions & creates a charge differential

Aspartic Acid

Acts as a buffer - good at gaining/losing protons

Glutamic Acid

Acts as a buffer - good at gaining/losing protons

Kinase

Adds functional group that is very polar & charged to proteins, called phosphate groups - ON (phosphate) - OFF (-OH)

Methyl

Affects expression of genes when on DNA on proteins bounds to DNA - affects shape/function of sex hormones - hydrophobic, lots of C & H, due to EN, avoid water, most nonpolar

If the progenitor cell of a gamete has 12 pairs of chromosomes during G1 of interphase, how many chromosomes will the following cells have? - A daughter cell immediately following cytokinesis 1 of meiosis

After cytokinesis I the homologous pairs have separated, each daughter cell = 12 chromosomes

Maximum Parsimony & Maximum Likelihood

All Phylogenetic trees depend on complex mathematical analysis to determine the most probable tree, two common approaches are: 1) MP: first investigate simplest explanation that is consistent w the facts - uses the fewest evolutionary events/fewest base changes 2) ML: identifies the tree most likely to have produced a given set of DNA data, based on certain probability rules ab how DNA sequences change over time

The similarites and differences between simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport

All transport matter across membrane 1. Simple Diffusion: small nonpolar molecules and some ions 2. Facilitated Diffusion: small polar molecule and ions 3. Active Transport: requires energy and moves against concentration gradient - ex: exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis, Na/K pump

Genetic Drift

Allele frequencies fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next, especially in small pops Cause of Change: Chance of assortments of alleles How Pop Evolves: Evolves so that one type of an allele is eliminated and one remains Real-World Ex: Founder effect in Pingelap; typhoon & only 20 ppl lived, out of the 20 ppl, lots were colorblind - as a result, the present day pop has a large amount of colorblind people - randomness on who survived, survivors pass traits

Why extra nucleotides are transcribed up & down stream of the coding region

Allows for many more regulatory steps to occur

Integral Proteins

Allows polar & big molecules to pass across membrane restricted by the phospholipid bilayer

How do eukaryotic cells utilize alternative splicing to maximize variety of gene products that they can produce?

Alternative splicing is a regulated process during gene expression that results in a single gene coding for multiple proteins - The splicing is different in every mRNA strand, therefore there are different proteins every time - before the mRNA can be translated into proteins, non-coding portions of the sequence (introns) must be removed and protein-coding parts (exons) joined by RNA splicing to produce a mature mRNA - exons or portions of exons or noncoding regions within a pre-mRNA transcript are differentially joined or skipped, resulting in multiple protein isoforms being encoded by a single gene

Endotherm

An organism that is internally warmed by a heat-generating metabolic process - internal body temp regulated by inside of self - Ex: mammals & birds; over large range of temps the body temp doesnt change

Ectotherm

An animal whose body temperature varies with the temperature of its surroundings - temp of environment regulates internal body temp - Ex: fish in warm/cold water

Splicesosome

An enzyme complex made out of small nuclear RNA (snRNA) & proteins - binds to splice sites, cutting out introns & ligating exons together - removal of introns/RNA processing can result in length difference between primary transcript & mature mRNA (takes place in nucleus) - would be longer in prokaryotes since mRNA processing doesnt typically occur in them

Types of Animal Behaviors: Instinct

An inborn, unlearned behavior - An inherited "circuit" that directs & guides behavior - Ex: nursing

Invasive species

An invasive species can be any kind of living organism—an amphibian (like the cane toad), plant, insect, fish, fungus, bacteria, or even an organism's seeds or eggs—that is not native to an ecosystem and causes harm - they can harm the environment, the economy, or even human health

Heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a trait

Genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.

How Analogous Anatomical Structures Supports The Evolutionary Theory

Analogous features share similar function, but not common ancestry - due to convergent evolution - although they evolved indep from dif ancestors, these two mammals adapted to similar environments in similar ways - bats, birds & bugs can all fly, but did not recieve these traits from a common ancestor - natural selection made wings favorable so they evolved to have similar traits

What is different about cytokinesis in animal-like cells as compared to plant-like cells?

Animal: Contractile ring splits cytoplasm into 2 Plant: vesicles form a cell plate in the middle of the cell which partitions it into 2

Generally speaking, why do antibiotics only affect bacterial cells and not eukaryotic cells?

Antibiotics are going to disrupt the parts of a bacteria that are exclusive to bacteria and not found in eukaryotic cells - Mainly, peptidoglycan seems to be targeted but bacterial enzymes and bacterial cell membranes are also targeted

ADH

Antidiuretic hormone is released from the pituitary gland in response to low water levels causing the tubules of the nephron to become permeable to water - Water is conserved as it is reabsorbed back into the body tissues - When water levels are high, ADH release is inhibited, this is an example of a negative feedback loop Hormone produced by the neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus that stimulates water reabsorption from kidney tubule cells into the blood and vasoconstriction of arterioles - Made in hypothalamus - secreted by post. pituitary gland - controls reabsorption of water - MORE ADH = less H2O secreted - LESS ADH = more H2O secreted - peptide hormone - directly affects H2O balance, bc it controls reabsorption * H2O follows solute

Relationship between matter and energy

Anything w mass that occupies space is matter, Energy is a property of matter & all matter has energy

*How SA, Volume, & SA:VOL ratio changes as cell becomes larger

As the size of a cell increases, THE RATIO OF SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME OF THE CELL DECREASES - When SA:V ratio is high, the efficiency of the diffusion process will be high and the cell will have all its needs met easily

*FIGURE on page 10 The average brood size per mated individual upon reintroduction of food following 30 days ofis closest to which of the following? A. 10 B. 50 C. 250 D. 400

B. 50

A student wants to modify model 1 so that it represents an RNA double helix instead of a DNA double helix. Of the following possible changes, which would be most effective in making model 1 look more like RNA than DNA? A. Changing the sequence of the base pairs B. Changing the deoxyriboses to riboses by adding −OH groups C. Changing the shapes of the nitrogenous bases to match those shown in model 2 D. Changing the sugar-phosphate backbone to a ribbon, as shown in model 3

B. Changing the deoxyriboses to riboses by adding −OH groups - RNA contains ribose, whereas DNA contains deoxyribose. A ribose sugar has an −OH group linked to the 2′2′ carbon that a deoxyribose sugar does not have.

Vesicles often carry proteins from the ER to which organelle important for protein modification and sorting? A. ribosomes B. Golgi apparatus C. mitochondria D. lysosome

B. Golgi apparatus

*FIGURE 1: Previous experiments indicate that CDK5 is active only when attached to a protein called p53. Which of the following best predicts how p53 might play a role in regulating neuron function? A. Elevated intracellular levels of p53 result in increased synaptic activity. B. Degradation of p53 results in increased synaptic activity. C. Reabsorption of p53 from the synaptic cleft results in increased synaptic activity. D. Attachment of p53 to synaptic vesicles results in increased synaptic activity.

B. Degradation of p53 results in increased synaptic activity.

What is the purpose of the acrylic beads sample? A. It is a control and should be added to the other values to correct for leaks. B. Since beads do not respire, it acts a a control for leaks and temperature fluctuations. C. They are included to help the respirometer stay submerged during the observations. D. They absorb carbon dioxide gas and help isolate oxygen consumption.

B. Since beads do not respire, it acts a a control for leaks and temperature fluctuations.

Where would one usually find the centrosome (and centrioles) located in non-dividing cells? A. attached to the inner leaflet of the cell membrane B. near the nucleus C. opposite the Golgi apparatus D. bound to lysosomes

B. near the nucleus

A scientist is studying the various prokaryotic and eukaryotic species found floating in a sample of water taken from a marine ecosystem. Which cellular component will be found in the widest range of organisms in the sample? A. The chloroplast, since all organisms need a source of energy. B. The ribosome, since all organisms need to synthesize proteins. C. The mitochondrion, since all organisms need to break down glucose. D. The cell wall, since all marine organisms need them for support.

B. The ribosome, since all organisms need to synthesize proteins.

Given the same amount of sample was used in each trial, what is a likely explanation for the differences observed between each bean variety? A. The pigments inhibit oxygen absorption and result in lower rates of respiration. B. The smaller beans have a larger surface area to volume ratio, allowing for better oxygen diffusion. C. The larger beans respire more, and thus use more oxygen. D. The rates are in fact the same, but need to be corrected for the different densities of the beans.

B. The smaller beans have a larger surface area to volume ratio, allowing for better oxygen diffusion.

What cellular location would you most likely find the protein receptors for steroid and amino acid derived hormones, respectively? A. cell membrane; ER B. cytoplasm; cell membrane C. cell membrane; nuclear envelope D. nuclear envelope; ER

B. cytoplasm; cell membrane

A common type of DNA sequencing utilizes what technique? A. restriction enzyme digestion B. dideoxynucleotide chain termination C. short tandem repetition D. ribonucleotide hybridization

B. dideoxynucleotide chain termination

A vertebrate muscle tissue culture was provided with a constant excess supply of glucose under anaerobic conditions starting at time zero. The amount of pyruvic acid was measured. The solid line in the graph above represents the pyruvic acid present in moles per liter as time progressed. The dotted line represents a second culture under the same conditions, except that substance X was added, also at time zero. The increase of pyruvic acid from points B to C are a result of what process? A. Kreb's cycle B. glycolysis C. cellular respiration D. lactic acid fermentation

B. glycolysis

Which of the following statements is/are true regarding the chemical rxn illustrated below? A. it is a hydrolysis rxn B. it results in a peptide bond C. it is a hydrolysis rxn and it results in a peptide bond D. it is a hydrolysis rxn, it results in a peptide bond, and it joins two fatty acids together

B. it results in a peptide bond

Plants can do both respiration (which creates carbon dioxide) and photosynthesis (which uses up carbon dioxide). Aquatic plants acquire and give off the CO2 to the solutions around them. This dissolved CO2 also can contribute to the pH of the solution; CO2 can turn into carbonic acid that decreases the pH and makes the water around aquatic plants more acidic. When aquatic plants are in the dark, what would you expect to happen to the pH of the solution around them? A. pH will increase B. pH will decrease C. pH will stay the same as respiration and photosynthesis will cancel each other out

B. pH will decrease

A response of an organism to seasonal change is A. phototropism B. photoperiodism C. circadian rhythm D. photolysis E. the biological clock

B. photoperiodism

3 Classes of Proteins

Based on shape & solubility 1. Globular: highly soluble, circular (little SA/volume), stability helps w movement 2. Fibrous: linear, insoluble 3. Membrane: cell membranes association

Why a biological species has to be reproductively isolated

Because biological species are defined in terms of reproductive compatibility, the formation of a new species hinges on reproductive isolation: - the existence of biological factors (barriers) that impede members of two species from interbreeding & producing viable, fertile offspring - barriers block gene flow & limit formation of hybrids

Why evolution has to involve the change of the genetic makeup of a population over time?

Because evolution is defined as a change in allele frequencies in a pop over time, if they stay the same then the pop isnt evolving - if they dont change, then the pop would be in genetic equilibrium

What defines a species?

Breed with one another in nature, produce fertile offspring, and cannot successfully interbreed with members of another species

Why are molecules that contain amino groups basic?

Because of the properties of an -NH2 (amino) group - It directly accepts H+ from surrounding solutions reducing the hydrogen ion concentration and giving the ion a positive charge - this in turn gives the molecule a basic quality.

Sickle Cell Anemia & the heterozygote advantage

Because the genetic disorder is incompletely recessive, a person with only one SCA allele and one unaffected allele will have a "mixed" phenotype - The sufferer will not experience the ill effects of the disease, yet will still possess a sickle cell trait, whereby some of the red blood cells undergo benign effects of SCA, but nothing severe enough to be harmful - experience fewer harmful effects from sickling than compared to homozygotes & are more likely to survive malaria

Why are proteins the most complex biological molecules?

Because they have many different functions based on their structure, the structure of a protein depends on the sequence of amino acids and there are 20 different amino acids, which can be assembled in any order, so there are a lot of ways a protein can be folded - this is why proteins have many functions which are categorized into 7 main functions: defense, transport, support, enzyme catalysis, motion, regulation, and storage

How has DNA technology changed the way that classification is done?

Before cladograms were used to classify - now, phylogenetic trees can be used with technology to classify - computer models can be used (called parsimony): simplest way to show genetic change

The pigment just below the solvent is yellowish-orange. The pigment just above the start is light green. The pigment 2nd above the start is bluish-green. The third one up was just visible, but too faint to resolve and measure. Which pigment traveled the farthest?

Beta-carotene

Name one other enzyme that is produced by cells transformed with both the lux plasmid and pUC18 control, but is not produced by the cells lacking any plasmid.

Beta-lactamase

According to the data, which trial likely demonstrates denaturing of enzymes necessary for photosynthesis pathways? Bicarbonate at 25 Degrees C Bicarbonate at 35 Degrees C Bicarbonate at 45 Degrees C water control Bicarbonate at 4 Degrees C

Bicarbonate at 45 Degrees C

Explain why bird and bat wings are homologous as vertebrate forelimbs but analogous as wings.

Bird and bat wings originated from a common tetrapod ancestor, therefore they are homologous as vertebrate forelimbs. However, the wings themselves are analogous because they arose independently from the forelimbs of different tetrapod ancestors.

Estrogen (estradiol) and progesterone effects on uterine cycle

Both Estrogen and progesterone are produced primarily by the ovaries Ovulation begins with a surge in luteinizing hormones - causes the release of the egg - estrogen levels decrease and progesterone levels increase Just before menstruation, progesterone levels drop which signals the endometrium layer to shed - progesterone causes the endometrium to thicken A risk of unbalanced estrogen: High levels of estrogen can increase the risk of thyroid failure, because of the fact estrogen can block the intake of thyroid hormones This is usually seen during perimenopause, when progesterone levels are low but estrogen is still in the body

Acetylcholinesterase Activity

Breaks down acetylcholine into acetate and choline - if it is inhibited, there will be an increase in level and duration of action of neurotransmitter acetylcholine - Determines how much acetylcholine is transmitted from neuron to muscle, which causes contraction in the muscle - choline is uptaken by motor neuron and will make more acetylcholine w acetate in neuron - Acetylcholinesterase in synapse to break down acetylcholine so muscles arent overstimulated - target for neurotoxins

How common are the elements that living systems are made out of?

C, N, O, P, S & H are common - H is most common, oxygen makes up 20% of atmosphere, P is most common component of dirt - N2 makes up more than 79% of atmosphere, C is in everything, S plays major role in volcanic activity

Which of the following statements is true regarding the molecules? A. it is a saturated fatty acid B. it is a polypeptide C. molecules of this type are usually liquid at room temperature D. it is a phospholipid

C. molecules of this type are usually liquid at room temperature

Which allosteric enzyme acts as a major target for regulation to help your cells determine how much ATP they need to make via glycolysis and respiration? A. ATP synthase B. enolase C. phosphofructokinase D. coenzyme A

C. phosphofructokinase

Alternation of Generations in Plants

In angiosperms, the gametophyte is not a free-living organism, but rather a component of the gamete-making flower

Cutting certain genes out of DNA molecules often requires the use of A. reverse transcriptases B. eukaryotic enzymes C. restriction endonucleases D. viral enzymes

C. restriction endonucleases

In the scenario shown in the video, activation of leukocyte membrane proteins can lead to what? A. clonal production of antibodies B. transcription and translation of mitochondrial genes C. cell immobilization and cell-structure reorganization D. induction of mitotic cell division

C. cell immobilization and cell-structure reorganization

Vinblastine, a drug that inhibits microtubule polymerization, is used to treat some forms of cancer. Cancer cells given vinblastine would be unable to A. form cleavage furrows during cell division B. migrate by amoeboid movement C. separate chromosomes during cell division D. maintain the shape of the nucleus

C. separate chromosomes during cell division

BLANK-> influences-> protein shape-> determines-> protein function A. sequence of monosaccharides B. sequence of nucleic acids C. sequence of amino acids D. sequence of ATP molecules

C. sequence of amino acids

Many mammals control their body temperature by sweating. Which property of water is most directly responsible for the ability of sweat to lower body temperature? A. Water's change in density when it condenses B. the release of heat by the formation of hydrogen bonds C. the absorption of heat by the breaking of hydrogen bonds D. water's high surface tension

C. the absorption of heat by the breaking of hydrogen bonds

Why does the DNA condense into chromosomes during cell division?

Can be more easily aligned along the metaphase plate and for other mobility purposes

Beadle & Tatum's work with Neurospora Crassa

Can determine which mutant (& thus what genes) make the proteins that regulate a biosynthetic pathway - showed that genes act by regulating distinct chemical events - affirming the "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis

Why are molecules that contain carboxyl groups acidic?

Carboxyl has acidic properties - the acidic properties come from the covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds that are polar - the bonds create hydrogen ions that release into the molecule, these hydrogen ions make substances have a higher acidity - Acts as acid (can donate H+) bc covalent bonds b/n O & H is so polar

Gene Flow

Cause of Change: transfer of alleles in/out of a pop due to movement of fertile individuals or their gametes How Pop Evolves: tends to decrease genetic variation in a pop, affects how pops are adapted to environoments Real-World Ex: small sample of snakes on Lake Erie from mainland swim to islands and join that population - they end up transferring alleles for banded coloration from mainland to islands - speciation only begins after gene flow b/n pops is interrupted (due to changes in environment or unpredictable events), then pops must diverge genetically to become reproductively isolated before gene flow resumes (if it resumes, speciation process can be reversed)

*Process by which cells become specialized

Cell Differentiation - occurs through a process called gene expression - Gene expression is the specific combination of genes that are turned on or off (expressed or repressed), and this is what dictates how a cell functions

*Why is the cell theory significant

Cell theory states that all living organisms are made of cells, all existing cells cells are produced from other cells, and cells are the most basic unit of life - Cell theory is significant because all living things are made of cells and cell biology has components in a variety of different biology fields such as evolution and ecology - Cell theory was also one of the first unifying concepts developed in biology

Mechanism of Fermentation

Cells convert NADH produced by glycolysis back into electron carrier NAD+, which allows glycolysis to continue producing ATP - two types of fermentation used, depending on organism

Why dont you say cells "make" energy?

Cells do not "make" energy, they convert energy into useable forms - Cellular respiration is used to make ATP, adenosine triphosphate, which provides the energy that the cells need to be able to carry out their functions in living cells

Why will it make me cringe if you ever say that cells "make" energy?

Cells do not "make" energy, they convert energy into useable forms. Cellular respiration is used to make ATP, adenosine triphosphate, which provides the energy that the cells need to be able to carry out their functions in living cells. All cells carry out some form of cellular respiration, either aerobic or anaerobic. The cells that perform aerobic respiration need oxygen to carry out the process, while cells that use the anaerobic process do not, instead relying on fermentation. Plants use photosynthesis. This process uses sunlight processed through the chlorophyll of the plants to create the sugars needed for energy. Without this process the plants could not absorb carbon dioxide or produce oxygen that other living organisms need to live.

How & why traits are passed on from generation to generation

Certain heritable traits survive/reproduce at a higher rate - 1 allele for every gene is inherited from each parent - The sperm and egg cell, which both have only 23 chromosomes, combine to form one whole cell and make a child, and passes on the traits from the father and the mother to the child

How Biogeography Supports The Evolutionary Theory

Certain species have similar traits when living in close regions - evolve traits to help them in the same environment

Food chain vs food web

Chain: shows transfer of food energy from one trophic level to the next: producers to herbivores to carnivores Web: diagrams the complex trophic relationships w/in a community

Binomial Nomenclature

Classification system in which each species is assigned a two-part scientific name by Linnaeus - 1st part is the genus to which species belongs (capitalized), species that appear to be closely related are grouped into same genus - 2nd part is called specific epithet & is unique for each species within the genus - entire binomial is italicized

Telophase

Chromosomes arrive at centrosomes and begin to decondense while a new nuclear envelope begins to form around separated chromosomes (two nuclear envelopes form) - Contractile ring begins to pinch the cell into two - chromosomes start to unravel again, condensed DNA becomes unraveled chromatin structure - each nucleus is 2N again

How did the work of TH Morgan and company contribute to the eventual discovery that DNA was the genetic material in the cell?

Chromosomes, genes, crossing over - proved that genes are located on chromosomes which helped to narrow the search for genetic material to either DNA or protein

How can you tell a biological molecule is a lipid?

Composed of glycerol and fatty acids - Lipids are insoluble in water (hydrophobic) due to their high proportion of nonpolar carbon-hydrogen bonds - Types of lipids are: fats, phospholipids and steroids - dont have true polymers, not big enough to be macromolecules - lots of C&H, few O - double bond b/n C & O, makes it more water soluble, dont have alot in fats

Cell Junctions

Connect cells together, portion of ECM interacting w intracellular cytoskeleton 1. Tight Junction 2. Adherens Junction 3. Desmosome 4. Gap Junction: connecting protein called connexins that form gap junctions - form channels that span across entire membranes & interact w entire cell, connect cytoplasm of two cells - found in heart cells, when heart contracts, signal needs to quickly travel across gap junction - plasmodesmata are "gap junctions" of plant cells 5. Hemidesmosome

Meiosis

Consists of one round of DNA replication followed by two nuclear divisions, meiosis I & meiosis II - formation of 4 daughter cells, each w only half the # of chromosomes of the parent

Cytokinesis

Contractile ring divides cytoplasm into two, so now there are 2 new daughter cells with DNA identical to parent - division of rest of cell, including cell membrane, cytosol & other organelles - in plant cells, small vesicles move along microtubules to midline - these vesicles fuse to form a cell plate, which grows to form the cell wall that separates the cells

Phosphate functional group

Contributes neg charge (-1 inside, -2 @ end) when attached, confers on molecule ability to rxt w water, releasing energy - hydrophilic

Tradeoffs between cost of reproduction and investment in survival

Cost of reproduction often include a reduction in survival - production of large #'s of offspring is related to selective pressures of high mortality rates of offspring in uncertain environments/from intense predation

In what two ways can a cell increase its surface area to volume ratio without dividing itself into multiple cells

Create more lipids & membranes, expel water and decrease volume

Function & location of association/interneuron

Create neural circuits, allowing communication b/n sensory or motor neurons in CNS - function in reflexes, aka the decision making neuron - in the case of a reflex arc, it would make a decision to respond or not to the stimuli

Explain cytoplasmic streaming related to vacuoles

Cytoplasmic streaming is the directed flow of cytosol (the liquid component of the cytoplasm) and organelles around large fungal and plant cells through the mediation of actin. This movement aids in the delivery of organelles, nutrients, metabolites, genetic information, and other materials to all parts of the cell. Cytoplasmic streaming occurs in the cytoskeleton of the cell, causing the cytosol to move as well.

*When during the cell cycle are chromosomes visible?

DNA is no longer spread out as chromatin

Which of the following statements below describes the molecules shown below? (monosaccharide) A. can form phosphodiester bonds to create nucleic acids B. when bonded to another like molecule, it forms peptide bonds C. when in monomeric form, can serve as a long-term energy storage molecule D. can form glycosidic bonds to create di- and polysaccharides

D. can form glycosidic bonds to create di- and polysaccharides

Transformation is one type of genetic exchange among bacteria. Identify TWO other different types of genetic exchange found naturally in bacteria. A. transposition B. crossing-over C. recombination D. conjugation E. luciferation F. transduction

D. conjugation F. transduction

In the early 1940's, the work of Oswald Avery, along with several other colleagues, demonstrated exactly what the substance was that transformed the cells. By isolating specific components from the heat-killed pathogenic cells and exposing each component individually to the living pathogentic cells, it was demonstrated the only material that could cause transformation of the cells was ________________.

DNA

Interphase

DNA & Centrioles get duplicated here before division - may be arrested as diploid cell (2N, G0) - G1/Growth happens & cell grows, S phase/DNA Synthesis & DNA doubles (cell becomes 4N) - G2/Preparation for Mitosis where centrioles double & pull chromosomes apart

How DNA polymerase Contributes To The Process of DNA Replication

DNA polymerases adds DNA to the single strand

How a molecule (inducer) binding to a repressor protein could affect transcription

DNA-binding repressor blocks the attachment of RNA polymerase to the promoter, thus preventing transcription of the genes into messenger RNA - Inducers bind to repressors, causing them to change shape and preventing them from binding to DNA (falls off & stops blocking RNA polymerase) - This allows transcription, and thus gene expression, to take place

Types of Animal Behaviors: Territoriality

Defense of feeding or nesting sites - Ex: Hawks defending their nesting grounds

Population densities and spatial distribution

Density: # of individuals per unit area or volume Dispersion: pattern of spacing of those individuals

What is the cause of molecular polarity?

Differences in electronegativity causes molecular polarity - Electronegativity is a property when atoms differ in their affinity for electrons - When electrons are shared equally in a bond, they are termed nonpolar - For atoms that differ greatly in electronegativity, electrons are not shared equally - They are closer to atom with higher EN, creating polarity

Alleles

Different forms of a gene

Analogous

Different origin

Rf

Distance traveled by component from point of application (pigment)/Distance traveled by solvent from point of application

Percent Change in mass (for potato cores)

Divide the change in mass by the initial mass of your substance - multiply this number by 100

Replication

Doubles DNA - done during S phase (before Mitosis & Meiosis) - done by DNA polymerase - 5' to 3' in direction - needs helicase, Okazaki fragments, primers, ligase, topoisomerase, telomerase - semi conservative, antiparallel 1. DNA to be copied enters "production line" from bottom left - helicase spins DNA & unwinds double helix into 2 strand - one strand is copied continuously & spools off to right - other strand is copied backwards, is drawn out repeatedly in loops & copied one section @ a time, results in 2 new DNA molecules

Drug resistance in bacteria and natural selection

Drug resistance is a consequence of evolution via natural selection - The antibiotic action is an environmental pressure; those bacteria which have a mutation allowing them to survive will live on to reproduce - They will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will be a fully resistant generation - Bacteria can exchange genes w/ members of their own & other species, so they can become resistant to antibiotics

EGF

EGF is a ligand/binds to EGFR/activates receptor - Activated receptor (EGFR) initiates cell signaling pathway/internal signaling cascade - Cellular Response initiates cell cycle progression/cell division, resulting in tissue repair HOW MUTATION OUTSIDE CODING REGION OF GENE THAT ENCODES EGFR COULD LEAD TO OVERPRODUCTION OF EGFR PROTEIN IN SKIN CELL: - A mutation in regulatory sequence (promoter or enhancer) could increase rate of transcription of EGFR gene - A mutation in transcription factor could increase production of mRNA, leading to production of more polypeptide - Gene duplication may increase production of EGFR - Gene translocation may inactivate repressor - Mutation in repressor gene may remove controls on cell division - Change in mRNA sequence may increase translation efficiency/mRNA stability

Why did you have to pull two alleles (two straws) from the bag to represent one fish?

Each fish has two alleles for each characteristic, therefore two straws were needed to determine the fish's color

How do organelles allow for increased complexity in cells?

Each organelle will have a specific role to play within the cell that allows the cell to continue functioning efficiently - A prokaryotic cell is small enough that it can function fine without organelles, but as cells evolved into larger cells and multicellular organisms, they required specialized organelles - enclosing parts of a cell inside a membrane allows more possibilities, creates different conditions & regions

Homeostatic temperature regulation

Endotherm Regulation 1. Too hot 2. Recognized by hypothalamus - vasodilation: open blood vessels, more blood flows to extremeties - diaphoresis (sweat) 3. Cool down 1. Too cold 2. Recognized by hypothalamus - vascoconstriction: constricts blood to extremeties - shiver 3. Warm Up

Chemoautotrophic Nutrition

Energy Source: inorganic chemicals (CH2S, NH3, Fe+2) Carbon Source: CO2, HCO3-, or related cmpd Types of organisms: unique to certain prokaryotes (like Sulfolobus)

How does energy, like light or temperature, interact with atoms?

Energy holds electrons to the nucleus when atoms absorb energy, electrons are moved to a higher energy level - the movement of electrons back to lower energy levels releases energy in a photon

Why histones bind so well with DNA

Eukaryotes (DNA warpped around histones) - Histones: have many + charged AA, which helps them interact w/ - charged DNA

Cytoskeleton

Eukaryotic cells are given their shape and internal organization by a network of protein filaments (aka cystoskeleton) - moves vesicles from one place to another, certain parts help transport materials b/n dif parts of cell (conveyor belts) - microfilaments (smallest), microtubules (biggest) and intermediate filaments are the three principle protein filaments that make up the cytoskeleton

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Eukaryotic cells contain an internal membrane system known as ER - it is where lipid components of cell membrane are assembled, along w proteins and other materials exported from cell 1. Rough ER: portion involved w synthesis of proteins, called rough bc of ribosomes on its surface - proteins assemble on ribosomes on RER (for export to CM/specialized locations in cell), once assembled they are carried from RER to GA in vesicles 2. Smooth ER: contains collection of enzymes that perform specialized tasks, including synthesis of membrane lipids & detoxification of drugs - help make cell bigger for division, liver cells have lots of SER - big polar molecules get out cell by building across membrane: build on rough ER then traffick it where it needs to go - free ribosomes make proteins that work in cytoplasm

Reduced Hybrid Fertility

Even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile. If the chromosomes of the two parent species differ in number or structure, meiosis in the hybrids may fail to produce normal gametes. Since the infertile hybrids cannot produce offspring when they mate with either parent species, genes cannot flow freely between the species - ex: mules (hybrid of a male donkey & female horse) - Postzygotic

Why do traits have to be heritable for evolution to affect them?

Evolution occurs over generations, if traits weren't heritable then they couldnt be passed on over time in order for evolution to change/affect them

Explain how the work of Avery, McCarty, and Macleod expanded on the work done by Griffith. What did the results of their experiment suggest?

Exposed the r-strain streptococcus to purified s-strain protein and purified s-strain DNA - The results were that the only bacteria exposed to the s-strain DNA were transformed, but there was not enough evidence for those skeptical

What factors determine which kingdom an organism is in?

Five Kingdoms Previously Recognized: 1) Plantae: multicellular, autotroph (make own food), cell wall 2) Fungi: Multicellular, cell wall, heterotroph 3) Animalia: Multicellular, heterotrophs (cannot make their own food), no cell wall 4) Monera (not rec): bc it would have members in 2 dif domains 5) Protista (not rec): bc not a true clade, includes members more closely related to plants, fungi, or animals than to other protists - Unicellular, some have cell walls others do not, autotrophs/heterotrophs - paraphyletic Based off: - Cell type - # of cells in their body - ability to make food

The tiny blue-eyed Mary flower is often one of the first flowers seen in the spring in some regions of the United States. The flower is normally blue, but sometimes a white or pink flower variation is found. Which of the following statements best explains the data?

Flower color is an inherited trait, and the F1 and F2 phenotypes of the flowers arising from the pink and white cross can best be explained by another gene product that influences the phenotypic expression.

SA & Volume

For each square micrometer of membrane, only a limited amount of a particular substance can cross per second, so the ratio of SA:V is critical - as a cell increases in size, its SA grows proportionately less than its volume - a smaller object has a greater ratio of SA to volume - a high ratio of SA:V is needed in cells that exchange lots of material w/ surroundings (may have microvilli, increase SA w/o sig increase in V)

Explain the effect that point mutations and frame-shift mutations can have on gene products in neutral (silent) mutations

For neutral mutations the gene product is not effected

Peripheral Proteins

Form temporary bonds w/ cell membrane, allowing them to detach/reattach @ specific times, w/ specific signals, lets cells communicate - attach to integral proteins or penetrate peripheral regions of lipid bilayer (do not enter hydrophobic space)

GLUT-4 Exocytosis

GLUT4 is an insulin-regulated glucose transporter responsible for insulin-regulated glucose uptake into fat & muscle cells - in absence of insulin, GLUT4 is found in intracellular vesicles called GLUT4 storage vesicles - in response to insulin stimulation, GSVs fuse w plasma membrane in rapid burst & in continued presence of insulin GLUT4 molecules & are internalised and recycled back to plasma membrane in vesicles distinct from GSVs

Phosphofructokinase

Found @ beginning of glycolysis & CR pathways - allosteric: switched off/on by conformational changes in its shape due to binding of molecules found in metabolic pathway it participates in - turns glucose into pyruvate, which is fed into Krebs Cycle - some of those molecules get fed into process called ETC (example of oxidative phosphorylation) If have lots of ATP, dont need to waste glucose to make more, SO ATP can feedback & bind to PFK and inhibit its activity - if low amounts of ATP, ADP/AMP stimulate by binding to PFK & get more energy by activating enzyme The enzyme that catalyzes the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to form fructose-1-6-bisphosphate in the third step of glycolysis. This is the main regulatory step of glycolysis. PFK is feedback-inhibited by ATP.

Rough ER

Functions of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum include: Making secretory proteins Manufacturing membranes

Smooth ER

Functions of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum include: synthesis of lipids (ex. Sex hormones and steroids) metabolism of carbohydrates detoxification of drugs and poisons

Fundamental vs Realized niche

Fundamental niche is the entire set of conditions under which an animal (population, species) can survive and reproduce itself Realized niche is the set of conditions actually used by given animal (pop, species), after interactions with other species (predation and especially competition) have been taken into account.

What has to occur for a cell to divide? What purposes do these divisions serve?

G1 and must occur before the cell divides, and the divisions serve to allow for the organism to grow reproduce and maintain themselves

G1 phase

G1: cell makes a variety of proteins and grows

G2 phase

G2: continues to create proteins but geared towards division

Genetic Drift v Gene Flow

GD: chance events can also cause allele frequencies to fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next, especially in small pops - the founder effect: when few individuals become isolated from a larger pop, the smaller group can establish a new pop whose gene pool differs from the source pop - bottleneck effect: a sudden change in environment can drastically reduce the size of a pop, so certain alleles can be absent or over/underrepresented GF: the transfer of alleles into or out of a pop due to the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes - causes allele frequencies to change - alleles transferred by GF can affect how well pops adapt to local environmental conditions

Light-dependent reactions

Generate ATP & NADPH, directly involve sunlight: Occurs in thylakoids, light strikes chlorophyll containing photosystems & excites e- that get transferred through string of proteins called electron transport chain - before they get transferred to NADP+ (low energy form), the high energy e- move H+ ions across thylakoid membrane - H+ ions build up from splitting of water & from being pumped in from stroma - the breaking of water makes O2, floating e- move p+ from one side to other of membrane, creating [ ] proton gradient inside thykaloid (becomes MORE ACIDIC) - this gradient, the difference in both charge & H+ ion [ ] across inner membrane, provides energy to make ATP - powered by gradient, H+ ions pass thru ATP synthase & force it to rotate - as it turns, it binds ADP and a phosphate group to make ATP

When does speciation occur in a population

Geographic barriers between populations can lead to reproductive isolation and speciation over long periods of time and many generations. However, the formation of new species would not occur within the length of time of most experiments

R&P of glycolysis

Glucose is broken down into 2 molecules of the 3-carbon molecule pyruvic acid - PA (pyruvate) is a reactant in the Krebs cycle - ATP & NADH are produced, this ATP is made by substrate level phosphorylation (makes ATP directly) - put 2 ATP in, get 4 out (2 net ATP phosphorylation)

Anaerobic

Glycolysis is anaerobic - does not directly require oxygen, nor does it rely on an oxygen requiring process to run - however, it is still part of CR - in absence of O2, pyruvate is converted to either lactate or ethanol & CO2 in the cytosol through anaerobic fermentation

Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium

Gradualism is the idea that organisms change gradually and steadily over time - species diverge more slow and steady - unstable environment Punctuated equilibrium is equilibrium that is interrupted by brief periods of more rapid change - new species change most as they branch from parent species - relatively constant

Oxygen Indicators

Guaiacol absorbs best at 470 nm

How Topoisomerase/gyrase Contributes To The Process of DNA Replication

Gyrase untwists the strands of DNA

Cilia & Flagella

Hairlike structures that extend from the surface of the cell, where they assist in movement, move cells or to sweep materials past a cell Cilia: short, but cells have many Flagella: long, but cells have few

Chlorophyll

Has R group (either chlorophyll a/b) - porphyrin ring (causes resonance) - hydrocarbon tail (lipid like, anchors into membranes of thykaloids)

Serine

Have hydroxyl groups, which are phosphorylatable - this means you can take off the hydrogen and add a phosphate group, adding lots of negative charge - can change charge of AA in protein, changing function - proteins called kinases add phosphate groups to proteins: phosphates change structure/shape/function of protein - act as switch to turn a protein on or off, increasing/decreasing catalytic activity

ECM

Holds your cells together in an orderly fashion - some span across membrane (integrin) - some inside that anchor proteins (actin)

Threonine

Have hydroxyl groups, which are phosphorylatable - this means you can take off the hydrogen and add a phosphate group, adding lots of negative charge - can change charge of AA in protein, changing function - proteins called kinases add phosphate groups to proteins: phosphates change structure/shape/function of protein - act as switch to turn a protein on or off, increasing/decreasing catalytic activity

Tyrosine

Have hydroxyl groups, which are phosphorylatable - this means you can take off the hydrogen and add a phosphate group, adding lots of negative charge - can change charge of AA in protein, changing function - proteins called kinases add phosphate groups to proteins: phosphates change structure/shape/function of protein - act as switch to turn a protein on or off, increasing/decreasing catalytic activity

How Helicase Contributes To The Process of DNA Replication

Helicase is the enzyme that separates the strands

How do herbivores solve the problem of cellulose digestion?

Herbivores are able to digest cellulose because they have evolved a mechanism to do just that - they have cellulose digesting prokaryotes in their digestive tracts, these prokaryotes hydrolyze the cellulose - this breaks the β linkages in cellulose, enabling access to energy released in breaking these bonds, this energy is used to nourish the herbivore

Heterotherm vs Homeotherm

Hetero: allow body to fluctuate - Molerats: regulate body temp but fluctuates sig (endotherm) Homo: keep body constant - Polar marine fish & invert: temp stays same bc always cold in polar regions (ectotherm)

How is it possible that individuals with two different can have the same phenotype?

Heterozygous or homozygous dominant

Although females, when conceived, have two X chromosomes, they primarily utilize the genes expressed on only one of them. What is a cause of this phenomena which results in the creation of the structure called a Barr body?

High levels of DNA methylation on the inactive X chromosome.

Evolution & function of homeobox Genes

Homeobox genes are a large family of similar genes that direct formation of many body structures during early embryonic development - Hox genes are switched on in different segments, telling body what structures to grow - Hox genes are more similar in closely related species & less similar in distantly related species - by comparing sequence similarity, scientists can determine when in evolutionary history certain duplication events occurred, as well as where some Hox genes were lost along the way - Hox genes code for transcription factor proteins, which control sets of genes for animal development

Hybrid Zones/ Hybrids

Hybrids: Offspring that result from an interspecific mating - barriers (such as ones created by reproductive isolation) block gene flow b/n species and limit the formation of hybrids - rarely serve as means from which alleles are passed from one species to the other - natural selection can produce big changes in hybrid pops over short periods of time Hybrid Zones: a region in which members of different species meet & mate, producing at least some offspring of mixed ancestry - occurs when species w/ incomplete reproductive barriers come into contact w/ one another (where the habitats meet) - environment changes can move an existing hybrid zone to a new location bc it alters where habitats of interbreeding species meet - outcomes over time: reinforcement of barriers, fusion of species or stability

Percentage Identity

Identity percentage shows how much two sequences have the same residues at the same positions in an alignment- a higher percentage indicates a greater level of similarities, and therefore, possible relatedness.

How can the structure of a protein be changed ("denatured")?

If a protein's environment changes, the protein can change shape or unfold completely - these are changes in pH, temperature, or ionic concentration of the surrounding solution - Denatured proteins are usually biologically inactive, particularly in enzymes

Cyclic photophosphorylation

If sufficient NADPH builds up, but ATP is still needed, cell turns to cyclic photophosphorylation - in this pathway ONLY photosystem I is used to pump H+ ions, and no e- are transferred - excited on PS I, double back & lose energy by pumping p+ across, and back up on PSI - happens in desert

*Why organisms can lose seemingly essential organs/ body structures (ex. Eyes)?

If the organism does not need it (like ostriches and their wings), they can afford to lose it - Though ostriches are birds and most birds need their wings to survive, if an ostrich was born without wings the mutation would not affect its survival

Summarize key difference between allopratic and sympatric speciation. Which type is more common and why?

In allopratic speciation, a new species forms while in geographic isolation from its parent. In sympatric speciation, a new species forms in absence of geographic isolation. It occurs due to behavioral or physiological differences. Allopatric is more common because isolation reduces gene flow.

Why is it likely that Hox genes have played a major role in evolution of novel morphological forms?

In animal embryos, Hox genes influence the development of structures such as limbs and feeding appendages. As a result, changes in these genes can lead to major effects on morphology.

*Capsules

In many prokaryotes, a dense and well-defined layer of polysaccharide or protein that surrounds the cell wall and is sticky, protecting the cell and enabling it to adhere to substrates or other cells - the cell wall of many prokaryotes is surrounded by a sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein

Respirometers

In presence of KOH, CO2 will rxt to form a solid (potassium carbonate) - by consuming CO2, oxygen consumption during respiration can be measured w/ respirometer (as a change in gas volume) - add KOH to cotton ball & place in vial, add germinating beans & acrylic beans to vials - load vials w/ dye & place in temp bath, record dye location

*What is evolution an emergent property of populations of organisms? Why are individuals unable to evolve?

Individuals cannot evolve on their own - variation in heritable traits is a prerequisite for evolution

Feedback Inhibition

Increases the efficiency of the pathway by turning it off when the end product accumulates in the cell - the end product on an enzymatic pathway can switch off its pathway by binding to the allosteric site of an enzyme in the pathway

Drug effects on receptors/channels

Inhibits or hyperactivates neurons 1. Mimic neurotransmitters 2. Stim release of neurotransmitter 3. Open neuroreceptor channel 4. Block neuroreceptor channel 5. Inhibit breakdown enzyme 6. Inhibit Na+/K+ ATPase pump 7. Block Na+ or K+ channels

Types of Animal Behaviors: Circadian Rhythms

Instincts based on daily patterns of time - Ex: jet lag

Water Potential

Involves 2 componets: solute potential & pressure potential - Water moves from region where water potential is high to a region where water potential is low - measured in bars (1 bar = 1 atm) - a dehydrated potato slice does not have high H2O potential, if placed in distilled water (which has high H2O potential), water will move into potato cells

Pressure Potential

Is zero in an open container bc there is no solute and the pressure in container is zero (esp for pure water) - when a soln is enclosed by a rigid cell wall, the movement of H2O into the cell will exert pressure on the cell wall and the pressure potential will increase - this increase in pressure w/in the cell will raise water potential - always greater or equal to 0

Explain the meaning of this statement: "The genetic code is punctuated, unambiguous, and redundant."

It is punctuated because it is always made of 3 letter codons. It is unambiguous because it i not open for interpretation - It is redundant because different codons can code for same amino acid

stroma

It is the fluid outside of the thylakoid that contains the DNA of chloroplasts and ribosomes and many enzymes. It is the innermost matrix of chloroplasts and its fluid is dense and helps with support.

If no real population of organisms is in Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium, why is it a useful tool to study the effects of evolution?

It is used as an initial test of whether evolution is occurring in a population & identify factors that disrupt population - can help estimate the % of a population carrying the allele for an inherited disease

Cholesterol

Keeps membrane fluid in extreme temps, lets phospholipids move

Vacuoles

Large, saclike, membrane-enclosed structures that store materials like water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates - in plant cells: a single, large central vacuole filled w liquid, the pressure of the central vacuole in these cells increases their rigidity, making it possible for plants to support heavy structures such as leaves and flowers

How Ligase Contributes To The Process of DNA Replication

Ligase binds together okazaki fragments

Hemoglobin, myoglobin and the Bohr Effect

Lower pH will cause hemoglobin to deliver more oxygen - low pH caused by increase in CO2, thus body needs more oxygen (as pH decreases, H+ ions bind to hemoglobin AAs, and hemoglobin is less attracted to O2, so it releases it more) - Myoglobin holds onto its oxygen in the tissue because it is not influenced by the Bohr effect (found mainly in tissues/muscles) - Myoglobin has higher affinity for O2 than Hb, sucks O2 into muscles

Name one enzyme that is produced by cells transformed with the lux plasmid that is not produced by the cells transformed with the pUC18 control.

Luciferase A

Meiosis I & II

MI: - Interphase I (46 to 92 chromosomes), Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Cytokinesis (92 to 46 chromosomes each) MII: - Interkinesis: longer for females, eggs freeze selves until fertilization & ovulation, for sperm it is short & process goes directly into meiosis II (46 chromosomes each) - Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II, Cytokinesis (results in 4 haploid gametes, 46 to 23 each)

*Intermediate Filaments

Made up of differing proteins including keratin, neurofilaments and lamins - they play critical roles in maintaining cell shape, more resilient than the other two varieties - makes up outer layer of skin, nails and cornea of eye

*Transposons & their effects

Make up 45% of the Human Genome, can move from one location to another w the aid of an enzyme - transposon movement can lead to mutations in genes, changing phenotypes - if inserted in middle of a functional gene, can interrupt normal gene function - if inserted into regulatory element, can alter gene expression - account for multiple copies of genes & resulting genetic diversity provides raw material for natural selection

Of all the mutations that occur in a population, why do only a small fraction become widespread among the population's members?

Many mutations occur in somatic cells that do not produce gametes, therefore the mutations are lost when the organism dies. Of the mutations that occur in gamete producing cells, they usually are not inherited because they do not increase the organism's reproductive success.

If the progenitor cell of a gamete has 12 pairs of chromosomes during G1 of interphase, how many chromosomes will the following cells have? - a daughter cell immediately following cytokinesis 2 of meiosis

Meiosis yield haploid cell-- in each daughter cell of meiosis II = 12 chromosomes

Explain the experiment conducted by Meselson and Stahl. How did the results of their experiment demonstrate the semiconservative model of DNA replication was the accurate model?

Meselson and Stahl tested the hypothesis of DNA replication - After two replication cycles, two bands of DNA were seen, one of heavy density and one of light density - This supported the semi-conservative replication model because of the appearance of both densities

Micro & Macroevolution

Micro: a change in allele frequencies in a population over generations Macro: formation of a new species

*Factors that cause changes in the gene pool of a population

Microevolution - Allele frequencies in a population may change due to gene flow, genetic drift, natural selection and mutation

Anaphase

Microtubules/Spindles begin to shorten while centrosomes move further apart - Sister chromatids/tetrads begin to separate at the centroMERE (where they are attached) - One set of chromosomes is pulled to one side & other is pulled to opposite side

Growth Factor

Molecules secreted by other cells - they bind to receptors & send signals that lead to cell growth/division

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Most organisms, including humans, carry out fermentation using a chemical reaction that converts pyruvic acid to lactic acid - pyruvic acid + NADH makes Lactic acid + NAD+

Structure of Amino Acid

NCC in center is known as backbone & is defining feature of AA, backbones are linked together in a linear chain - oxygen is negatively charged as a result of -OH group giving up an H - H, C, N, O - Ex: With 20 AA, how many dif combos are there for a protein thats 3 AA long (20^3 = 8000)

Facilitated Diffusion

Movement of molecules across a membrane following the [ ] gradient and using a selective protein channel - Ex: ions (H+, K+, Cl-) & (H2O) osmosis - leak protein/channel: potassium leak channels, or aquaporins (osmosis) - gated channel: only open during certain times when needed

Simple Diffusion

Movement of molecules directly across a membrane following the [ ] gradient - ex: small, NP subs (CO2, O2, & steroids which are lipid like)

Osmosis

Movement of water from a region of high [ ] to a region of low [ ] through a selectively permeable membrane - in dynamic equilibrium, molecules are in motion but there is no net change in [ ] - if solutions are = in their solute [ ], they are isotonic to each other

How is mutation a random process, but natural selection not?

Mutations occur when a gene is replicated incorrectly and cause changes in the organisms' genotype and/or phenotype. Natural selection arises from mutations but is not random. Natural selection ensures that the organisms with traits better adapted for the environment survive to reproduce more often than those with traits that hinder their survival.

Glycolysis High Energy Electron Carriers

NADH & FADH2 (High Energy Electron Carriers) took these electrons to ETC to be turned into ATP - the final electron acceptor was oxygen - if there is no oxygen, then there is no place for electrons to go, even small amount of ATP made by glycolysis will stop

Amino

NH2 - hydrophilic

*Calculations of biomass, GPP and NPP

NPP = GPP - Ra - only about 10% of that NPP is turned into biomass for the subsequent consumer of the plants - NPP: chem energy available to consumers in ecosystem (half of GPP) - GPP: amount of energy converted to chem energy of organic molecules/unit of time - Ra: energy used by autotrophs in CR

*Why haven't penguins (birds) evolved gills by natural selection yet (since it would be very convenient)?

Natural selection is random - One penguin could have it as a mutation and if its hereditary and helps them survive the population would start to get it - But if gills aren't the optimal way for survival, the population will not receive them

Inputs and AP Generation

Neurons communicate with each other at the synapse (chemical interaction) - Electrical signal causes Ca+2 channels to release Ca+2 into the signaling neuron - Increase in Ca+2 causes vesicles inside signaling neuron to carry neurotransmitters to axon terminals where they're released in the synapse - Neurotransmitters bind to neuroreceptors in receiving cell - Signal (action potential) is passed on to next neuron/muscle/gland Eventually few neurotransmitters will be released, meaning binding will be too small to pass on signal bc signal weakens - or inhibitory neurotransmitters are released which block the signal from continuing

How to analyze sedimentary rock strata & potential fossils/common ancestry

New layers of sediment cover older ones & compress them into superimposed layers of rock called STRATA - fossils in a stratum give a look into some organisms that populated earth at the time that layer formed - the older the stratum, the more dissimilar its fossils were to current life forms - from one layer to next, some new species appeared while other disappeared - Sedimentary rock has younger layers on top of older layers - Used carbon to date rocks

Explain the effect that point mutations and frame-shift mutations can have on gene products in nonsense mutations

Nonsense Mutation: a point mutation in a sequence of DNA that results in a premature stop codon - For nonsense mutations the gene product is effected due to early stop codon

Types of Animal Behaviors: Fixed Pattern Action

Not reflexes, nor conscious decisions, Innate movements independent of environment - Ex: Goose egg-rolling, Dogs walking in circles before laying down (When no grass is there)

O2 and CO2 transport in blood

O2 enters blood thru lungs & CO2 is expelled out of blood thru lungs O2 is carried to cells, CO2 is carried away

Types of Animal Behaviors: Mating Signals/Courtship

Olfactory, visual, auditory, mechanical signals used to initiate mating - Ex: Peacock displays and firefly lights

From your viewing of the icefish video, which of the following is the best explanation of the evolution of the anti-freeze gene?

One gene was duplicated, which allowed it to acquire new mutations which resulted in new functions.

Explain the transformation experiment conducted by Frederick Griffith. What did the results of the experiment suggest?

One of the first experiments showing that bacteria can get DNA through a process called transformation - Griffith used 2 strains of of streptococcus pneumoniae (r and s), r being the harmless and s being pathogenic and injecting the bacteria into mice - The results of the experiment was that the mouse injected with the living s strain died, the mouse injected with living r cells was healthy/alive - The mouse injected with heat-killed s cells was healthy but the mouse injected with a mixture of heat-killed s cells and living r cells died

How structure of H2O molecules accounts for dissociation & how it is useful for living systems

One of the hydrogen nuclei leaves its electron behind with the oxygen atom to become a hydrogen ion, while the oxygen and other hydrogen atoms become a hydroxide ion - i.e. H2O can form ions, can spontaneously ionize, concentration of H+ and OH- affects pH

How is sexual reproduction related to gender determination in mammals?

One pair of chromosomes in a human cell is the sex chromosomes - In sexual reproduction, two distinct gametes fuse to form a zygote - the gametes are produced through the process of the meiosis. Each individual gamete only contains one set of chromosomes. So when the male and female gamete fuse, the zygote is diploid, which means it contains two sets of chromosomes - In humans, the sex chromosomes are either X or Y. The female gametes are X only, while the male can have either X or Y - the male sperm cell determines the sex of the individual - if the sperm cell gives an X, the zygote will be a female, if the sperm cell gives a Y, the zygote results in a male

Photosynthesis vs Cellular Respiration

Opposite processes - reactants of CR are products of photosynthesis and vice versa

The major differences in replication between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

P: 1 origin, unidirectional, cytoplasm E: multiple origins @ replication forks, 2 opposing directions, nucleus

Differences in translation/transcription between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

PROKARYOTES: - DNA is circular (1 origin of replication) - 70 S ribosome (30S, 50S subunits) - processes happen in cytoplasm - mRNA is polycistronic (encodes several proteins) - fMet (formylmethionine) as start AA EUKARYOTES: - DNA is linear & big (multiple origins of replication) - 80 S ribosome (40S, 60S subunits) - 40 = 18S rRNA & 33 proteins, 60 = 5, 5.8, 28 S rRNAs & 46 proteins - Transcription: nucleus, Translation: cytoplasm - mRNA is monocistronic (encodes only one protein) - alternative splicing of mRNA happens - Met (Methionine) as start AA

Aerobic

Pathways of CR that require oxygen are aerobic - Krebs Cycle & ETC - in eukaryotes, aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondira, in prokaryotes it occurs in cell membrane

Genetic control of embryogenesis & pattern formation

Patterning of fly embryo isn't caused by embryonic gene, but a maternal mRNA called bicoid - sets up gradients & boundaries of future segments of embryo - analysis of genomes enables us to study evolution at molecular level, DNA evidence can indicate how 2 species are related to another even if their body structures don't offer enough clues Non-mammals utilize external development: easier to study

Types of Animal Behaviors: Dominance Hierarchies

Pecking orders, Acceptance of dominant individuals in a group - Ex: Alpha males and females in a baboon troop

What facet of an organism does natural selection act directly upon?

Phenotypes

The Properties of Lipids

Remove one fatty acid & add a phosphate group - glycerol head is hydrophilic: charged & polar regions - fatty acid tail is hydrophobic: due to H-C chains

Chloroplasts

Photosynthesis takes place inside chloroplasts, which contain membranes called thylakoids (interconnected and arranged in stacks known as grana), pigments are located in thykaloid membranes - thykaloid has light deep into it; chlorophyll absorbs light here which excites e-, then energy goes to calvin cycle (CO2 to sugar) - stroma contains calvin cycle - also has DNA & ribosomes Have so many membranes bc when most pigments absorb light, they lose most of that energy as heat - chloroplasts avoid such losses, the membranes are the key to capturing light energy in form of high energy e-

Phytochromes

Phytochromes: a class of photoreceptor in plants, bacteria and fungi used to detect light - The critical factor responsible for flowering is the length of light and dark periods, which is detected by phytochromes - Leaf pigments which are used by the plant to detect periods of light and darkness - The response of the plant to the relative lengths of light and darkness is called photoperiodism Only the active form of phytochrome (Pfr) is capable of causing flowering, however its action differs in certain types of plants - Plants can be classed as short-day or long-day plants, however the critical factor in determining their activity is night length

Types of Animal Behaviors: Plant Tropisms

Plant movement in response to light, gravity or touch - Ex: Ivy spindles growing around a trellis

Polyadenylation

Polyadenylation is adding many As to the 3' end - increase stability (slowing degradation) - acts as signal to help get mRNA transported out of nucleus

competitive exclusion principle

Predicts that the less efficient competitor will be eliminated locally

How Primase Contributes To The Process of DNA Replication

Primase creates free 3' ends for polymerase to attach to and synthesize to - works by synthesizing short RNA sequences that are complementary to a single-stranded piece of DNA, which serves as its template - critical that primers are synthesized by primase before DNA replication can occur

Bicoid

Protein that turns on hunchback gene - high hunchback on anterior decreases gene expression, medium levels turn on Krupple, low levels dont activate Krupple - determines middle of embryo, set up body segmentations - segments switch on Hox Genes & differentiate

G2 checkpoint

Proteins like kinases and cyclins check to make sure DNA isn't damaged, if DNA is good MPF (mitosis promoting factor) is made which moves cell into mitosis - find specialized molecules reading newly formed DNA and delaying the cell cycle if there are strand breaks or wrong nucleotides incorporated during G2/M checkpoint

Hydroxyl

R -OH - polar due to EN oxygen, forms H bonds w water, helping dissolve compounds such as sugar - hydrophilic: increased solubility of organic cmpds in H2O

How does RNA polymerase identify where to begin transcription of a gene?

RNA polymerase II looks for a promoter region that is upstream of the actual genes and once it binds to the DNA, it can begin transcription

Hormone Receptors and Structures

Receptors: on or in a cell, a specific protein to whose shape fits that of a specific molecular messenger, such as a hormone - A small area on the dendrite that receives the signal from the other neuron - target cells have receptors that the hormone fits into, like a key - For example, a male sex hormone would only fit receptors in cells in the male sex organ and would have no effect on other cells

Antibodies

Recognize specific portion of pathogen & tag it for removal - produced & secreted by B Cells - Antigen: part of pathogen that elicits immune response, shape is important - Clonal selection: diversity (millions of dif B cells exist in small #s), antigen recognition causes proliferation of a specific B cells (clones) Genetics help immune cells retain "memory" - dif DNA excision & recombo events during mitosis make B cells genetically different - allows possibly millions of different antibodies to be produced

Types of Animal Behaviors: Imprinting

Recognizing members of own species within a critical period early in life - Ex: Turkey chicks following mother

What factor is necessary for the formation of a new species?

Reduction or lack of gene flow

Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane

Regulates what enters/leaves cell & protects/supports cell - made of double layered lipid bilayer

How Vestigial Anatomical Structures Supports The Evolutionary Theory

Remnants of features that served a function in the organism's ancestors - ex: skeletons of snakes remain vestiges of the pelvis & leg bones of walking ancestors, tailbones, appendix - would not see these structures if these organisms had origins separate from those of other vertebrate animals

*Transpiration & turgor pressure

Root pressure draws H2O into plant, plants then use cohesion to make a "chain" of water in xylem - chain moves up plant until nowhere else to go, and water transpires through the leaves

What are the usual numbers of bonds/charges and biological utility of S, P, O, N, C, H, along with Ca, K, Na, & Cl

S: -2, 2 bonds - minor constituent of fats, body fluids, and skeletal minerals; key component in most proteins P: -3, 5 bonds - key component of biological molecules such as DNA and RNA; component of bones, and teeth, and other compounds O: -2, 2 bonds - vital role in the breathing processes and in the metabolism of the living organisms N: -3, 3 bonds - key component of proteins C: +4, 4 bonds - key to life and by definition is present in all organic compounds H: +1, 1 bond - makes up two of the three atoms in water and water is absolutely essential to life; present in all organic compounds Ca: +2, 2 bonds - forms part of cell walls and bones; important for blood clotting; involved in cell signaling K: +1, 1 bond - essential for both animals and plants; is the major cation in intracellular fluids; essential for nerve and heart function Na: +1, 1 bond - human diet must contain some sodium; main extracellular cation in animals; important for nerve function in animals Cl: -1, 1 bond - Chlorine as chloride (Cl-) is essential for mammals and plants

Charles Lyell's Contribution to Natural Selection

Same geologic processes are operating today as in the past at the same rate - physical evidence did not support the traditional view that Earth was only a few 1000 yrs old

Homologous

Same origin

Explain what happens during crossing over and when it occurs in meiosis

Sections of DNA move between homologous chromosomes and allows for independent assortment - Independent assortment states that genes are inherited independently of one another - For meiosis to occur, the chromosomes contributed by each of the organism's parents are duplicated to form sister chromatids - During meiosis I, the sister chromatids of one parent match up with the corresponding sister chromatids of the other parent (synapsis), or its homologous non-sister chromosome, along the metaphase plate, Crossing over then occurs - At a point called a chiasma, homologous chromosomes trade genetic information so that each chromosome is complete but has different information - This random exchange of information is what allows for unique gametes to form and genetic recombination to occur.

Lysosomes

Small organelles filled with enzymes that function as the cell's cleanup crew, perform vital function of removing "junk" that might otherwise accumulate and clutter up the cell - includes breakdown/recycling of lipids, carbs, and proteins into small molecules that can be used by the rest of the cell - Ex: Tay Sachs is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder, codes for enzymes in lysosomes, overaccumulation of them in brain results in death

If the breaking of bonds requires an input of energy, how is it possible that some chemical reactions (like the burning of gasoline) can release energy into the environment?

Some chemical reactions release energy into the environment because we are breaking the chemical bonds within the substance and rearranging them into more stable bonds - this change results in the formation of different products, such as carbon dioxide and water in the case of combustion, and a release of energy - It takes energy in order to release energy

Hybrid Breakdown

Some first-generation hybrids are viable and fertile, but when they mate with another species or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile - Postzygotic

Temporal Isolation

Species that breed at different times of the day, different seasons, or different years cannot mix their gametes - Prezygotic

Outgroup

Species that share least amount of similar traits

Ecology

Study of organisms and their interactions w the environment

DPIP

Takes role of NADP+, accepts H+ and changes from blue and is reduced to clear (as it picks up e-) - e- comes from ETC, photons hit photosystems w chlorphyll and e- get excited & travel down chain and end up NADP+, replace this w/ DPIP and e- convert DPIP color - e- binds to NADP+ and make NADPH - measure w/ spectrophotometer, the faster it changes color, the faster photosynthesis occurs - spectrophotometer measures transmittance (100% transmittance with pure H2O, has low absorbance) 1. Oxidized DPIP: dark color w/ high absorbance & low % transmittance 2. Shine light, changes to green: becomes more reduced & picking up e- from chlorophyll, % transmittance goes up, more photosynthesis is happening

Relationship b/n Taxonomy & Phylogeny

Taxonomy: naming & grouping of organisms Phylogeny: the evolutionary history/relationships of a species/group of species

If you continued with many more generations in Test 1 — the "Predators Prefer Blue Fish" —do you think the blue allele would eventually be eliminated?

The blue fish is most likely going to be eliminated since the frequency of surviving blue fish diminished. If we continue with more generations, the blue fish would eventually have difficulty of passing on unfavorable alleles to its offsprings. Green fish however, may increase in number, therefore balancing the number of blue alleles in the gene pool.

*Diagram the "Central Dogma" of molecular genetics. How does it allow for DNA to serve as both the heritable molecule and code for protein sequence?

The central dogma of molecular genetics allows for DNA to serve as both the heritable molecule and code for protein sequence - DNA portion of the central dogma is the heritable molecule - RNA making the protein is the code for the protein sequence protein - Step 1: DNA to Pre mRNA - Step 2: Pre mRNA to mRNA (Noncoding sequences are removed from a newly synthesized RNA molecule) - Step 3: mRNA to Protein

where is chlorophyll found

The chlorophyll molecules sit inside each thylakoid membrane and capture light from the sun. The stroma and the stacks of thylakoid membranes are found inside of the inner membrane.

outer membrane of chloroplasts

The contents of a chloroplast are partitioned from the cytosol by an envelope consisting of two membranes. The outer membrane is permeable to small organic molecules allowing for transport into and out of the cell.

Why was it necessary to include the first round without predation (#1) in each trial?

The control round determined the percentage of each color in the population of fish without any external factors, so changes could be easily recorded and compared.

Apoptosis

The controlled pattern of programmed cell death - if cells that are supposed to die & dont, there is more uncontrolled cell growth = more cancer Cause of many cancers: genes involved in normal cell growth have mutations causing them to be overactive - overexpression of oncogenes & underexpression of tumor suppressor genes

In experiments that use DPIP to measure photosynthesis in plants, what is measured by the spectrophotometer?

The decrease in absorption of the sample with time.

Explain why the prokaryote/eukaryote dividing line represents a fundamental division among organisms

The dividing line represents a major difference in the complexity that can arise between prokaryotes and eukaryotes - the advantage of a nucleus and membrane bound organelles is that the cell can specialize and thus contribute to the betterment of a multicellular being

*Explain why we can infer that the Universal Common Ancestor of all life on earth was HETEROTROPHIC

The earliest organisms (prokaryotes) dwelt in harsh conditions of early Earth, and chloroplasts were unable to exist - Prokaryotes, without a chloroplast are not able to make their own food, have to "hunt" for food

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

The endoplasmic reticulum is an extensive network of membranous tubules and sacs that serve a variety of functions in plant and animal cells. Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum include: Synthesis of lipids Metabolism of carbohydrates Detoxification of drugs and poisons Making secretory proteins Manufacturing membranes

Fluid Mosaic Model & functions of the proteins that are embedded in membrane

The fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane is like a gatekeeper allowing only certain things in and out - the hydrophilic outer layer allows hydrophilic nonpolar molecules to easily dissolve and pass through; however certain ions and polar molecules can quickly obtain passage through transport proteins that are embedded in the membrane - Channel proteins work like a tunnel, carrier proteins change shape, and transport proteins only move certain substances

Reduced Hybrid Viability

The genes of different parent species may interact in ways that impair the hybrid's development or survival in its environment - Postzygotic

Allergies and vaccinations

The immune system remembers its invaders - response to a 2nd invasion is: faster, stronger (better binding), with greater #'s - antibodies for previous antigen stay in body, fundamental basis behind vaccines and allergies

one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis

The info needed to encode for & produce one polypeptide is what defines a gene - not necessarily true

How does replication of the leading strand differ from replication of the lagging strand? Why can't both strands of DNA be replicated in the same fashion?

The lagging strand needs to be replicated in the opposite direction of the way the replication fork is proceeding - DNA polymerase can proceed only 5' to 3', so the leading (top) and lagging (bottom) strands are replicated differently Helicase unwinds double strand-leading replicated, continuous strand in the 5' 3' direction - lagging replicates in segments (discontinuous), primase (type of RNA polymerase) makes a short RNA primer, and forms an okazaki fragment

How is RNA degradation an important regulatory mechanism of the cell?

The longer an mRNA molecule is stable, the more protein it can make - many ways of turning off gene expression arent necessarily at transcriptional level, but at mRNA-degradation level

Pollution of aquatic environments

The main source of Aquatic pollution include Industrial waste, Mining activities, Sewage and waste water, Marine dumping, Burning of fossil fuels, Accidental Oil leakage, Global warming, Atmospheric deposition, Urban development etc.

Max Value

The max score represents the overall quality of query sequence and database sequence segment alignment, predicting and taking into account the insertions and deletions that are associated with evolutionary adaptations- the higher the max score, the closer the alignment.

Why C4 and CAM plants are typically found in hot climates

The minimize photorespiration

In humans, red-green color blindness is a sex-linked recessive trait. If a man and a woman produce a color-blind son, which of the following must be true?

The mother carries the allele for color blindness.

How structure of H2O molecules accounts for adhesion & how it is useful for living systems

The polarity of water causes it to be attracted to other polar molecules as well - adheres to anything it can form H bonds with - responsible for capillary action & transpiration - counters downward pull of gravity

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation

The process of H+ Movement & ATP formation in photosynthesis enables light-dependent e- transport to produce NADPH (at end of ETC), and ATP - Noncyclic bc it makes ATP from ADP, has starting and ending point - e- on PS II travel and lose energy, get excited again at PS I and leave chain, end up on NADPH

How does the structure of the cytoskeleton contribute to its function?

The structure of the cytoskeleton not only provides strength throughout the cell, but also connects organelles, reconfigures itself so that the organelles can perform their functions and works together with motor proteins to allow cell movement and shape shifting

Extracellular Matrix

The substance in which animal tissue cells are embedded, consisting of protein and polysaccharides - support & anchorage for shape of cells, recognizes and determines cells dynamic and behavior

What is important about the work done on DNA by Erwin Chargaff? (Chargaff's Rules)

The work done by Erwin Chargaff was important because he demonstrated 2 major rules of DNA composition 1. All species have different amounts of adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine 2. In every species, the amount of adenine is equal to the amount of thymine and the amount of cytosine is equal to the amount of guanine

*In eukaryotic cells, chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis, and mitochondria are the site of aerobic cellular respiration. How are bacteria able to carry out photosynthesis and aerobic cellular respiration without these organelles?

They have the internal membranes necessary to complete these tasks

If you found the same gene in all organisms you test, what does this suggest about the evolution of this gene in the history of life on earth?

This suggests that the gene has probably not evolved in the history of life on earth and probably has been present for many generations.

Microfilaments

Threadlike networks made up of a protein called actin - microfilament assembly and disassembly is responsible for the cytoplasmic movements that allow cells, such as amoebas, to crawl along surfaces - a variety of inherited diseases are accompanied by cytoskeletal malfunctions, including spastic paraplegias, spinocerebellar ataxias, and mental retardation - needs axons, dendrites, etc; w/o them it cannot communicate w other neurons = death of cell

Action Potentials

Threshold: - 55, if charge does not meet threshold/get above threshold, then no signal is generated - if it meets threshold, then an action potential/signal is generated Resting Potential: -70 Depolarization: Na+, charges flipping generates action potential, depolarization happens first which causes the action potential Repolarization: K+ Hyperpolarization/Undershoot: returns to resting

Explain why the occurrence of horizontal gene transfer has led to the suggestion that the history of life should be represented by a ring rather than a tree.

Through horizontal gene transfer, DNA is being transferred from one prokaryotic organism to another. This increases genetic diversity faster because DNA transfers within a generation rather than having to wait from one generation to the next. This evolutionary relationship can only be depicted by a ring, not a tree.

Photorespriation

To be avoided, rubisco gets "confused" - if there is a higher amount of O2, fixes O2 instead - takes energy, have to kick off CO2 and make no sugar, wasting energy - too much O2 kills plants

Skin Cancer Associated W/ Overproduction Of EGFR

Treatment w antibodies against extracellular portion of EGFR has been successful - antibody therapy interferes w/ cell signaling pathway bc antibody competes with/prevents ligand binding to EGFR, inhibits cell cycle progression - antibody therapy interferes w/ cell signaling pathway bc receptor activation is inhibited, blocks cell division

Types of Animal Behaviors: Altruistic Behavior

Unselfish behavior that benefits other organisms in a group - Ex: A ground squirrel giving warning calls of a predator

Does the use of DNA sequences in the study of evolutionary relationships mean that other characteristics are unimportant in such studies?

Using DNA sequences in the study of evolutionary relationships does not mean that other characteristics are unimportant. While DNA is a very accurate representation of evolution, investigating physical characteristics can give you additional information, such as whether the species are related homologously or analogously.

Turgid Cell

Water enters by osmosis, vacuole swells & pushes against cell wall - higher water potential outside cell, so water goes in

Flaccid Cell

Water lost from cell, vacuole shrinks & cell loses shape - higher H2O potential inside cell, so H2O goes out

Which sample is using the most oxygen? A. The beans soaked in plain water. B. The beans soaked in salt solution. C. The acrylic beads. D. The non-germinating beans.

Whichever had the largest volume change A. The beans soaked in plain water.

Limits on carrying capacity

While food and water supply, habitat space, and competition with other species are some of the limiting factors affecting the carrying capacity of a given environment, in human populations, other variables such as sanitation, diseases, and medical care are also at play

Explain the relationship between the promoter, enhancers, and transcription factors

Within this DNA sequence, proteins known as transcription factors bind to the enhancer and increase the activity of the promoter - Transcription factors increase chances of RNA being transcribed, helps the promoters and enhancers do their job

Effects of Insulin

Without insulin, the sugar would be present in the bloodstream, but the cells would be unable to take it in. A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues - uptakes blood glucose - secreted by pancreas: regulates blood sugar levels by allowing cells to take in sugar - Participates in neuronal development and learning and memory - Inhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

Explain the experiment conducted by Hershey and Chase. How did the results of their experiment demonstrate that DNA was the genetic material of bacteriophages?

Worked with bacteriophages and by proving that DNA was a molecule of heredity by tagging phage DNA and protein with radioactive atoms and tracking the transmission of the radioactivity to infected bacteria - The results were that the phage DNA entered the cell but the phage protein didn't which showed that DNA is a genetic information storage molecule - Transduction of bacteria by phages uses DNA, not proteins

Alcoholic Fermentation

Yeast & few other microorganisms use this method to produce ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide - this process is used to produce alcoholic beverages and causes bread dough to rise - pyruvic acid + NADH makes Alcohol + CO2 + NAD+

How to determine the pH of a solution if given the concentration of hydronium or hydroxide ions

[H+] = 1 x 10^-14/[OH-] [OH-] = 1 x 10^-14/[H+]

Tertiary Protein Structure

bends itself to become stable due to sulfide bridges and hydrogen bonds between R groups - what makes it fold properly - 3D folded structure, made up of secondary structure - formed from interactions b/n R groups - H bonds b/n polar AA, ionic bonds, cov bonds b/n sulfur containing AA, hydrophobic interactions b/n NP AA

Catabolic Rxns

break down glucose, fatty acids, and proteins for use as an energy source - major pathway of catabolism is cellular respiration (glucose & other molecules break down in presence of oxygen to CO2 & water) - energy that was stored in organic molecules becomes available to do work of cell, such as ciliary beating or membrane transport

*Which of the following molecules would be soluble in water? A. polysaccharide B. carbohydrate C. D.

carbohydrate -OH more like water

How is active transport possible, since it contradicts the tendencies of the second law of thermodynamics?

energy (from ATP) moves matter from low to high concentration, decreasing entropy in low concentration area

Endosymbiosis

evolution of eukaryotic cells began with endosymbiotic relationships with prokaryotes

disruptive selection

occurs when conditions favor individuals at both extremes of a phenotypic range over individuals with intermediate phenotypes - favors small beaks & large beaks, medium beaks arent efficient at cracking either type of seed and have lower relative fitness - bell curve splits, 2 different species evolve

directional selection

occurs when conditions favor individuals exhibiting one extreme of a phenotypic range, thereby shifting a population's frequency curve for the phenotypic character in one direction or the other - happens when a pops environment changes/when members migrate to a new habitat - bell shape moves back and forth, changes over and over

What is the relationship between osmosis and tonicity?

osmosis into cell-hypotonicity (more water outside cell at first) osmosis out of cell-hypertonicity (more water inside cell at first)

Chromosome Dosage Compensation

process by which organisms equalize the expression of genes between members of different biological sexes - across species, different sexes are often characterized by different types and numbers of sex chromosomes.

biological magnification

process by which pollutants become more concentrated in successive trophic levels of a food web - increasing concentration of a harmful substance in organisms at higher trophic levels in a food chain or food web

*Briefly diagram the double helix structure of DNA. Include: 1. At least one A,T,C,G per strand. 2. Labeled phosphates, deoxyribose, phosphodiester bonds, and the correct number of hydrogen bonds per base pair. 3. Make sure to show the antiparallel orientation of both strands.

provided x-ray diffraction data, developed by Franklin, to develop their "double helix" model of DNA and helped to prove that genes are located in chromosomes

*Diagram a complete eukaryotic translation unit. Include the location (A, P, or E site) of incoming tRNA molecules, mRNA, incoming amino acids, the growing polypeptide chain, uncharged tRNA molecules & release factors as appropriate

ribosome- site of protein synthesis a site- where amino acids enter the ribosome p site- where the growing polypeptide is kept e site- where empty tRNA molecules leave tRNA- responsible for bringing amino acids to the ribosomes mRNA- carries the genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code polypeptide- help make up proteins by bonding numerous amino acids together

Age structure pyramids

show the relative number of individuals of each age in a population and can be used to predict and explain many demographic patterns

granna

stacks of thylakoids. Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis takes place here.

Genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes - a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

Gene Mapping

the methods used to identify the locus of a gene and the distances between genes - Gene mapping can also describe the distances between different sites within a gene - The essence of all genome mapping is to place a collection of molecular markers onto their respective positions on the genome

Free energy

the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temp & pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell

Myelination

the process by which axons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron - Insulating layer that forms around nerves, allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly - makes up outer covering of Schwann cell - Nodes of ranvier: Gaps between myelin sheaths on axon that facilitates rapid nerve impulses

Phenotype

the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Parsimony Principle

the simplest explanation is generally correct

Systematics

the study and classification of biodiversity

Why doesn't evolution lead to a population of identical individuals?

there will always be mutations - If there weren't and all the population was equipped for something but the means for prime survival shifted, everyone would die - Mutations help keep the population alive

Habitat Isolation

two species that occupy different habitats within the same area may encounter each other rarely, if at all, even though they are not isolated by obvious physical barriers, such as mountain ranges - Prezygotic

Microarrays

used to detect the expression of thousands of genes at the same time. DNA microarrays are microscope slides that are printed with thousands of tiny spots in defined positions, with each spot containing a known DNA sequence or gene

Certain corals have evolved different version of genes that allow them to be better adapted to living at increased ocean temperatures. These different versions are called...

warm pool alleles

Carbonyl (ketone)

within carbon skeleton - fructose - hydrophilic

Standard Deviation

x̄: sample mean (average) n: sample size (amount of individuals objects being measured) s: sample standard deviation (sample based estimate of standard deviation of population) xi: individual measurements - if xi - x̄ is close, small #, so small variation

How Artificial Selection Supports The Evolutionary Theory

Allows selection of specific traits to appear in species - man made evolution through a lab shows change

Explain how the work done by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins helped inform Watson and Crick's model of the structure of DNA.

- proved that genes are located on chromosomes • helped narrow search for genetic material to either DNA or protein • both found in chromosomes but previously people thought proteins b/c little was known about nucleic acids • physical and chemical properties of nucleic acids seemed too uniform to account for all the genetic variation • DNA wraps around protein

Role of each trophic level in a food chain

- trace energy, what happens to energy/biomass as it passed thru trophic levels Biomass decreases with each trophic level, there is always more biomass in lower trophic levels than in higher ones - Because biomass decreases with each trophic level, there are always more autotrophs than herbivores in a healthy food web

Why there is no such thing as evolution towards perfection

1) selection can act only on existing variations: favors fittest phenotypes, may not be ideal traits 2) evolution is limited by historical constraints: adapts existing structures to new situations 3) adaptations are often compromises: structural reinforcement has been compromised for agility - Natural selection is the simple result of variation, differential reproduction, and heredity - there would never be a perfect species because different parts of the world are so different - If everyone was "perfect", they could not be all equipped to handle each type of environmental change as best as should be able to

Sulfhydryl

2 of these groups can react, forming crosslink to help stabilize protein structure - hydrophilic (like cysteine, acts like O bonded w H, acts polar)

Theory of Natural Selection & the 4 ideas it is based on

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive & reproduce at higher rates than do other individuals because of those traits - individuals do not evolve, the pop does - Four Ideas: 1) Variation- Heritable differences that exist in every population are the basis for natural selection 2) Adaptation- a trait that helps an organism survive and reproduce 3) Overpopulation- most populations have more offspring each year than local resources can support leading to a struggle for resources 4) Descent with Modification- individuals possessing traits well suited for the struggle for local resources will contribute more offspring to the next generation

Gradualism

A proposed explanation in evolutionary biology stating that new species arise from the result of slight modifications (mutations and resulting phenotypic changes) over many generations. - species diverge from one another more slowly/ steadily over time

A vertebrate muscle tissue culture was provided with a constant excess supply of glucose under anaerobic conditions starting at time zero. The amount of pyruvic acid was measured. The solid line in the graph above represents the pyruvic acid present in moles per liter as time progressed. The dotted line represents a second culture under the same conditions, except that substance X was added, also at time zero. The decreases of pyruvic acid from points A to B and again from C to D, are a result of the metabolism and decrease of what molecule? A. NADH B. ADP C. ATP D. NAD+

A. NADH

Light Independent Reactions

AKA Calvin Cycle, plants use energy that ATP and NADPH contain to build stable high-energy carbohydrate compounds that can be stored for a long time - uses rubisco - The Calvin Cycle uses 6 molecules of CO2 to produce a single 6-carbon sugar molecule - technically makes two 3-carbon sugars first, that later get turned into glucose - this "fixing" of carbon uses 18 ATP molecules & 12 NADPH molecules as energy (this energy came from earlier light dependent rxns)

*How AA are associated & disassociated from tRNA molecules

1. A tRNA carrying the next amino acid in the chain binds to the ribosomal A site by forming base pairs with the mRNA codon positioned there, the P and A site now contain adjacent bound tRNAs 2: the carboxyl end of the polypeptide chain is released from the tRNA at the P site and joined to the free amino group of the amino acid linked to the tRNA at the A site, forming a new peptide bond. This reaction is catalyzed by a pepidyl tranferase contained in the large ribosomal subunit 3. the large subunit moves relative to the mRNA held by the small subunit, shifting the acceptor stems of the two tRNAs to the E and P sites of the large subunit 4. Another series of conformation changes moves the small subunit and its bound mRNA exactly three nucleotides, ejecting the spent tRNA from the E site and resetting the ribosome so it is ready to receive the next aminoacyl-tRNA

Innate & adaptive immune responses

1. Physical barriers: skin & mucous membranes, gastric juices 2. Innate: Inflammatory response (mast cells & histamine), antimicrobial/complement proteins, interferons, macrophages & phagocytosis and other cells 3. Adaptive: Mediated by B&T cell lymphocytes - uses lymphatic system (lymph which is fluid of system, organs) - diversity, specificity, memory, distinguishes b/n self and nonself (through MHC which makes molecular fingerprint unique to each individual, also presents antigens to T Cells) - 3 cell types: B cells make antibodies, Killer Cytotoxic T cell kills infected cells, Helper T cell coordinates response - Helper T cells activated by antigen-presenting cell (macrophage), B cell or activated killer T cell: when activated, cytokines (chem signals) released causing clonal proliferation making more helper T through mitosis AND B/T cells stimulated and copy selves to attck bacteria

Types of interactions among populations in a community

1. Predator-Prey 2. Interspecific Comp 3. Symbioses - parasitism: parasite obtains nourishment from host - commensalism: one member benefits, the other is neutral - mutualism: interactions b/n species benefit both

Advantages of Glycolysis

1. Produces ATP fast, advantage when energy demands of cell suddenly increase 2. Does not require oxygen, can quickly supply energy to cells when O2 is unavailable 3. Makes energy for sprinting, other steps (Krebs Cycle & ETC) would be needed for longer distance (aerobic) run

Relationships BN substrate [ ], pH, temp, time & enzyme activity

1. Substrate [ ] 2. pH: alkalinity/acidity outside optimal range for enzyme effects conformational changes in enzyme's active site - pH range that supports optimal enzyme activity is associated w/ natural environment - ionization state of R groups of AA that make up protein are effected by pH 3. Temp: cause rise in average KE - increase of 10 degrees C doubles rate of most chem rxns - protein becomes denatured when tertiary structure is altered so it becomes permanently inactive

*Differences in Structure/Function among types of intercellular junctions found in cells

1. Tight Junctions: produce a water-tight seal by binding proteins close together 2. Gap Junctions: small molecules pass between cells 3. Desmosomes: hold cells together like nails (only in animal cells for skin) 4. Plasmodesmata: lets cytosol (with nutrients/organelles) pass between cells (only in plant roots)

Differences between transformation, transduction, & conjugation, as methods of horizontal transfer of genetic info among bacteria

1. Transformation: genetic material is released into the environment when a bacterial cell dies. This material then binds to a living bacterial cell, which can take it up 2. Transduction: occurs when a virus infects a bacterium and then transfers bacterial genetic material from that bacterium to another 3. Conjugation: involves a direct physical interaction between two bacterial cells - one bacterium acts as a donor and transfers genetic material to a recipient cell

Suppose that nondisjunction of the X chromosome happens in a female once during meiosis I. What kinds of offspring can be produced from these oocytes if they get fertilized by normally produced sperm? (select all that could occur)

1. XXX 2. Turner's syndrome (XO) 3. Normal male (46, XY) 4. Normal female (46, XX) 5. Klinefelter's syndrome (XXY)

***

1. Zygote: invaginate & makes 3 germ cell layers (ectoderm, mesoderm & endoderm) 2. Grows to blastula (has hollow space when growing called blastocoel) 3. Initial invaginating tube of gastrulation that will form gut is the archenteron - gastrulation separates phyla of organisms (based on development of digestive system) 4. Cell cleavage: tube forms digestive system

G Proteins, Phospholipase C Pathways

1. a hormone or neurotransmitter binds to a surface receptor which creates a conformational (shape) change with the receptor itself 2. the conformational changes causes the α subunit of the G protein to detach (disassociate) 3. the α subunit of the G protein interacts with the membrane bound enzyme called phospholipase C; this activates the enzyme 4. once activated phospholipase C catylizes (breaks down) phospholipids within the cell membrane into two specific molecules: DAG and iP3 5. Dag acts just like cAMP in the adenylyl cyclase mechanism and activates protein kinases, which in turn activates enzymatic pathways 6. iP3 interacts concurrently interacts the smooth ER of the cell and stimulates the release of calcium (Ca²), the calcium then binds with proteins and activates enzymatic pathways 7. DAG and iP3 are the secondary messengers in this system since the elicited the responses within the cell

why mitochondria and chloroplasts are separate from the endomembrane system, and are considered "semi-autonomous" organelles

1. double membrane 2. move/change shape/divide on their own 3. their own ribosomes and DNA and enzymes (like bacteria)

*How do large molecules get taken in to or removed from the cell?

1. endocystosis and exocytosis 2. phagocytosis-food/large particle 3. pinocytosis-small molecules (ex. water)

*4 types of intramolecular interactions

1. hydrophobic 2. hydrogen bond 3. di sulfide bond 4. ionic

Atrialnatriuretic peptide (ANP)

1. increase blood volume 2. increased BP 3. sensed by vasoreceptors in atria 4. atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) 5. renin release (INHIBITED) 6. aldosterone from adrenal cortex (INHIBITED)

Where is RNA used?

1. mRNA: transcription & translation (carries genetic info, its production and degradation is tightly regulated) 2. tRNA: translation (brings specific AA to ribosome) 3. rRNA: translation (a structural component of ribosome complex) 4. snRNA: editing of mRNA (a component of splicesomes) 5. primer in replication (later get removed, and filled in by DNA nucleotides) - read strand backwards to form strand 5' to 3' from DNA strand

Examples of external signals that regulate cell division

1. platelet-derived growth factor is released near injuries to heal wounds by letting fibroblast (connective tissue) cells pass the G1 checkpoint 2. anchorage dependence (inhibitor): animal cells must be attached to something (e.g. petri dish) to divide 3. density-dependent inhibition: cultured cells stop dividing once they form a single layer (ECM/extracellular matrix passes inhibition signals between cells)

Why we can't consume ATP directly

ATP is unstable especially in water and is only designed for short term transport

Where do cells get the energy to power active transport?

ATP splits into ADP and a P (phosphorus), the P changes the shape of the pump

Alteration of Structure/Function of Protein Causing Disease/Condition

1. Change in DNA through a change in bases (A, G, C, T or U) 2. Cell uses changed DNA to make resulting new RNA sequence & then makes protein from sequence 3. Codons are translated, 3 nucleotides makes 1 AA - Redundancy in genetic code, 64 combinations: 20 AA (or can result in stop codon) 4. Protein structure is altered on one or many levels (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary), misfoled 5. Structural Change: hydrophobic/philic, disulfide bonds, R-group interactions, hydrogen bonds 6. Function Change: active site conformation, change in shape causes lack of function or subsequent effect on organism, none/shortened protein never forms

Pigments in Plants

1. Chlorophyll a (CH2): make plants green 2. Chlorophyll b (CHO) - both absorb light in blue violet and red regions of visible spectrum, but not in green region - both bad at absorbing, reflect green 3. Accessory Pigments: absorb light @ different wavelengths than chlorophylls - most polar (hydrophilic) to least polar (hydrophobic): chlorophyll b, chlorophyll a, phaeophytin b, phaeophytin a, xanthophylls, carotene - when chlorophyll absorbs light, large fraction of light energy is transferred to e-, these high energy e- make photosynthesis work - yellow/orange/red cartenoids absorb high freq UV light that can damage DNA

Cleavage, Gastrulation & Neurulation

1. Cleavage: Cell cycle goes thru S & M phases - partitions cytoplasm of large fertilized egg into smaller cells called blastomeres - first S1 divisions produce hollow ball of cells (blastula), surrounding blastocoel 2. Gastrulation: Blastula is reorganized into 2/3 layered embryo called gastrula, produces germ layers 3. Neurulation: Cells from dorsal mesoderm form notochord - signaling molecules secreted by these mesodermal cells & other tissues cause ectoderm above notocord to become neural plate - neural plate changes shape and becomes neural tube

Mimicry and coloration

1. Coloration - cryptic: blending coloration, confuses - aposematic: assumes predating coloration, warns 2. Mimicry - Batesian: harmful species mimics nonharmful - Mullerian: 2 or more harmful species mimic predator

Density dependent and independent limiting factors

1. DD: death rate is this if it rises w/ increasing pop density; birth rate is this if it falls w/ increasing pop density 2 DI: birth/death rate that does not change as pop density changes

DNA Wrapping

1. DNA wraps around histones (combined loop of DNA & protein is called nucleosome) 2. Nucleosome packaged into thread, result in fiber called chromatin 3. Chromatin is looped & coiled again 4. Forms chromosomes, can be seen in nucleus of dividing cells - not always present, form when cells DNA needs to separate

Keystone and dominant species

1. Dominant: has greatest abundance/largest biomass and is major influence on presence/distribution of other species 2. Keystone: Large impact on community structure as a result of ecological role, rather than its abundance

Germ Line Cells

1. Ectoderm: will develop into skin & nervous system - neurulation is formation of ectoderm turning into nervous system - notochord separates ecto & meso 2. Mesoderm: develops into muscle and bone - cells w/in mesoderm form notochord 3. Endoderm: develops into stomach & intestines

Photoautotrophic Nutrition

1. Energy Source: light 2. Carbon Source: CO2, HCO3-, or related cmpd 3. Types of organisms: photosynthetic prokaryotes (like cyanobacteria), plants, certain protists (algae)

Photoheterotrophic Nutrition

1. Energy Source: light 2. Carbon Source: organic cmpds 3. Types of organisms: unique to certain aquatic & salt loving prokaryotes (like Rhodobacter, chloroflexus)

Chemoheterotrophic Nutrition

1. Energy Source: organic cmpds 2. Carbon Source: organic cmpds 3. Types of organisms: many prokaryotes (like Clostridium) & protists, fungi, animals, some plants

Exponential/Logistic Growth

1. Exponential: J shaped curve, larger N is the faster the pop grows 2. Logistic: S shaped curve, max increase in pop #'s occurs when N is intermediate in size

Prokaryotic Cell

1. Fimbriae: attachment structures on surface of some prokaryotes 2. Nucleoid: region where cells DNA is located (not enclosed by membrane) 3. Ribsomes: complexes that synthesize proteins 4. Plasma Membrane: membrane enclosing cytoplasm 5. Cell Wall: rigid structure outside plasm & membrane 6. Glycocalyx: outer coating of many prokaryotes, consisting of a capsule/slime layer 7. Flagella: locomotion organelles of some prokaryotes

If a cell has 12 pairs of chromosomes in G1 of interphase, how many chromosomes does it have during each of the following phases of the cell cycle? 1. G2 2. Metaphase 3. Immediately after cytokinesis

1. G2: 24(S phase is when DNA replicates) 2. Metaphase: 24 3. After cytokinesis: 12

*Plant hormones and effects on growth

1. Gibberelin (GA): increases stem internode length, expression induced by phototrophic signals indicating lack of light (stems are spindly/thin bc growth is mainly cell elongation, not division) - activates seed germination by controlling a-amylase (digestive enzyme which breaks down endosperm starch into sugars for growing embryo) 2. Abscisic Acid (ABA): inhibits seed germination - when GA:ABA ratio is high, a-amylase transcription & translation go up & see can germinate (adaptive in deserts bc water is needed to wash ABA out & to nourish plant)

Glycoproteins and Glycolipids

1. Glycoproteins: Identity markers (like blood type) in cellular populations (like your body), immune systems attack glycoproteins in body when they arent yours 2. Glycolipids: helps w communication & signaling

What are the 5 prezygotic reproductive barriers?

1. Habitat isolation 2. Temporal isolation 3. Behavioral isolation 4. Mechanical isolation 5. Gametic isolation

Humoral vs. Cell-Mediated Immune Responses

1. Humoral: Response that eliminates pathogens floating through fluids (outside of cells) - Effector: B Cell, surface antibodies bind & internalize antigens then present antigens to helper T cells which strengthen B cell response - Plasma cell: secrete antibodies that neutralize pathogens - memory 2. Cell Mediated: Killer T cells seek & destroy infected cells - when cells are infected, they present certain molecules (proteins) on their surface, bind to MHCs which "talk" to killer T cells - specificity: unique killer T cell recognizes the molecule - when activated, T cell secretes perforin which lyses infected cell

G1/S checkpoint

1. If cell receives a go ahead signal at G1 checkpoint, cell continues on in cell cycle 2. If cell doesnt receive go ahead signal at G1 checkpoint, cell exits cell cycle and goes into G0 (nondividing state)

How ATP is made in photosynthesis

1. In LD rxns, light strikes chlorophyll containing photosystems, exciting electrons that get transferred through string of proteins called electron transport chain 2. Before they get transferred to NADP+, the high energy electrons move H+ ions across thykaloid membrane 3. H+ ions build up in thykaloid space from splitting of water & from being pumped in from stroma 4. This gradient, the difference in both charge and H+ ion [ ] across the membrane, provides energy to make ATP 5. Powered by gradient, H+ ions pass through ATP synthase & force it to rotate 6. As it rotates, ATP synthase binds ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP

ADH and effects on kidney function

1. Increases H2O permeability in collecting ducts 2. Synthesized by hypothalamus & sent to posterior pituitary 3. Allows collecting ducts of nephron to be more permeable to water, allows body to take up water - increases reabsorption of H2O in kidneys collecting ducts & decreases urine output - allows mammals to regulate blood osmolarity thru hormonal control - effects aquaporins bc ADH makes more available to help suck H2O into tissues and retain water

Cellular induction and determination

1. Induction: signals cause changes in target cells, changes cells gene expression 2. Determination: events leading to observable differentiation of cell; marked by expression of genes for tissue-specific proteins (mRNA)

The Mitochondria

1. Matrix 2. Cristae 3. Inner membrane 4. Outer membrane 5. Intermembrane space 6. Other componets

Cytoskeleton Componets

1. Microfilaments: The smallest component of the cytoskeleton, thin solid rods made of a twisted double chain of actin subunits - maintain cell shape, changes in cell shape - microfilaments and the motor protein myosin interact to contract muscle cells and cytoplasmic streaming, cell motility, and cell division 2. Microtubules: The biggest of the fibers that make up the cytoskeleton, they are hollow rods made of 13 columns of tubulin molecules - maintain cell shape, cell motility (cilia and flagella), chromosome movement in cell division, and serve as tracks for organelle movement, and coordinate direction of cellulose fibers in cell wall formation 3. Intermediate Filaments: Fibrous proteins (belonging to the keratin family of hair and nails) that are supercoiled into thicker cables - maintain cell shape, anchor the nucleus and other organelles, and form the nuclear lamina - the nucleus sits in a cage of intermediate filaments - they are more permanent fixtures of cells, unlike microfilaments and microtubules that are always disassembled and reassembled

Enzymes of digestion

1. Mouth: amylase breaks down starches, lipases active in infants - saliva dissolves and teeth grind food 2. Stomach: HCl and pepsin break down polypeptides - peristalsis churns food bolus 3. Small Intestine: trypsin & chymotrypsin for proteins, lipases, nucleases, amylases too - bile salts emulsify lipids, most absorption occurs here due to high surface area (villi & microvilli)

Photosynthesis High Energy Electrons

1. NADP+ is carrier molecule in plants - NADP+ accepts and holds two high-energy electrons, along with a H+, in this way it is converted into NADPH - the NADPH can then carry the high-energy electrons to chemical reactions elsewhere in the cell

Homeostasis and feedback loops

1. Negative: basis of homeostasis, an organisms metabolic processes are continually readjusted back to their set points - Ex: Blood Glucose Regulation: a) BG goes up, B cells on pancreas detect and release insulin, body cells take up glucose & liver stores some as glycogen, BG returns to normal (90-100 mg/mL) & stimulus for insulin release goes down b) BG goes down, a cells on pancreas (glucagon-releasing cells) detect this & liver breaks down glycogen to release glucose, BGL returns to normal & glucagon release decreases 2. Positive: adjust away from set points and amplify metabolic processes - Ex: Contractions: a) Baby pushes against cervix & it stretches b) Stretching of cervix cause nerve impulses to be sent to brain c) Brain stimulates pituitary to release oxytocin d) Oxytocin causes uterus to contract, cont..

List the 5 conditions that must be met for a population to remain in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

1. No mutations 2. Random mating 3. No natural selection 4. Extremely large population size 5. No gene flow

Suppose that nondisjunction of the Y chromosomes happens in a male during meiosis II. What kinds of offspring can be produced from these sperm if they fertilize by a normally produced oocyte?

1. Normal female (46, XX) 2. Turner's syndrome (XO) 3. Jacob's syndrome (XYY)

The mechanisms in replication that reduce the error rate

1. Nuclease cuts off offending DNA 2. DNA polymerase attaches proper DNA - can work backwards & fix mistake (like repairing base w correct nucleotide) 3. DNA ligase rejoins 2 DNA strands

Differences between DNA and RNA

1. Nucleotide Difference in Sugars: deoxyribose v ribose 2. Nucleotide Difference in Nitrogenous Bases: thymine v uracil 3. Double stranded DNA v single stranded RNA

*Eukaryotic Cell

1. Nucleus: DNA storage/replication; info relay to ribosomes 2. Ribsomes (free & bound) - free: assemble proteins that stay in the cytoplasm - bound: help with protein synthesis and help assemble proteins that go out of the cell 3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (rough & smooth) - rough: DNA is converted to proteins and is synthesized (protein synthesis) - smooth: synthesizes lipids, breaks down glycogen 4. Golgi Apparatus: synthesis modification & packaging of molecules, decides where proteins go in body 5. Vesicles: transports proteins to Golgi, then elsewhere in body

Explain how each of the organelles above functions in the endomembrane system (Nucleus, Ribosomes, ER, GA, Vesicle)

1. Nucleus: stores the DNA before it is transported elsewhere in the cell, the nucleus also replicates the DNA - then DNA is transported to rough ER 2. Ribosomes: - bound: help with protein synthesis and help assemble proteins that go out of the cell - free: assemble proteins that stay in the cytoplasm 3. ER: - rough: DNA is converted to proteins and is synthesized - smooth: synthesizes lipids and breaks down glycogen 4. GA: decides where the proteins are going to be transported 5. Vesicles: transport proteins that have been synthesized in the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus - after GA, pick up the proteins again and transport the proteins out of the cell membrane

Daughter Cells in Mitosis v Meiosis

1. Number of Divisions/Resulting Cells - Mitosis: 1 division, 2 cells - Meiosis: 2 divisions, 4 cells 2. Ploidy of Daughter Cells - Mitosis: Same as parent cell, diploid - Meiosis: Half of parent cell, haploid 3. Chromatids Separate - Mitosis: Occurs - Meiosis: Not in Meiosis I, just Meiosis II 4. Crossing Over - Mitosis: Does not Occur - Meiosis: Occurs 5. Homologous Chroms Separate/Independently Assort - Mitosis: Does not Occur - Meiosis: Occurs

Transcription Steps

1. One or more transcription factor protein binds to RNA polymerase holoenzyme, allowing it to bind to promoter DNA 2. RNA polymerase creates transcription bubble, which separates the two strands of DNA helix - done by breaking H-bonds b/n complementary DNA nucleotides 3. RNA polymerase adds matching RNA nucleotides to complementary nucleotides of one DNA strand 4. RNA sugar-phosphate backbone forms w/ assistance from RNA polymerase to form an RNA strand 5. H-bonds of untwisted RNA-DNA helix break, freeing the newly synthesized RNA strand 6. If cell has nucleus, RNA may be further processed - may include polyadenylation, capping & splicing 7. RNA may remain in nucleus or exit to the cytoplasm through the nuclear pore complex

Biomes and abiotic determinates

- Biomes: major types of ecosystems characterized by predominant vegetation or (in aquatic biomes) by physical environment - Abiotic: nonliving factors (temp, water, oxygen)

Exclusion, partitioning and displacement

- Exclusion: two species competing for the same limited resource cannot coexist at constant population values - Partitioning: involves slight variations in niche that allow ecologically similar species to coexist - Displacement: enables closely related sympatric (geographically overlapping) species to avoid competition

Benefits and importance of biodiversity

- Increase ecosystem productivity; each species in an ecosystem has a specific niche—a role to play - Support a larger number of plant species and, therefore, a greater variety of crops - Protect freshwater resources - Promote soils formation and protection

Cysteine

- SH group - cations: Zn, Fe, Cu - Fe: iron in hemoglobin is good at binding to oxygen, cysteine holds onto iron - can form disulfide bonds: one cyst can react w another cyst and form covalent bonds b/n 2 cysteines, pulling protein together, making a strong covalent bonds

In the diagram below, the organelle most directly responsible for the maintenance of internal osmotic pressure - Structure A (nucleus) - Structure B (cell membrane) - Structure C (central vacuole) - Structure D (

- Structure B (cell membrane) - cell membrane is most important, but central vacuole would also contribute

What was the purpose of including KOH on the cotton balls during the laboratory procedure? A. It acts as a control to identify systematic errors such as leaks and temperature fluctuations. B. It absorbed oxygen and allowed the volume change to be only due to carbon dioxide consumption. C. It absorbed carbon dioxide and allowed the volume change to be only due to oxygen consumption. D. It is used as a control in inhibiting respiration.

C. It absorbed carbon dioxide and allowed the volume change to be only due to oxygen consumption.

EAE animal models

Animal model of the disease multiple sclerosis - mice are given CNS proteins (from brain and spinal cord) to stimulate autoimmune response - foreign proteins/antigens cause immune system to attack normal tissue and break down myelin sheath around nerve cells, can occur by: 1. B cells produce antibodies against own CNS 2. T cells attack spinal cord directly

Lipids

Atoms: C, H, O Building Blocks: cholesterol - fatty acids (absence of oxygen except in one carboxyl group) which attach to glycerol Macromolecules: oils, waxes, steroid hormones, membrane bilayer, triglycerides

Carbohydrates

Atoms: C, H, O Building Blocks: glucose, simple sugars - glycerol; is a carb but is used in backbone of triglycerides Macromolecules: cellulose, starches, plant cell wall, glycogen

Nucleic Acids

Atoms: C, H, O, N, P Building Blocks: nucleotides Macromolecules: DNA (H) & RNA (OH) - enzymes (most are proteins, some are RNA molecules) - ribosomes (RNA & proteins, that build other proteins) - chromosomes (nucleic acids mostly, little bit of proteins wrapped around histones) Nitrogenous Bases: single/double rings & each ring contains two nitrogen - nucleosides: free nucleotides, can combine w 1/2/3 phosphates (the more phosphates, the greater the energy in molecule)

Proteins

Atoms: C, H, O, N, S Building Blocks: amino acids Macromolecules: peptide hormones, carrier channels, flagella, hemoglobin, spindle fibers, antibodies, centrioles - enzymes (most are proteins, some are RNA molecules) - ribosomes (RNA & proteins, that build other proteins) - chromosomes (nucleic acids mostly, little bit of proteins wrapped around histones)

Some baked goods that you can purchase at the grocery store contain partially hydrogenated vegetable oils as an ingredient. This means that the manufacturer has added hydrogen to the hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acid chains in the oil. What is the result of adding hydrogens to vegetable oil? A. the hydrogenated vegetable oil has a lower melting point B. the hydrogenated vegetable oil stays solid at room temp C. the hydrogenated vegetable oil has more "kinks" in the fatty acid chains D. the hydrogenated vegetable oil is less likely to clog arteries

B. the hydrogenated vegetable oil stays solid at room temp

Thomas Malthus' Contribution to Natural Selection

Believed pops would grow forever, but competition & limited resources cause them to stop growing - carrying capacity occurs, disease/war/famine control pop size

Milk kept past its expiration date often spills, tastes sour and the caesin proteins found in the milk form stringy curds. Which of the following best explains why this occurs? A. the disaccharides found in the milk are digested by bacteria, causing the milk to spoil B. the milk contains bacteria that produce lactic acid which lowers pH and denatures the caesin C. the milk contains yeasts that form long chains with the casein proteins D. the milk is fermented by bacteria and produced ethanol which causes the spoilage

B. the milk contains bacteria that produce lactic acid which lowers pH and denatures the caesin

Examination of the folded structure of a purified protein resuspended in water showed that amino acids with nonpolar R groups were primarily buried in the middle of proteins and those with polar R groups were mostly found on the surface of the protein. Which of the following best explains these locations in the folded protein? A. Polar R groups on the surface can form ionic bonds with the charged ends of water molecules B. Polar R groups are too bulky to fit in the middle of the protein and are pushed towards the surface C. Nonpolar R groups that cannot form H bonds w water are pushed to the middle of the protein D. Nonpolar R groups from different parts of the protein form covalent bonds with each other to maintain the protein's structure

C. Nonpolar R groups that cannot form H bonds w water are pushed to the middle of the protein

Cell communication is critical for the function of both unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes. Which of the following is likely true of cell signaling? A. Cell signaling uses the highest molecular weight molecules found in living cells. B. Cell signaling has largely been replaced by other cell functions in higher mammals. C. Similar cell signaling pathways in diverse eukaryotes are evidence of conserved evolutionary processes. D. Cell signaling functions mainly during early developmental stages.

C. Similar cell signaling pathways in diverse eukaryotes are evidence of conserved evolutionary processes.

Which of the following is the most likely reason for the difference in leaf growth (where one plant is phosphorus-sufficient & one is phosphorus-starved)? A. The phosphorus-starved plant was unable to synthesize both the required proteins and lipids, limiting growth. B. The phosphorus-starved plant was unable to synthesize both the required proteins and carbohydrates, limiting growth. C. The phosphorus-starved plant was unable to synthesize both the required nucleic acids and lipids, limiting growth. D. The phosphorus-starved plant was unable to synthesize both the required carbohydrates and nucleic acids, limiting growth.

C. The phosphorus-starved plant was unable to synthesize both the required nucleic acids and lipids, limiting growth - Phosphorus is used to make nucleic acids and certain lipids. Without phosphorus atoms, nucleic acids and lipids cannot be made for the plant to use for growth.

Which of the following are NOT commonly used as vectors in genetic engineering? A. plasmids B. viruses C. fungi D. bacteriophages

C. fungi

Plasmodesmata in plant cells are most similar in function to which of the following structures in animal cells? A. peroxisomes B. desmosomes C. gap junctions D. tight junctions

C. gap junctions

The lowest, green band traveled the shortest distance. That is because it is possibly large and _____________________. A. hydrophobic B. oxidized C. hydrophilic D. contains the most magnesium E. reduced

C. hydrophilic

Ice floes in the arctic serve as the home for many arctic species, such as polar bears, walruses, and ringed seals. The fact that these animals are able to exist in their niches on the ice is due to what property of water? A. high heat of vaporization B. high specific heat C. lower density when frozen D. high surface tension

C. lower density when frozen

Tay-Sachs is a human genetic abnormality that results in cells accumulating and becoming clogged with very large and complex lipids. Which cellular organelle is most likely to be involved in this condition? A. the endoplasmic reticulum B. the Golgi apparatus C. the lysosome D. membrane--bound ribosomes

C. the lysosome

During the digestive process, hydrolysis reactions occur at various locations along the digestive tract so that animals can receive nutrients from the complex macromolecules they consume daily. Which of the following is an example of hydrolysis? A. the synthesis of 2 amino acids, forming a peptide with the release of water B. the reaction of a fat, forming glycerol and fatty acids with the release of water C. the reaction of a fat, forming glycerol and fatty acids with the consumption of water D. the synthesis of a nucleotide from a phosphate, a pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base with the production of a molecule of water

C. the reaction of a fat, forming glycerol and fatty acids with the consumption of water

Adaptive mechanisms to counter photorespiration

C4 & CAM plants have an extra step in fixing their CO@ before the Calvin Cycle, outcompete O2 - live in arid climates - this "concentrates" CO2 and allows them to minimize water loss through stromata openings in leaves 1. C4 - carbon fixation cycle in mesophyll cell - transport it to bundle sheath cells, where CC occurs 2. CAM - fix CO2 @ dif time of day, keep stoma closed during day - at night, open stoma, pump up CO2 to feed into CC during day time

Systemic Circulation

Carries oxygenated blood from the heart to all body organs (except lungs) and returns deoxygenated blood back to the right atrium via veins (blood flows from body tissues to heart, then from heart back to body tissues) - oxygenated blood from the lungs leaves the left ventricle through the aorta, then is distributed to the body's organs and tissues, which absorb the oxygen through a complex network of arteries, arterioles, and capillaries - deoxygenated blood is then collected by venules & flows into veins before reaching the inferior and superior venae cavae, then it is pumped into pulmonary vein which returns it to the right atrium - blood is then re-oxygenated through the pulmonary circulation before returning again to the systemic circulation - pumps oxygen rich blood to the body and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart to be sent out for refueling - deals w/ left heart

Function & location of motor neuron

Carry signals from the CNS to outer parts, such as muscle, skin and glands - located in motor cortex, also can be called an efferent neuron - long axon and short dendrites and transmit messages from the central nervous system to the muscles (or to glands) - Motor neurons of the spinal cord are part of the central nervous system (CNS)

Natural Selection (Activity 2)

Cause of Change: Individuals exhibit variations in heritable traits, some traits are better suited and those produce more offspring How Pop Evolves: Greater proportion of those suited traits Real-World Ex: Medium ground eating finch, evolved a greater beak depth to eat larger seeds that were available

If cells can not visually inspect other cells, how do the cells of our immune system know if a particular cell they encounter is part of us or part of another organism?

Cell-cell recognition function of glycoproteins (carbohydrates) of the cell membrane - these glycoproteins act as identifying markers (ex. blood type) that distinguish one cell from another in cellular populations - cells recognize other cells by the binding to surface molecules (carbohydrates) on the plasma membrane

Types of Animal Behaviors: Learning

Change in behavior, brought about by an experience.

Organelles That Capture and Release Energy

Chloroplasts & mitochondria are both involved in energy conversion processes within the cell - believed to once be free bacteria - both contain their own genetic info in the form of small DNA molecules The endosymbiotic theory suggests that chloroplasts and mitochondria may have descended from independent microorganisms - both have own DNA, ribosomes, and double membranes - made out of their own bacteria

Explain the effect that point mutations and frame-shift mutations can have on gene products: why insertion/deletion of three bases is less deleterious than insertion/deletion of one or two bases

Insertion/deletion counts off by three so if three pairings are deleted it will still be the same - However, if only one is deleted then all the codons will shift causing them to be in different groups

How Convergent Evolution Supports The Evolutionary Theory

Convergent evolution occurs when different species or populations show a similar adaptation to a similar environment, but the adaptation is due to different genes - shows independent evolution of similar features in different lineages - ex: extendable tongues in different species of salamanders

Why does a multicellular organism need to control and coordinate cell division? What might be the consequences of uncontrolled cell division in a multicellular organism?

Critical for normal growth, development & maintenance, also to conserve energy and to divide at appropriate times - Cancer and skin cells not dividing during an injury

In a control reaction to measure photosynthesis in plants, the % transmittance of a plant sample mixed with DPIP under a bulb emitting white light for 10 minutes changed from 20% to 90%. What would you expect the % transmittance to be if the sample was previously boiled, and then exposed to the white light? A. 50% B. 90% C. 0% D. 20%

D. 20%

One could also investigate the effects of temperature on the rates of respiration in beans using this experimental set-up. Under which of the following conditions would one expect to find the highest rate of respiration in beans? A. 50 0C B. 14 0C C. 4 0C D. 30 0C

D. 30 0C

In a control reaction to measure photosynthesis in plants, the % transmittance of a plant sample mixed with DPIP under a bulb emitting white light for 10 minutes changed from 20% to 90%. What would you expect the % transmittance to be if the bulb was covered by a green plastic filter? A. 95% B. 10% C. 90% D. 30%

D. 30%

The CRISPR-Cas9 system that allows for the precise editing of genes was developed from processes originally adapted from what? A. Retroviruses found in plant cells. B. Transposons that can "hop" between chromosomal locations. C. Enzymes that regulate meiotic homologous recombination. D. A bacterial response to fight viral infections.

D. A bacterial response to fight viral infections.

Some human tissues, such as the liver, can store glucose as a branched-chain polysaccharide called glycogen. Other tissues, such as the brain, require constant glucose import into their cells. Knowing that glucose is first metabolized by glycolysis, which sub-cellular region would you expect to find the highest concentration of glucose in normal brain cells? A. in the inter-membrane space of the mitochondria B. in the mitochondrial matrix C. in the nucleus D. in the cytoplasm

D. in the cytoplasm

In a normal cellular protein, where would you expect to find a hydrophobic amino acid like valine? A. in the interior of the folded protein, away from water B. on the exterior surface of the protein, interacting w water C. in the transmembrane portion interacting w lipid fatty acid chains D. in the interior of the folded protein, away from water, or in a transmembrane portion interaction with lipid fatty acid chains

D. in the interior of the folded protein, away from water, or in a transmembrane portion interaction with lipid fatty acid chains

The swordfish contains a heat-generating organ that warms its brain and eyes up to 14 C above the surrounding ocean water temperature. Which structures are most likely to be found at relatively high concentrations within the cells of this heat generating organ? A. nuclei B. chromosomes C. chloroplasts D. mitochondria

D. mitochondria

What are the awesome little proteins that literally walk along the cytoskeleton to help transport vesicles? A. severing proteins B. integrins C. G-protein coupled receptors D. motor proteins

D. motor proteins

A vertebrate muscle tissue culture was provided with a constant excess supply of glucose under anaerobic conditions starting at time zero. The amount of pyruvic acid was measured. The solid line in the graph above represents the pyruvic acid present in moles per liter as time progressed. The dotted line represents a second culture under the same conditions, except that substance X was added, also at time zero. Substance X could likely be what compound? A. NADH B. carbon dioxide C. ADP D. oxygen

D. oxygen

During high energy demands more glucose is broken down via respiration. What happens to the relative pH of the mitochondrial matrix as more glucose is metabolized? A. pH is unchanged as electrons travel to oxygen directly and bypass the electron transport chain B. pH is unchanged as fermentation cancels all H+ movement C. pH decreases D. pH increases

D. pH increases

Which cell would be best for studying the function of lysosomes? A. skeletal muscle cells B. peripheral nerve cells C. gram-negative bacterial cells D. phagocytic white blood cells

D. phagocytic white blood cells

The PAGE/Western blotting is a technique that usually uses antibodies to separate and identify specific A. RNA B. DNA C. lipids D. proteins

D. proteins

*FIGURE on page 14 Precise regulation of specific hormone levels is required for optimal sperm production in mammals, as summarized in the figure above. Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are synthetic variants of testosterone that are sometimes abused by persons who desire to enhance their athletic performance or alter their physique. Assuming that AAS function in the same way as naturally occurring testosterone, it is most likely that long-term abuse of AAS would A. stimulate FSH secretion B. stimulate testosterone production C. stimulate LH secretion D. reduce sperm production

D. reduce sperm production

According to the Stockli et al. review paper, what is the function of GLUT4 proteins? A. to regulate insulin secretion B. to regulate the trans-Golgi network C. to mediate vesicle endocytosis D. to transport glucose into cells

D. to transport glucose into cells

Explain the three major structural differences between RNA and DNA

DNA - double helix, pentose sugar = deoxyribose, uses thymine (T) RNA - single helix, pentose sugar = ribose, replaces T (thymine) with U (uracil)

How transcription factors can affect transcription rates

DNA binding proteins that recruit RNA polymerase to specific promoters - help tell genes to switch on @ specific time

*Explain why we can infer that the Universal Common Ancestor of all life on earth USED DNA AS GENETIC MATERIAL

DNA had to have existed in order for proteins to be created (necessary in order for various parts of the cell to exist)

Compare & Contrast Darwin & Lamarck's theories

Darwin: Natural selection - evolution occurs as a result of some organisms being more likely to survive&reproduce than others - species are related by common ancestry characteristics of species can be modified from generation to generation Lamarck: Evolution happens bc organisms have an innate drive to become more complex - Use & disuse: some parts that are used extensively become larger & those that are not deteriorate - organisms change and pass these changes to offspring - species change through acquired characteristics Both: Thought variation was introduced into evolutionary process in part thru inheritance of acquired characteristics

How does the structure of the 'R' group affect the properties of a particular amino acid?

Determines the unique properties of amino acids - Depending on the R group, amino acids can have traits of being polar, non polar, acidic, basic, charged, or aromatic - electrically charged AA will have their charge written in their tail (R group) - NP will have no oxygen, P will have oxygen or sulfur

*How Observed Continuing Evolution Supports The Evolutionary Theory

Differences in appearances of domestic animals, such as cats and dogs - features enlarged/reduced/enhanced or new features

Reflex Arcs

Do not go into brain, spinal cord controls rxn - involuntary: time is very fast compared to voluntary/rxn times (dont think ab it) - Ex: sneezing, blinking, hammer on patellar tendon, sweating/shivering - done for protection, want them to be fast as possible to protect self - helps maintain homeostasis 1. Stimulus 2. Receptor recognizes stimulus 3. Sensory neuron (afferent) 4. Spinal cord (where inter/association/relay neurons are located 5a. Brain recognizes (not controls) 5b. Motor neuron (efferent) 6. Muscle/gland

How The Fossil Records Supports The Evolutionary Theory

Documents the pattern/evidence of evolution, showing that past organisms differed from present-day organisms and that many species have become extinct - also show evolutionary changes that have occurred in various groups of organisms - dates back about 550 million yrs, but molecular clocks have been able to date evolutionary divergences that occurred a billion+ yrs ago - rocks/fossils show survival of the fittest & extinct animals

*Gene duplication

Duplication events can lead to the evolution of genes w related functions, such as the a and b globin gene families - mutations & transpositions can occur, & nonfunctional pseudogenes may be found in the clusters

Why is telomerase necessary during the replication of eukaryotic chromosomes?

During DNA replication, ends of molecules lack ends & primase doesnt reach - telomerase adds ends (caps) so they won deteriorate/unravel

If the progenitor cell of a gamete has 12 pairs of chromosomes during G1 of interphase, how many chromosomes will the following cells have? - A daughter cell during anaphase 2 of meiosis

During anaphase the sister chromatids are separated but new daughter cells not yet formed = 24 chromosomes

How do the properties of a compound like H2O or NaCl illustrate the concept of emergent properties?

Each step upwards in the hierarchy of biological order new properties emerge, these emergent properties result due to the arrangements and interactions of "parts" as complexity increases - H2O has emergent properties because properties of water are not possible when any of the individual elements of that group act alone - The properties of water are cohesion, high specific heat, high heat of vaporization, lower density of ice, and solubility. The physical, chemical, and biological properties of salt are the emergent properties - Sodium is a metal and Chlorine is a poisonous gas, but when mixed together they form Sodium chloride, which has a crystal structure (This physical property is an example of how table salt is an emergent property) - Table salt is said to have emergent properties because the compound has different characteristics from those of its elements, composed of Sodium which is a metal and Chlorine a poisonous gas but when chemically combined together they form an edible substance

Flow of energy & cycling of materials in ecosystem

Energy moves life, the cycle of energy is based on the flow of energy through different trophic levels in an ecosystem - Our ecosystem is maintained by the cycling energy and nutrients obtained from different external sources - the levels in the food chain are producers, primary consumers, higher-level consumers, and finally decomposers - In these cycles, a pathway is formed when a substance enters living organisms, stays for a long time, then returns to the nonliving environment. Such substances are referred to as cycling within an ecosystem between an organism that lives in the ecosystem and a nonliving reservoir

*Chemosynthetic Autotrophs

Energy processing strategy: Examples:

Photosynthetic Autotrophs

Energy processing strategy: Examples:

How can an enhancer work from so far away?

Enhancers are stretches of DNA that interact w/ transcriptional machinery to increase gene expression - can work from 1000s of base pairs away - they can be bound by proteins (activators) to increase chance that transcription of particular gene will occur - function at a distance by forming chromatin loops to bring the enhancer and target gene into proximity

General function of enzymes

Enzyme-facilitated rxns follow Law of Mass Action: direction taken by enzyme-catalyzed rxn is directly dependent on relative [ ] of enzyme, substrate, and product - Enzymes decrease Ea of rxns by stabilizing transition state B/N substrates & products - If lots of substrate & little product, rxn will form more product & vice versa - Law of Mass Action does not apply when: 1. product immediately is metabolized, product [ ] doesnt rise 2. in highly exergonic rxns the product has little free energy & opposite rxn needs large amount of energy to reverse process

Induced Fit Model

Enzymes change shape after binding to a substrate, improving the "fit" between enzyme and substrate - That fit b/n enzyme & substrate lowers activation energy required to transform substrates into products - no difference in final amount of free energy b/n uncatalyzed rxn & enzyme-catalyzed rxn - enzyme stabilizes transition state of rxn taking place

Epinephrine Signal Transduction Pathway

Epinephrine binds to epinephrine receptor, causes receptor to change shape to active form - activates G protein, which binds to activated receptor and releases GDP and takes up GTP - then it is released from receptor and splits into 2 parts: 1) activated & continues signalling 2) other is inactive and stays - hormone leaves receptor and it returns to inactive form - active G protein activates enzyme called adenylyl cyclase, which converts lots of ATP into cAMP which carries message from epinephrine into cell (a second messenger) - then G protein inactivates self by cleaving GTP & the 2 parts come together - cAMP binds to protein kinase A, which separates into subunits, two of which are catalytically active - these subunits add phosphates to phosphorylase kinase which activate it - phosphorylase kinase activates glycogen phosphorylase which breaks down glycogen into glucose & adds a phosphate to each glucose - another enzyme removes the phosphates so the glucose can move across plasma membrane and can enter bloodstream and be taken up by other cells & used a fuel

*Female Reproductive Hormones

Estrogen - Associated with maturation & release of egg or ovum from ovary - Secreted in greater amounts by females than by males - peak during ovulation Progesterone - Prepares uterus for implantation of fertilized egg LH & FSH - Surge results in ovulation (when the egg is released by the follicle) - LH turns the ruptured follicle into a corpus luteum • The corpus luteum secretes increasing amounts of progesterone - Estradiol stimulates the hypothalamus to release the GnRH hormone during ovulation - FSH and LH are released from the anterior pituitary

Selective Advantage in eukaryotic cells

Eukaryotic cells acquired mitochondria via endosymbiosis - Most eukaryotic cells today have mitochondria because the last eukaryotic common ancestor had a selective advantage because it used mitochondria to perform aerobic cellular respiration - There are a few eukaryotic cell types (e.g., mature mammalian red blood cells) and a few parasitic single-celled eukaryotic organisms that have lost their mitochondria.

Chlorophyll and wavelengths of light

Eyes see different wavelengths of light of visible spectrum - VBGYOR: in order of increasing wavelength - chlorophyll absorb light energy in red & blue portions of spectrum, & reflect green wavelengths

Types of Animal Behaviors: Seasonal Rhythms

Instincts based on seasonal or yearly patterns of time - Ex: deer rutting season

Explain why "Intelligent Design" is not a scientific hypothesis to explain the origin & evolution of life on Earth. Provide evidence that contradict the idea of "Intelligent Design"

Intelligent Design: the idea that one creator controls everything - not scientifically possible due to the millions of years of evolution, bc otherwise a creator would not have needed all of that time - if this were the case then species would not have gone extinct & complications such as early death wouldnt occur - no solid evidence to prove it & it is not testable

What are "checkpoints" in the cell cycle?

Internal and external factors regulate molecules that control events in the cell cycle happening 1. Restriction Point: occurs in G1, daughter cells continue to grow in size & are halted - here, cells either terminally differentiate & enter G0 (cells are stimulated by growth factor & continue thru cycle) 2. G2/M Checkpoint: end of G2 & beginning of mitosis - specialized molecules read newly formed DNA & delay initiation of mitosis if there are strand breaks/inappropriate nucleotides are in DNA - cycle only continues if repairs can be made, otherwise cell dies 3. Metaphase/Anaphase Checkpoint: Occurs early in mitosis, specialized proteins (kinetochores) on each centromere activate if microtubules are attached & appropriate force is applied - activation allows chromosomes to separate, if activation doesn't occur, mitosis halts & cell dies w/o completing cell cycle

How does the structure of a golgi complex help it accomplish its goals?

It is especially extensive in cells specialized for secretion. Its consists of flattened membranous sacs. These sacs are not physically connected. These sacs allow for the transport of vesicles from the ER. The ER can add its membrane and the contents of its lumen to the cis face by fusing with a golgi membrane. Then the trans face of a golgi membrane will pinch it off and allow it to travel to other sites. Products of the ER are usually modified during their transit from the cis face to the trans face. Having lots of membrane surface area allows for more transport.

Explain what the "modern synthesis" is & how is it different from Darwin's original theory of evolution

It utilizes the idea of pop genetics to help understand the concept of evolution of species better - includes genetics/genetic factors such as genetic drift of mutations as part of evolution - Darwin predicted only natural selection caused evolution

Types of Animal Behaviors: Habituation

Learning to NOT respond to a stimulus, Behavior decreases with exposure - Ex: Decreased gill withdrawal in aplysia, Opposite of sensitization

Long Day Plants

Flower when the days are long - hence require the night period to be less than a critical length - In long-day plants, Pfr activates flowering and hence flowering requires high levels of Pfr (i.e. resulting from short nights) Long-day plants require periods of darkness to be less than an uninterrupted critical length - These plants will traditionally not flower during the winter and autumn months when night lengths are long - Horticulturalists can trigger flowering in these plants by exposing the plant to a light source during the night - Carnations are an example of a long-day plant

Short Day Plants

Flower when the days are short - hence require the night period to exceed a critical length - In short-day plants, Pfr inhibits flowering and hence flowering requires low levels of Pfr (i.e. resulting from long nights) Short-day plants require periods of darkness to be greater than an uninterrupted critical length - These plants will traditionally not flower during the summer months when night lengths are short - Horticulturalists can trigger flowering in these plants by covering the plant with an opaque black cloth for ~12 hours a day - Crysanthemums are an example of a short-day plant

The phenomenon of transformation was first discovered in 1928 by _______________________. In his now famous experiment, he injected mice with heat-killed, pathogenic cells of the bacterium Streptocococcus pneumoniae and with living, non-pathogenic cells of the same bacterium. The non-pathogenic bacteria acquired the traits of the pathogenic bacteria, as evidenced by the demise of the mice.

Frederick Griffith

Structural differences between free nucleotides (nucleoside tri-phosphates), and nucleotides in a nucleic acid

Free Nucleotides: base is bound to ribose/deoxyribose via beta-glycosidic linkage @ 1' position Nucleotides in Nucleic Acid: have phosphate group

Difference Between Homologous Chromosomes & Sister Chromatids

HC: 2 sets of chromosomes (1 from mom & 1 from dad) - same genes/info (like chromsome #7 from both mom and dad) - might be different alleles SC: show up after S phase, identical copies of 2 homologous chromosomes

Translation

Makes Proteins (Traits, Phenotypes) - ribosomes - AUG, Methionine - A, P, E sites - 5' to 3' - tRNAs & paired AA - codons in mRNA, anticodons in tRNA - STOP codons (no STOP anticodons) - all in cytoplam

Components of cell membrane

Many of the carbohydrate molecules act like chemical tags, allowing individual cells to identify one another - glycoprotein: polysaccharide label for cell - glycolipid: saccharide attached to phosphate acts as tags to identify - integral: penetrate hydrophobic interior of bilayer, most are transmembrane proteins (span across membrane), others only extend into part - peripheral: attached to inside surface of membrane - ex: A & B antigens on RBCs, dif types of polysaccharides act as antigens to identify if A or B

Mechanic Isolation

Mating is attempted, but morphological differences prevent its successful completion - Prezygotic

How many possible genetic variations can be produced during meiosis and sexual reproduction?

Meiosis: 2^n, n being number of chromosomes per gamete - (2^23)^2 (extra 2 coming from combination of possibilities from both egg and sperm)

What is the advantage of having membrane bound organelles?

Membrane bound organelles help to compartmentalize the cell so that each reaction in the organelle is separate from those of other organelles. Since several organelles can carry out different functions simultaneously, keeping organelles separate can increase efficiency. Membranes also offer protection, they can keep things inside or outside of the organelle. Also, organelles can be close to other organelles that have related functions. For example, organelles producing proteins can be near other organelles involved in transporting those proteins.

How can scientists determine when species diverged from one another in evolutionary history?

Molecular Clock: method for estimating time required for a given amount of evolutionary change, based on observation that some regions of genomes evolve at constant rates - in case of orthologus genes, # of nucleotide substitutions is proportional to time elapsed since genes branched from common ancestor - calibrate molecular clock of gene by graphing # of genetic differences against dates of evolutionary branch points known as fossil record - average rates of genetic change inferred from such graphs can be used to estimate dates of events that cannot be discerned from fossil record

Noncompetitive Inhibitors

Molecule binds to region different from active site (can change structure of protein) so now substrate cannot fit & active site is changed - active site function is impaired

Competitive Inhibitors

Molecule that reassembles/competes w substrate & binds to active site, blocks substrate so catalyzing doesnt happen - inhibitor is similar enough to enzyme that it can fit into active site, but it is not the same as the substrate - reversible, if [ ] of inhibitor is high enough, rxn w/ substrate will slow down, otherwise it has little effect - increasing [ ] of substrate can overcome effect of competitive inhibitor

Rubisco

Most abundant enzyme, is an important enzyme complex that "fixes" CO2, turning gas into a solid biomolecule 1. CO2 is reduced, gas turns into half a sugar (3 C's) - portions of ATP & NADPH are being stored on these molecules to make glucose - add CO2 to 5 carbon sugar & turn into two 3 carbon sugars - these 3 carbon sugars recieve phosphate group from ATP, then get reduced & turn into G3P

Microtubules

Hollow structures made up of proteins known as tubulins, playing critical roles in maintaining cell shape - also important in cell division and helps to separate chromsomes (during anaphase) In animal cells, structures known as centrioles are also formed from tubulins - centrioles are located near the nucleus and help to organize cell division, they are NOT found in plant cells - they anchor (double) to pull chromosomes apart Microtubules help build projections from cell surface, known as cilia (small hairs) and flagella (bacteria&sperm), that enable cells to swim rapidly through liquids

Significance of Genetic Mutations on Evolution

If a mutation occurs in a sequence that is crucial: most mutational changes will be harmful and less will be neutral, so such genes change slowly If a mutation occurs in a sequence that is not as critical: fewer mutations will be harmful and more will be neutral, so such genes change more quickly - It increases genetic diversity in populations

Climate and paleobiology

Paleobiology: branch of biology or paleontology concerned with the study of fossils of plants and animals - Many small organisms can be preserved within these layers of sediment through time - the changing abundances of these fossils through time can tell us whether a change in the environment or climate was gradual or abrupt - studying fossil pollen and other fossils helps scientists to learn more about climate change

Vesicles

Nearly all eukaryotic cells contain smaller membrane-enclosed structures called vesicles - vesicles are used to store & move materials b/n cell organelles, as well as to and from the cell surface - made thru endocytosis/budding - uses clathrin: 3 subunits, build vesicles by making polymers and pulling in membrane to form vesicle, pinches self off from membrane and removes proteins to form self - synaptic vesicles can release neurotransmitters to communicate to other nerve cells - vesicle fusion w plasma membrane is blocked by Clostridium botulinum toxin (very poisonous)

How Large Population Size Follows the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Need Large populations bc small populations have allele frequencies fluctuate by chance over time (genetic drift) - if pop is large, chance will not disrupt gene pool as significantly

How does the ratio of a cell's surface area to volume place upward and downward limits on cell size?

If there is higher surface area to volume ratio, the cell can function more easily fulfilling cellular jobs such as transporting molecules into and out of the cell - If a cell gets too big, then the cell takes too much time to diffuse material around or out of the cell - The cell will keep growing until the surface area to volume ratio is not adequate, the cell will then divide

How Random Mating Follows the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Need random mating, if individuals mate within a subset of the population, such as near neighbors or close relatives (inbreeding), random mixing of gametes does not occur and genotype frequencies change - if random, there is an = chance of allele being passed down or one allele will be favored and have advantage

How No Migration Follows the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Needs no gene flow because by moving alleles into or out of populations, gene flow can alter allele frequencies - by no migration, allele frequencies stay the same

How No Net Mutation Rate Follows the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Needs no mutations because if the gene pool is modified if mutations occur or if entire genes are deleted or duplicated - if there is no rate, there will be no change in allele frequencies, so no evolution

How A Constant Environment Follows the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Needs no natural selection because allele frequencies change when individuals with different genotypes show consistent differences in their survival or reproductive success - if environment stays, traits wont sometimes be more fit and sometimes not be

convergent evolution

Independent evolution of similar (analogous) features in different lineages - Convergent evolution states that similar physical traits in unrelated groups are the result of the same selective pressures experienced by each group

Normal & Abnormal function of lysosomes in a multicellular organism

Normal: Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to destroy pathogens (disease-causing organisms) that might enter the cell - Macrophages (a type of white blood cell) carry out phagocytosis - Macrophages helps defend the body by engulfing pathogens, fusing with lysosomes, which then destroying bacteria and other invaders Abnormal: Some people have inherited lysosomal storage diseases - These people lack a functioning hydrolytic enzyme that is usually in a lysosome, lysosomes then can not break down substances and then they become engorged with these substances - They begin to interfere with cellular activities, one example is Tay-Sachs disease

George Cuvier's Contribution to Natural Selection

Noticed the older the stratum, the less similar fossils were to its current life forms - observed one layer to next, new species appeared and others vanished - speculated catastrophes destroyed species & were repopulated by immigrating species

Elongation: Transcription

Nucleotides are added to growing RNA chain - ribosome continues to translate each codon in turn - each corresponding amino acid is added to the growing chain and linked via a bond called a peptide bond

Quaternary Protein Structure

Only found in proteins with more than 2 polypeptides chains - hydrophobic reactions that help determine structure - bonding occurs b/n polypeptides OR n/n polypeptides and other molecules - how proteins interact w each other

*Why archea are placed in their own domain of life, even though they have only been known to science since the 1970s

They originally were thought to be of the kingdom bacteria but because they have many of the same attributes of both kingdoms bacteria and eukarya, they have their own group

3 Sources of Genetic Variation

Phenotypic variations often reflect this, differences among individuals in the composition of their genes or other DNA sequences 1) mutation: changes in nucleotide sequence of an organisms DNA can impact phenotype (such as in SCD) - most mutations alter a phenotype and make it less harmful 2) genetic recombination during sexual reproduction: shuffles existing alleles and deals them at random to produce individual genotypes - crossing over, independent assortment of chromosomes, and fertilization 3) lateral gene transfer: the acquisition of genetic material from another organism without being its offspring, although it frequently refers to transfer from organisms belonging to another species - also called horizontal GT: genes are transferred from one genome to another thru exchange of transposable elements/plasmids, viral infection & fusions of organisms

What determines which domain an organism is in?

Three domains: 1) Bacteria - most of known prokaryotes - only single celled (no nucleus) - unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol by ester linkages - contain peptidoglycan in cell walls 2) Archaea - diverse group of prokaryotic organisms that inhabit a wide variety of environments - only single celled - membranes composed of branched hydrocardon chains - no peptidoglycan in cell walls 3) Eukarya - consists of all the organisms that have cells containing true nuclei & internal organelles - lots of single celled organisms, multicellular plants, fungi, & animals - no peptidoglycan in cell walls - unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol by ester linkages 1. type of cell (eukaryote or prokaryote) 2. number of cells (unicellular or multicellular) 3. chemical makeup Archea & eukaryotes are more similar (DNA wrapped around histones, lipids in membranes, similar genes for transcription/translation) Prokaryotes & eukaryotes more similar to each other than bacteria

How is variation generated in a population? How is it maintained?

Through sexual or gene mutation - It is maintained through the random arrangement found in sexual reproduction - New genetic mutations are also constantly occurring which keeps variation generating

TATA box

Thymine & Adenine (4 nucleotides) - a common consensus sequence found in many promoters - helps identify where transcription should start

Neurotransmitters

Transmits signals across a chemical synapse, from 1 neuron to another neuron/cell - chemicals: dopamine, norepinephrine, acetelycholine - already made/stored before action potential even starts, each neuron has 1-2 of them to fire - after they bind, pump brings them back to be reused - chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Types of Animal Behaviors: Migration

Travel patterns initiated by changes in seasons, weather, environment, etc. - Ex: Butterflies flying south for winter

Types of Animal Behaviors: Operant Conditioning

Trial & error learning, Reinforced behaviors are learned - Animal behavior determines rewards or punishments - Ex: Lever and food for rats

Explain Turgor pressure related to vacuoles

Turgor pressure exerted by the vacuole is essential in supporting plants in an upright position. This pressure, turgidity, is caused by the osmotic flow of water from an area of low solute concentration outside the cell into the cell's vacuole, which has a higher solute concentration. Healthy plant cells are turgid and plants rely on turgidity to maintain rigidity. This turgor pressure is not observed in animal cells because they have no cell walls. Cell walls prevent plant cells from being burst by the flow of water into the cell -- animal cells do not have a cell wall. Animal cells must either continually pump out water, with a contractile vacuole, or live in an isotonic solution where there is no osmotic pressure.

Floating discs

Use leaf discs and place them into water w/ baking soda (to provide CO2), put underneath light - leaves will absorb energy from light, convert H2O to O2 and O2 bubbles will cause it to float to top - measure rate by measuring release of O2 1. Color: More absorbance @ reds/blues, not at greens 2. Further from light, slower - measure rate in floats/sec: dependent variable - disks sink in dark bc no light to release O2

Ectotherms Regulation

Use simple behavior to control body temps 1) reorient (more/less sun) 2) wallowing (in water) 3) shelter 4) thermal gaping (panting) 5) color changes (absorb/reflect light) 6) body raising (increase surrounding airflow) - FEW can use temperature compensation: change which enzymes are expressed (@ decreased temp these "cold" enzymes are more efficient & overall metabolic rate does not change)

punctuated equilibrium

Used to describe periods of apparent stasis punctuated by sudden change - new species change most as they branch from a parent species and then change little for the rest of their existence - speciation occurs rapidly - cannot tell exactly when a new biological species formed, since info ab reproductive isolation does not fossilize

Transcription

Uses RNA Polymerase - promoters, TATA box, enhancers - 5' to 3' - uracils & ribonucleotides - Pre mRNA maturation: 5'-cap, Poly-A tail, RNA editing/splicing - all in nucleus

Functions of vacuoles and explain how they differ between plant cells and animal cells

Vacuoles are membrane-bounded vesicles whose functions vary in different kinds of cells - Food vacuoles, formed by phagocytosis, are present in animal cells - Contractile vacuoles, that pump excess water out of the cell are present in many freshwater protists - Plant cells have a large central water vacuole and animal cells only have many small vacuoles - The central vacuole is a large fluid-filled organelle that stores water, enzymes, metabolic wastes, and other material (formed by other vacuoles that fuse together) - can make up to 90 percent of the plant's volume and can push all of the other organelles into a thin layer against the cell membrane

Explain the functions of vacuoles and explain how they differ between plant cells and animal cells

Vacuoles are membrane-bounded vesicles whose functions vary in different kinds of cells. Food vacuoles, formed by phagocytosis, are present in animal cells. Contractile vacuoles, that pump excess water out of the cell are present in many freshwater protists. Plant cells have a large central water vacuole and animal cells only have many small vacuoles. The central vacuole is a large fluid-filled organelle that stores water, enzymes, metabolic wastes, and other material. It is formed by other vacuoles that fuse together. It can make up to 90 percent of the plant's volume and can push all of the other organelles into a thin layer against the cell membrane.

How are macromolecule polymers assembled from monomers? How are they broken down?

Polymers are assembled from repeating monomers. They are assembled by the bonding of monomers. For monomers to bond, an -OH group is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen atom is removed from another. Dehydration synthesis is the name of this process. For every subunit added to a macromolecule, one water molecule is removed Macromolecule polymers are broken down through hydrolysis, or the use of water to break down polymers. This is done by breaking bonds between subunits. Hydrolysis is the name of this process and it is the reverse of dehydration synthesis. During hydrolysis, a hydrogen atom is added to one monomer and a hydroxyl group to the other. This action breaks the covalent bond between the monomers.

Prezygotic & Postzygotic Barriers

Prezygotic: (before the zygote) Anything that prevents mating and fertilization is a prezygotic mechanism - impede upon members of dif species from attempting to mate, preventing attempted mating from being completed successfully, hindering fertilization if mating is completed successfully postzygotic: (after the zygote) a mechanism that reduces the viability or reproductive capacity of hybrid offspring - may contribute to reproductive isolation after the hybrid zygote is formed - development errors may reduce survival among hybrid embryos/probs after birth can cause hybrids to be infertile or decrease chance of survival long enough to reproduce

Exergonic Rxns

Proceeds with a net release of free energy - loses free energy (G decreases), ΔG is negative - spontaneous (energetically favorable, not that it will occur rapidly) - Ex: Overall rxn for CR is C6H12O6 + 6 O2 = 6 CO2 + 6 H2O (ΔG is -686 kcal/mol)

Purpose of fermentation

Process by which energy can be released from food molecules in absence of oxygen, occurs in cytoplasm - if there is no place for products of glycolysis (high energy e-) to go, like when no O2 is available, to continue to get some energy out of food you need a second outlet for those e- to go through: outlet is fermentation - in anaerobic conditions, fermentation follows glycolysis - does not directly produce ATP, just allows glycolysis to continue to work

Artificial Selection & Human's Role In It

Process where humans modified other species over many generations by selecting & breeding individuals that possess desired traits - humans choose phenotypes - as a result, crops, livestock & pets often bear little resemblance to their wild ancestors

Homeobox genes in animals & why they important in studying evolution

Products of a class of homeotic genes (det. basic features like where a pair of wings/legs will develop on a bird or how a plants flower parts are arranged) - they provide positional info in an animal embryo - this info prompts cells to develop into structures appropriate for a particular location - changes in these genes/how they are expressed have big impacts on morphology & could result in a major source of evolutionary change

How Activator Causes Activation of Transcription

Prokaryotes use Activators: assists RNA polymerase binding & initiates transcription - activators are DNA-binding proteins that bind to enhancers or promoter-proximal elements - ALL DNA have coding regions (nucleotides that code for specific AA, upstream of that are operators OR promoters) - Promoters are regions of DNA that RNA polymerase binds to, makes signal to transcribe - Operators are regions of DNA that get other things to bind to them & regulate if RNA can proceed

How do prokaryotes function without membrane bound organelles?

Prokaryotic cells carry out cellular respiration within the cytoplasm or on the inner surfaces of the cells. The prokaryotic cell membrane performs the function of the eukaryotic inner mitochondrial membrane, and the prokaryotic cytoplasm performs the function of the eukaryotic mitochondrial matrix.

Golgi Apparatus

Proteins produced in rough ER move next via vesicles into GA, which appears as a stack of flattened membranes - modifies, sorts, and packages proteins & other materials from ER for storage in cell or release outside of cell - from GA, proteins are shipped to final destination, either inside or outside the cekk

Cell Walls

Provides support & protection for cell - plants, algae, fungi, and many prokaryotes have cell walls - animals cells do not have cell walls; would make them immobile - cells walls in plants are made out of cellulose (wood and paper) - cell walls lie outside cell membrane & are porous enough to allow most substances to pass thru easily - when cell fills w water, increases rigidity and allows it to not pop (in plants), resilient to changes in water

Which direction is RNA made?

RNA polymerase synthesizes an RNA strand complementary to a template DNA strand - synthesizes the RNA strand in the 5' to 3' direction, while reading the template DNA strand in the 3' to 5' direction - the template DNA strand and RNA strand are antiparallel

Describe the evidence that suggests that RNA was the first genetic material. Explain the significance of the discovery of ribozymes.

RNA was most likely the first genetic materials because they are capable of replicating faster and is less protected, thus they do not correct errors very well. It is also much shorter than DNA and is single stranded rather than double stranded. There are multiple versatile types of RNA: mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA. Early protobionts containing enzymatic RNA could use their resources effectively, and thus increase through natural selection. The discovery of ribozymes led to this theory.

Why are radioactive elements useful for the study of biological systems?

Radioactive isotopes are one way to label or tag a specific molecule and then follow its progress either in a chemical reaction or in living cells and tissues - When a patient is injected with a radioactive element, a special camera can take pictures of the internal workings of the organ - they can be used to identify abnormal bodily processes - this is possible because some natural elements tend to concentrate in certain parts of the body: iodine in the thyroid, phosphorus in the bones, potassium in the muscles.

Prophase

Replicated DNA/Chromosomes condense around histone proteins & supercoils to form visible chromosomes (DNA was duplicated so the sister chromatids join together) - nuclear membrane begins to dissolve - centrioles form & begin to migrate to opposite sides of cell - microtubules organize around centrioles to form mitotic spindles - spindle fibers attach to kinetochore proteins at centromere (holding sister chromatids together) - sister pairs form tetrads perform crossing over, happens in prophase I

How Homologous Anatomical Structures Supports The Evolutionary Theory

Represent variations on a structural theme that was present in their common ancestor - anatomical resemblances that would be highly unlikely if these structures had arisen anew in each species - ex: wings, flippers, forelegs - can compare early stages of development in dif animal species, show anatomical homologies not visible in adults (tails, throat arches that turn into gills for fish)

Function & location of sensory neuron

Responsible for converting extra stimuli from the organisms environment into internal electrical impulses - respond to tactile stimuli & can activate motor neurons in order to achieve muscle contraction - also called afferent neurons, and are located in the dorsal ganglia of the spinal cord - carry signals from the outer parts of your body (periphery) into the central nervous system - long dendrite and short axon, and carry messages from sensory receptors to the central nervous system

Solute Potential

Results from presence of solutes, an increase in solute [ ] will cause solute potential to decrease (it becomes more negative) - adding solute therefore lowers the water potential - can be calculated if you know solute [ ] - always negative

Endogenous Retro Viruses (ERVs)

Retrovirus stores its genetic info as RNA and reverse-transcribes it into DNA, which is randomly incorporated into the human DNA sequence - Sometimes it stays there FOREVER, especially in germ line cells - Shows that all humans, gorillas and chimpanzees got infected coincidentally by the exact same viruses @ exact same place (not coincidence)

Reverse Transcriptase & cDNA

Reverse transcription is a technique used by researchers to generate a complementary strand of DNA (cDNA) from RNA - A reverse transcriptase (RT) is an enzyme used to generate complementary DNA (cDNA) from an RNA template, a process termed reverse transcription

Elongation: Translation

Ribosome continues to translate each codon in turn - each corresponding AA is added to growing chain & linked via a bond called a peptide bond, continues till all codons are read

Describe the structure and the function of a ribosome

Ribosomes are complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein. They carry out protein synthesis. There are two types of ribosomes: Free Ribosomes which are ribosomes suspended in the cytosol, and Bound Ribosomes which are attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope. Free ribosomes produce proteins for the cell, while bound ribosomes produce proteins that are transported out of the cell.

S phase

S: Chromosome replicates. Each chromosome now has 2 sister chromatids

Chemically, what is the difference between a saturated fat and an unsaturated fat? How does this difference affect the properties of the molecules?

Saturated: no double bonds between carbons, all of the carbons are bonded to two or more hydrogens (saturated with hydrogen) - At room temperature, the molecules of a saturated fat are packed closely together forming a solid (butter) Unsaturated: at least one double bond between carbons, meaning that one or more carbons are only bonded to 1 hydrogen (not saturated with hydrogen) - Having double bonds changes the behavior of the molecule because free rotation cannot occur about a C=C double bond as it can with a C-C single bond (mainly affects melting point) - Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature because of kinks in some of their fatty acid hydrocarbon chains that do not allow them to pack closely together

How structure of H2O molecules accounts for floating ice & how it is useful for living systems

Water molecules are locked into a crystal-like lattice of hydrogen bonds, forming solid ice - Ice is less dense than liquid water because the hydrogen bonds in ice space the water molecules relatively far apart - enables life in bodies of water in the winter

How structure of H2O molecules accounts for good solvent properties & how it is useful for living systems

Water molecules gather closely around any substance that bears an electrical charge, whether that substance carries a full charge, or a charge separation - polar water molecules are attracted to ions and polar compounds, making these soluble - also causes hydrophobic exclusion, polar molecules/ions can move freely in cells - seawater contains variety of dissolved ions

Why celery soaked in salt water is so flexible and difficult to snap

Water potential would be higher in the celery cells than the solution - this would cause water to leave the plant and cause the turgor pressure to decrease, making the celery more flaccid and limp Celery soaked in salt water will become very dehydrated, as it is placed in a hypertonic salt solution (the solution is more concentrated than the celery, possesses more solute). This causes the cells inside to be very shriveled. So, water from the celery will move out of the celery, into the salt solution, in an attempt to reach equilibrium, as water moves from places of low concentration to places of high concentration. Due to the fact that the cells inside the celery are dehydrated and lack water, the only thing holding the structure together are cell walls and fibers present in the plant. The cells are not full of water, so they do not "burst" when they break, and are thus not as easy to snap. The material of the celery, especially when lacking water, is rigid and sturdy, so it does not break easily. The cell is flexible and flaccid because water left the celery. Celery soaked in tap water will take water in, as the celery is most likely more concentrated than its surrounding solution, making the celery hypertonic to the tap water. When water flows into the celery, this makes the celery turgid, so water flows into the celery in this situation, and the cells inside of it are very full of water and "swollen".

Why are living things mostly made of water?

Water provided a medium in which other molecules could move around and perform vital chemical interactions, without being held in place by strong covalent or ionic bonds - All organisms require a water-rich environment for growth and reproduction - good solvent, molecules can move freely

Is it possible to find the same gene in two different kinds of organisms but not find the protein that is produced from that gene?

Yes, this phenomenon is made possible by latent genes, or genes in an unexpressed state. Latent genes arise due to evolutionary pressures which make it helpful for some species not to express all of their genes. Because latent genes are inactive and therefore do not create proteins, the scenario described in the question is highly possible. Two different organisms can have the same gene, but organism 1 may have it in a latent state while the other may have the same gene as organism 1, but in an active and expressed state, therefore creating the protein associated with the shared gene.

*How Comparative Embryology Supports The Evolutionary Theory

When comparing embryos, they tend to have backbones in common & similar shapes - possible they share a common ancestor

Names for sense & antisense strand

Sense: coding strand, identical to mRNA Antisense: template strand

spindle (M) checkpoint

Sensor molecules make sure every kinetochore is attached to a spindle so all the chromosomes are lined up on the metaphase plate (daughter cells could have an unequal # of chromosomes) - if good anaphase happens

Explain why sexual reproduction increases variation among offspring much more than asexual reproduction does

Sexual reproduction increases variation among offspring because the sperm and egg have different combinations of genes than their parent organisms - Asexual reproduction does not have variation from sperm and egg because the offspring is an exact copy of a single parent In sexual reproduction, crossing over in meiosis shuffles the genes to produce genetic diversity (homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange parts with another) - Since homologous chromosomes can only have the same pair of genes or slightly different, the crossing provides shuffling and variation of genetic material - Each cell that carries out meiosis has 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes Independent assortment is the process in which each homologous chromosome in a pair goes into a separate gamete - Thus, each gamete has only one copy of each gene and that copy may be a different version of the same gene that is in another gamete Another reason is the process of fertilization, or gamete fusion - Gametes only contain half the amount of DNA of a normal cell, so the two gametes must form together in fertilization, creating a cell that will be able to form a new organism with a unique combination of genes

Survivorship curves

Shows the # or proportion of members of a cohort still alive at each age - based on convenient beginning cohort of 1000 indiv and uses logarithmic scale on y axis and relative scale on x axis 1. Type I: low mortality during early and middle age, rapid increase w old age 2. Type II: death rate is relatively constant thruout life span 3. Type III: high initial mortality, w the few offspring that survive likely to reach adulthood

Describe two pieces of molecular evidence that illustrate the common ancestry of all life on earth

Similar molecular components: nucleic acids, membranes, genetic code, protein usage, etc.

How are triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids similar? How do they differ?

Similar: are all types of lipids, made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with no polymers, all insoluble in water Triglycerides: made of glycerol backbone and three fatty acids and are connected by ester linkages (saturated and unsaturated fats) - long term energy storage Phospholipids: modified triglycerides having only two fatty acids attached per one glycerol, the third hydroxyl group joins with a phosphate group instead of a third fatty acid which happens in triglycerides - important for cell membranes with their polar (hydrophilic) head + nonpolar (hydrophobic) tails, they form a phospholipid bilayer Steroids: composed of a skeleton of 4 carbon rings - Cholesterol is the precursor from which other steroids are sythesized - serve as hormones which are crucial molecules in animals, help regulate body functions - can pass thru membrane bc built similarly/"mimic" it

List some examples of a single-gene and polygenic traits

Single Gene: - fewer phenotypes - SCA, color blindness, CF Polygenic: - more phenotypes - frequency of phenotypes often illustrated as bell curve - can have many possible genotypes, producing many possible phenotypes - eye color, hair color, height # of phenotypes is based upon the number of genes that control the trait

How Single Stranded Binding Proteins Contributes To The Process of DNA Replication

Single stranded binding proteins once the strands are split the proteins keep them from going back together

Synapse Function

Site where neurons communicate with other neurons, muscles, or glands - When a message reaches the end of a cell, a chemical moves across the synapse of the AXON to the DENDRITE of the next cell, delivering the chemical "message" - A junction between 2 nerve cells, containing a small gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter - Permits a neuron to pass an electrical signal to another neuron

Initiation: Translation

Small ribosomal unit binds to start of mRNA sequence - then a tRNA carrying AA (methionine) binds to start codon of mRNA sequence - next the large ribosomal unit binds to form complete initiation complex

Genetic drift tends to occur in what kind of populations?

Smaller Populations

Glycine

Smallest AA, side chains are smallest; not alot of space to restrict movement - a protein that needs to be moved around, either by a hinge or to be rotated, might see a glycine there to help improve its flexability (rotational)

The Fluid Mosaic Model

Some of the proteins form channels and pumps that help to move material across the cell membrane - they are mobile, proteins can migrate across cell Many substances can cross biological membranes, some are too large/strongly charged to cross lipid bilayer - most biological membranes are selectively permeable, also called semipermeable membranes - small nonpolar molecules likes gases (O2 & CO2) and steroids can pass directly thru cell membrane

Allopatric v Sympatric Speciation

Speciation can occur in two ways: 1) Allopatric: gene flow is interrupted when a population is divided into geographically isolated sub populations - once geo iso occurs, separated gene pools may diverge, dif mutations arise & natural selection/genetic drift can alter allele frequencies in dif ways 2) Sympatric (rarer): speciation occurs in populations that live in the same geographic area - contact & ongoing gene flow makes it less common, can occur if gene flow is reduced by factors such as polyploidy, sexual selection & habitat diffentiation - look more dif than members of allopatric

If species A and species B have very similar genes, what can you conclude about them?

Species A and B shared a relatively recent common ancestor

Biological Species

Species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring (BUT do not do so with members of other such groups)

Gametic Isolation

Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize the eggs of another species. For instance, sperm may not be able to survive in the reproductive tract of females of the other species, or biochemical mechanisms may prevent the sperm from penetrating the membrane surrounding the other species' eggs - Prezygotic

Splicing

Splicing is the process of editing of pre-mRNA - After, introns stay in nucleus & exons get exported to cytoplasm

How water is photolysed

Splitting of water occurs in presence of light absorbed by chlorophyll in thykaloid of chloroplast - this rxts w water & it splits in O2, which is released into atmosphere, and hydrogen - the hydrogen bonds to NADP to form NADPH, which is transferred to Calvin Cycle along w ATP - overall, water in oxidized (since H+ is removed) & energy is gained in photolysis which is required in Calvin Cycle

Why are starch and glycogen useful as energy storage molecules, while cellulose is useful for structure and support? Why isn't cellulose easily broken down?

Starch (mono) and glycogen (extensively branched, more dense, makes it easier to access glucose) (both polymers of glucose) are useful for energy storage because they are easily digested by organisms - their structure and shape allows them to be easily digested, the bonds between the α-glucose units are broken and energy is released - these bonds are broken with the help of starch-hydrolyzing enzymes The structure of cellulose makes it good for structure and support because they have β-glucose units - The β-glucose units that make up cellulose are not easily digested by most organisms because they do not have enzymes that can break the bonds between two β-glucose units because they only recognize α linkages - The β-glucose bonds in cellulose make tough fibers when linked

The Nucleus

Stores DNA, is surrounded by a nuclear envelope composed of a lipid bilayer - nuclear envelope is dotted w thousands of nuclear pores, which allow material to move into/out of nucleus - proteins make nuclear pores permeable (things can pass besides DNA) - first step in protein building - chromosomes (contain genetic info passed thru generations) are spread throughout nucleus in form of chromatin, a complex of DNA bound to proteins

Typical Ideas of the age of the earth & evolution before Darwin

Suggested that life changed gradually over time - Aristotle viewed species as unchanging - Linnaeus developed binomial format to name species (adopted a class. system) - Cuvier opposed evolution & believed each strata (rock layer) represented catastrophe - Hutton proposed geo. features came from gradual mechanisms (such as rivers forming valleys) - Lyell claimed geo. processes work the same as in the past, at the same rate - Lamarck proposed mechanism for how life changes over time (use&disuse, inheritance of acquired charac), believed evolution happens bc organisms have a drive to become more complex Earth was widely accepted to be a few thousand years old (6000)

BDNF Pathway

TRKB: an oncogene that BDNF binds to - oncogenes cause uncontrolled cell growth like cancer - if TRKB (receptor) was mutated so it was active all the time, would lead to ucontrolled growth of neurons - BDNF: binds to receptors, changes shape & switches on proteins inside cell (like kinases) - eventually turn on proteins that lead to gene expression

Anabolic Rxns

Taking small molecules and building them up by putting them together to make something bigger - consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones - Ex: synthesis of AA from simpler proteins, synthesis of protein from AA - Ex: photosynthesis

In Situ Hybridization

Technique to identify which genes are expressed in tissues and when 1. Add digoxigenin-labeled probe (cDNA probe), binds to specific gene 2. Add alkaline phosphatase-conjugated antibody 3. Add chemical that becomes dark purple dye when phosphate is removed; dye colors cell

Teleology and why it is contradicted by evolution. Provide three examples of evidence that directly contradict teleological thinking

Teleology: the idea that species choose how to evolve - evolution shows it is inaccurate - Ex: Darwins finches evolved to survive, but not right away like they would have if it were a choice - Ex: Some insects die, while some evolve from pesticides, would not choose to die if it were a choice - Ex: Dinosaurs would not have gone extinct if they could have chosen to evolve

Aquaporin

Tetramer - 4 subunits (mostly alpha helixes) - sits inside membrane & allows H2O to travel through it (osmosis) - hydrophilic parts (charged residues) throughout proteins - nonpolar AA on outside, polar AA @ ends of aquaporin (channel)

Why has the old "Kingdom" system proved to be impractical?

The # of kingdoms kept changing & lots of early studies performed in determining dif kingdoms were done by visual observation only, so not completely accurate - SOME prokaryotes differ as much from each other as they do from eukaryotes (before only 2 kingdoms)

Role of a Golgi Complex

The Golgi complex in a cell is the center for manufacturing, warehousing, sorting and shipping of proteins.

Human effects on the biosphere

The burning of fossil fuels and the growth of animal agriculture has led to large amounts of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide and methane) in the atmosphere - Higher concentrations of greenhouse gases trap more heat in the biosphere and result in global warming - In turn, this drives climate change

Pulmonary Circulation

The passage of venous blood from the right atrium of the heart through the right ventricle and pulmonary arteries to the lungs where it is oxygenated and its return via the pulmonary veins to enter the left atrium and participate in systemic circulation. 1) deoxygenated blood shoots down from the right atrium to the right ventricle 2) The heart then pumps it out of the right ventricle and into the pulmonary arteries to begin pulmonary circulation 3) The blood moves to the lungs, exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen, and returns to the left atrium Carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood back to the heart - deoxygenated blood from the body leaves from right atrium through the right ventricle through the pulmonary arteries, which carry the blood to each lung - moves blood to lungs to pick up oxygen and back to the heart so that oxygenated blood can be delivered (left atrium receives oxygenated blood from pulmonary vein & pumps it into the aorta) - deals w/ right heart

Chemical differences b/n carbs and lipids & roles they play

The ratio of Carbon atoms to Hydrogen atoms in fats is twice the ratio in carbohydrates, making lipids, much more efficient for storing chemical energy lipids- nonpolar, hydrophobic, insoluble in water, no monomer, glcyerol backbone bonded to fatty acid chains - long term energy storage - also useful in the formation of cell membranes (phospholipids) and they act as chemical messengers in the body (hormones=cholesterol and sex hormones) carbohydrates - made up of sugars, hydrophilic, 1:2:1 ratio, soluble in water - short term energy storage

Why do bacteria evolve so much faster than multicellular eukaryotes?

The reproduction time for a prokaryotic cell is 20 minutes, if a mutation occurs to cause a single bacteria cell to resist an antibiotic, a whole, potentially dangerous population of that resistant strain can come about a matter of hours or days - all systems of the "body" of a bacteria are contained in one cell, no complex/multicellular systems to develop - all that is needed to make a new kind of bacteria is a mutation of the DNA in nucleus

How does the structure of a ribosome enable its function?

The ribosomes are made of three sites where it holds the mRNA and allows the tRNA to come and match up with the mRNA and drop off the amino acid as it moves through the three sites

Why is the percentage similarity in the gene always lower than the percentage similarity in the protein for each of the species?

The same protein may be created by multiple different base sequences, allowing for different sequences to produce identical amino acids.

How does the second law of thermodynamics allow for diffusion of substances?

The second law is the trend toward randomization or increasing entropy - When the concentration of a substance on both sides of a membrane are equal, the distribution is more random than when they are unequal - Diffusion of a substance to a region where it is initially less concentrated INCREASES ENTROPY, making it an energetically favorable (SPONTANEOUS) process

How does the structure of a tRNA molecules enable its function?

The tRNA is responsible for bringing amino acids to the ribosome - The tRNA contains an anti-codon that matches up with a codon, when it does this it will release an amino acid.

thylakoids

a flattened membranous system of interconnected sacs that can be stacked like poker chips. They are the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll molecules sit inside each thylakoid membrane and capture light from the sun.

Evolutionary fitness

a measurement of the degree to which an organism can successfully adapt to its environment and can reproduce fertile offspring

Primary Protein Structure

a sequence of amino acids are bonded together through dehydration synthesis to create peptide bonds between two amino acids - the peptide bonds act as a partial double bond and inhibit free rotation, which affects the structural character of the coils and other shapes formed by chains of amino acids

The corals studied in the experiments described in the video can adjust their physiology to the conditions of higher water temperatures. Human can do something similar when they produce more melanin in their skin as a response to higher exposure to sunlight. This process is called

acclimation

stabilizing selection

acts against both extreme phenotypes and favors intermediate variants - mode of selection reduces variation & maintains status quo for a particular phenotype - selection favors individuals whose heritable phenotypic traits provide higher reproductive success than do the traits of other individuals - bell curve falls in on either side/squeezed in closer

*How it is possible for every cell in your body to have identical DNA

all of the cells in your body started from a single cell - that single cell then divided many, many times to turn into the 50 trillion or so cells that make up you - almost all of the cells in your body share the same DNA as was found in that first cell

Diagram the relationship between cdk and cyclin

cdk is always present - G2 checkpoint: good DNA makes cyclin build up, when cyclin binds to cdk MPF (mitosis promoting factor), MPF moves cell into mitosis - levels of proteins called cyclins build up in the cell & bind to cyclin-dependent kinase, forming CDK complexes - CDK molecules either add/remove phosphate groups from substrates to move the cell to the next stage of the cycle - in order to progress, cell must pass through several checkpoints, these assure that cells only divide when needed & when DNA duplication is completed & w/o errors

Behavioral Isolation

courtship rituals that attract mates and other behaviors unique to a species are effective reproductive barriers, even between closely related species - such behavioral rituals enable mate recognition: a way to identify potential mates of the same species - Prezygotic

Which chemical(s) have an effect on initial float times?

d only

Is it possible for a solution to be both hypotonic and hypertonic? Why or why not?

depends on how you're comparing - 1 cell in a solution can be hypertonic while another cell can be hypotonic (tonicity is relative)

Cambrian Explosion

diversification of animals

Phylogeny

evolutionary relationships amongst species inferred from data

matrix

fluid-filled space surrounded by the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. It contains many different enzymes including the mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes. Enzymes in the matrix catalyze some steps of cellular respiration.

In organisms that reproduce sexually, most variation that can be inherited is due to what?

gene recombination during sexual reproduction

What is it called when allele frequencies in the gene pool of a population remain constant?

genetic equilibrium

Asparagine

glycoslyation: subproteins can have bits of sugar, called glycoproteins - these sugar molecules act as tags to help identify how to sort & send off w/ where it needs to go inside cell

Glutamine

glycoslyation: subproteins can have bits of sugar, called glycoproteins - these sugar molecules act as tags to help identify how to sort & send off w/ where it needs to go inside cell

outer membrane of mitochondria

is smooth and it is the gateway to the mitochondrion, just like the cell membrane is for the cell. It has porins to allow smaller proteins in and protein complexes to allow bigger proteins in. It works in concert with the inner membrane to allow these proteins into the matrix.

cristae

is the inner folds of the mitochondrion where most ATP is made.

Why carbon is central to the structure of all biological molecules

it can form up to 4 covalent bonds even with itself - enables it to form a variety of carbon skeleton chains: straight, balls, coils, tubes, branches, etc

To Find M of given substance...

make a graph w/ percent change on y axis and molarity on x axis - where ever line of best fit is on 0, is where molarity can be estimated - can use this to find osmolarity (iC)

*What factors could likely disrupt genetic equilibrium in a large population?

mating that is not random

Formation of gametes in Sordaria fungus

meiosis I, meiosis II, mitosis - begins w diploid nuclei, ends in 4 haploid cells - one haploid combines w another haploid (fusion of spores), delivers chromosome from wild dark type & one from tan type - 2 chromosomes (diploid zygote) undergoes replication, makes sister chromatids, undergoes meiosis to produce haploid ascospores, yielding four haploid nuclei contained in a sac called an ascus - after MI & MII, the 4 haploid nuclei undergo mitosis, resulting in an ascus containing eight haploid ascospores from one diploid zygote 1. No Crossing Over: 4:4 ratio 2. Crossing Over: 2:4:2, 2:2:2:2 - % Crossover = # crossing over/total counted x 100

Secondary Protein Structure

motifs, amino acids are in a helix/pleated form due to the hydrogen bonds between amino acids & carboxyl groups, causing there to be more structure in the protein - Alpha helix (spiral): N-H of peptides is H bonded to C=O of other peptide bond - Beta sheets (relatively flat, up/down): can form anti parallel chains

Sensory Neurons

neurons that receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord - neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Termination: Translation

occurs when the ribosome reaches a stop codon (UAA, UAG, and UGA) - Since there are no tRNA molecules that can recognize these codons, the ribosome recognizes that translation is complete - The new protein is then released, and the translation complex comes apart

Global climate change of the earth is having many detrimental effects for humans and other living species. These include rising sea level, increased storms, and ocean warming. What is a fourth harmful effect discussed in detail in the video?

ocean acidification

Relationship between the dissociation of water and the pH of a particular aqueous solution

pH is the measure of H+ ion [ ], hydrogen ions are produced when water is disassociating

What is the Hardy-Weinberg equation and what does each part mean?

p^2+2pq+q^2=1 p+q=1 p^2:frequency of homozygous dominant individuals p: frequency of dominant allele q^2: frequency of homozygous recessive individuals q: frequency of recessive allele 2pq: frequency of heterozygous individuals

Hormonal Control of Blood Calcium

parathyroid hormone (PTH): any one of four endocrine glands situated above or within the thyroid gland - control calcium within the blood - work like the thermostat in your home to keep blood calcium levels in a very tightly controlled range - When the blood calcium level is too low: PTH is released to bring the calcium level back up to normal - When the calcium level is normal or gets a little too high: normal parathyroids will stop releasing PTH

Marfan's syndrome is caused by genetic mutation within the fibrillin gene. This syndrome is charaterized by a variety of symptoms including heart murmurs, lens dislocation in the eye and above average height, but with weak muscles. Based upon this information, which type of genetic phenomena does Marfan's syndrome exhibit?

pleiotropy

Epigenetics, DNA methylation & Histone Acetylation

the study of heritable changes in gene expression (active versus inactive genes) that do not involve changes to the underlying DNA sequence — a change in phenotype without a change in genotype — which in turn affects how cells read the genes.

In an experiment done to measure photosynthetic rates in plants, what is the function of DPIP?

It accepts electrons.

Types of Cell Communication

1. Cell-cell contact 2. Paracrine 3. Endocrine 4. Nervous system

Coenzymes & Cofactors

1. CE: organic cofactors - vitamins 2. CF: nonprotein parts of enzymes - minerals & vitamins

Extent of Diffusion

1. Calculate total volume of each cube (volume = L x W x H) 2. Calculate volume that did not turn pink 3. Calculate volume diffused = total volume - volume not pink 4. Calculate % diffusion = Volume diffused /total volume x 100.

Stimulations and Effects on Action Potentials

1. Resting Potential: More Na+ outside the neuron and more K+ inside due to Na/K pump, Outside of membrane is more positive 2. Depolarization: opens Na+ channel, Na+ ions move inside and flip the charge - inside is now more positive, allows action potential to move down cell 3. Repolarization: Na+ door closes, K+ door opens, K+ ions move outside the cell and then its door closes quickly once charge is more positive on the outside once again (flips back charge) - the action potential then arrives at the axon terminal, changes from electrical to chemical signal

Mechanisms that end transcription

1. Rho-mediated termination - binding of Rho to ribosome-free mRNA, C-rich sites being good candidates for binding - acts as helicase when it reaches transcriptional bubble 2. Hairpin loop formation (Rho independent, intrinsic) - hairpin loop is bending of RNA forces polymerase to fall off DNA & terminate transcription - nucleotide area that is GC rich (makes H bonds that form hairpin loop) makes kink and kicks off polymerase, indicating end U-rich sequences result in A=U bonds that are weaker than C=-G bonds, so RNA chain can be easily released

List 4 reasons why natural selection cannot product perfect organisms.

1. Selection can act only on existing variations 2. Evolution is limited by historical constraints 3. Adaptations are often compromises 4. Chance, natural selection, and the environment interact

Events in BOTH Mitosis & Meiosis That Ensure Daughter Cells Inherit Appropriate # of Chromosomes

1. Spindle elements (microtubules) form/attach to chromosomes 2. Chromatin condenses 3. Alignment of chromosomes across center of cell prior to chromosome separation 4. Separation of chromatids/centromeres to daughter cells 5. G2/M checkpoint occurs in both processes 6. Replication or synthesis of DNA precedes mitosis/meiosis 7. Cytokinesis separates daughter cells after mitosis/meiosis

How is the structure of a lysosome related to its function?

A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that an animal cell uses to digest macromolecules. The membranous sac helps the lysosome to fuse with other vesicles to get their macromolecules from food or broken organelles, digestive enzymes help to break those down to monomers that can be reused as nutrients. The membranous sac also is able to engulf substances to aid in digestion. Enzymes are contained by a membrane because they are hydrolytic and would destroy the rest of the cell if released out of the membrane.

How large of a change to the structure of an organic molecule has to be made for that molecule to have a major difference in its effect on a living system?

A miniscule change can be made to the structure of an organic molecule that has a major difference in its effect on a living system - changes can occur in covalent arrangements of atoms, in the spatial arrangement, or can be mirror images of each other because of an asymmetric carbon - even though these changes seem very small, they create different properties of the same element

Anabaena is a simple multicellular photosynthetic cyanobacterium. In the absence of fixed nitrogen, certain newly developing cells along a filament express genes that code for nitrogen-fixing enzymes and become nonphotosynthetic heterocysts. The specialization is advantageous because some nitrogen-fixing enzymes function best in the absence of oxygen. Heterocysts do not carry out photosynthesis but instead provide adjacent cells with fixed nitrogen, in exchange receiving fixed carbon and reduced energy carriers. As shown in the diagram above, when there is low fixed nitrogen in the environment, an increase in the concentration of free calcium ions and 2-oxyglutarate stimulates the expression of genes that produce two transcription factors (NtcA and HetR) that promote the expression of genes responsible for heterocyst development. HetR also causes production of a signal, PatS, that prevents adjacent cells from developing as heterocysts. Based on your understanding of the ways in which signal transmission mediates cell function, which of the following predictions is most consistent with the information given above? A. In an environment with low fixed nitrogen, treating the Anabaena cells with a calcium-binding compound should prevent heterocyst differentiation. B. A strain that overexpresses the patS gene should develop many more heterocysts in a low fixed nitrogen environment. C. In an environment with abundant fixed nitrogen, free calcium levels should be high in all cells so that no heterocysts develop. D. In environments with abundant fixed nitrogen, loss of the hetR gene should induce heterocyst development.

A. In an environment with low fixed nitrogen, treating the Anabaena cells with a calcium-binding compound should prevent heterocyst differentiation.

The endocrine system incorporates feedback mechanisms that maintain homeostasis. Which of the following demonstrates negative feedback by the endocrine system? A. During labor, the fetus exerts pressure on the uterine wall, inducing the production of oxytocin, which stimulates uterine wall contraction. The contractions cause the fetus to further push on the wall, increasing the production of oxytocin. B. After a meal, blood glucose levels become elevated, stimulating beta cells of the pancreas to release insulin into the blood. Excess glucose is then converted to glycogen in the liver, reducing blood glucose levels. C. At high elevation, atmospheric oxygen is more scarce. In response to signals that oxygen is low, the brain decreases an individual's rate of respiration to compensate for the difference. D. A transcription factor binds to the regulatory region of a gene, blocking the binding of another transcription factor required for expression.

B. After a meal, blood glucose levels become elevated, stimulating beta cells of the pancreas to release insulin into the blood. Excess glucose is then converted to glycogen in the liver, reducing blood glucose levels.

*FIGURE 1: Researchers investigating the regulation of neurotransmitter release from presynaptic neurons proposed a model (Figure 1) in which CDK5, a protein expressed in axon terminals, inhibits the movement of synaptic vesicles to the presynaptic membrane. To test their model, the researchers used a modified version of green fluorescent protein (GFP). In slightly alkaline conditions, GFP exhibits a bright green fluorescence. In acidic conditions, GFP exhibits no fluorescence. Using standard techniques, the gene encoding is easily introduced into living cells. By engineering the expression of GFP in laboratory-cultured nerve cells, the researchers found that a bright green fluorescence was exhibited only when a presynaptic neuron was given a certain stimulus. Based on the model, which of the following best explains how regulation of neurotransmitter release might increase the range of responses to a stimulus in the nervous system? A. In the absence of any stimulus, neurons can still release neurotransmitters. B. Different neurons in the same neural network can release different amounts of neurotransmitter. C. In the depolarization phase of an action potential, postsynaptic neurons can adjust the amount of neurotransmitter bound to receptors on their surface. D. In the recovery phase following a stimulus, enzymes can be mobilized to degrade molecules present in the synaptic vesicles.

B. Different neurons in the same neural network can release different amounts of neurotransmitter

*FIGURE on pg 11 Testosterone oxido-reductase is a liver enzyme that regulates testosterone levels in alligators. One study compared testosterone oxido-reductase activity between male and female alligators from Lake Woodruff, a relatively pristine environment, and from Lake Apopka, an area that has suffered severe contamination. The graph above depicts the findings of that study. The data in the graph best support which of the following claims? A. Environmental contamination elevates total testosterone oxido-reductase activity in females. B. Environmental contamination reduces total testosterone oxido-reductase activity in females. C. Environmental contamination elevates total testosterone oxido-reductase activity in males. D. Environmental contamination reduces total testosterone oxido-reductase activity in males.

B. Environmental contamination reduces total testosterone oxido-reductase activity in females.

Only very small things like water molecules and ions are able to pass through nuclear pores. A. True B. False

B. False

What molecule gets converted to acetyl-CoA in the steps just previous to the Kreb's cycle? A. NADH B. pyruvate C. ATP D. citric acid

B. pyruvate

In a bacterial cell, one of the ribosome subunits is called 30s and is composed of about 20 different proteins. A mutation occurs that changes the structure of one of these proteins. What effect will this most likely have on the bacterial cell? A. it would stimulate binary cell fission and the cell would divide uncontrollably B. the cell would be unable to properly synthesize proteins C. development of abnormal hereditary features would occur in the cell D. increased protein absorption would occur through the cell membrane

B. the cell would be unable to properly synthesize proteins

Homogenizing a tissue sample of liver cells in a buffer solution, followed by centrifugation at 20,000 g results in a liquid supernatant floating on top of a pellet of heavier cellular debris. Which of the following components would you most likely find in the supernatant solution? A. Aquaporins B. the glycolytic protein phosphofructokinase C. ER protein translocator channels D. the carbohydrate degradative enzyme lysosomal alpha-glucosidase

B. the glycolytic protein phosphofructokinase

*FIGURE on page 12 Which of the following statements accurately uses the information presented to support the hypothesis that interruption of M function in a single body cell can result in cancer? A. Protein 3 will be prevented from interacting with CAMs, causing the cell cycle to stop permanently. B. The ras protein will remain bound to DNA, blocking expression of genes required for mitosis. C. Growth-factor signaling can trigger mitosis in cells that are in direct contact with other cells. D. The receptor proteins of body cells will no longer bind to growth-factor proteins.

C. Growth-factor signaling can trigger mitosis in cells that are in direct contact with other cells.

Some viral infections can lead to the rupture of the lysosome membrane. Which prediction of the effect of this disruption of cellular compartmentalization is most likely correct? A. Enzymes will be released that will specifically target the virus. B. Cellular osmotic concentrations will change, preventing viral entry into the cell. C. Hydrolytic enzymes will be released, which will cause cell death. D. Intracellular digestion of organic materials will increase, which will increase the energy available to the cell for fighting the virus.

C. Hydrolytic enzymes will be released, which will cause cell death

Imagine you have a membrane that is permeable only to water molecules. How could the process of reverse osmosis be utilized to purify salt water into drinking water? A. Increase atmospheric pressure to the side of the membrane without salt water B. Add more salt to the salt water side to drive pure water across the membrane C. Increase atmospheric pressure to the side of the membrane with salt water D. Heating the salt water side of the membrane to cause water to evaporate

C. Increase atmospheric pressure to the side of the membrane with salt water

Researchers investigate the transport of a certain protein into cells by endocytosis. In an experiment, the researchers incubate the cells in the presence of the protein and measure the amount of the protein that is absorbed into the cells over a five-minute period. Based on their observations, what should the researchers do to further clarify how the availability of the protein outside the cells affects the rate of endocytosis of the protein? A. Incubate the cells in the absence of the protein. B. Incubate the cells in the presence of several different proteins. C. Incubate the cells in the presence of several different concentrations of the protein. D. Incubate the cells in the presence of the protein for several different lengths of time.

C. Incubate the cells in the presence of several different concentrations of the protein - Changing the concentration of the protein will change the availability of the protein outside the cells

The diagram above illustrates feedback control as exerted by the hormone thyroxine. Following surgical removal of the thyroid gland, the level of TSH in the blood will increase. Which of the following best explains this increase? A. Residual blood thyroxine, from prior to thyroid gland removal, will bind to cells in the anterior pituitary, signaling more TSH secretion. B. Thyroxine will remain bound to thyroxine receptors on various body cells, and these body cells will secrete additional hormones that stimulate the anterior pituitary to secrete TSH. C. Thyroxine that was stored in the anterior pituitary prior to thyroid gland removal will signal more TSH secretion. D. A decrease in thyroxine levels means a loss of inhibition to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, leading to increased TSH secretion.

D. A decrease in thyroxine levels means a loss of inhibition to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, leading to increased TSH secretion.

The figure above shows a model of a ligand precursor being cleaved to produce an active ligand that binds to a specific receptor. Which of the following is most likely to reduce the binding of the active ligand to its receptor? A. A change in the cytoskeletal attachment of transmembrane proteins B. The presence of a large amount of the precursor form of the ligand C. An increase in the ratio of the number of unsaturated to the number of saturated fatty acid tails of the membrane lipids D. A mutation in the receptor gene that causes a substitution of a charged amino acid for a nonpolar amino acid in the ligand binding site of the receptor

D. A mutation in the receptor gene that causes a substitution of a charged amino acid for a nonpolar amino acid in the ligand binding site of the receptor

Researchers have proposed a model of chloroplast evolution. According to the model, chloroplasts evolved from a small prokaryotic organism that was engulfed by an ancestral eukaryote. The engulfed prokaryote then formed an endosymbiotic relationship with the eukaryotic host. Which of the following observations best supports the model? A. Chloroplasts are separated from other subcellular compartments by semipermeable membranes. B. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms both acquire nutrients from the surrounding environment. C. Eukaryotes evolved after prokaryotes and have more complex structures. D. Chloroplasts and some prokaryotes share similar photosynthetic reactions.

D. Chloroplasts and some prokaryotes share similar photosynthetic reactions

*FIGURE 1: Which of the following observations best supports the hypothesis that CDK5 negatively regulates neurotransmitter release? A. Introduction of CDK5 protein into neurons results in the movement of synaptic vesicles to the plasma membrane in the absence of any stimulus. B. Uptake of a gene encoding CDK5 by neurons results in the movement of synaptic vesicles to the plasma membrane in the absence of any stimulus. C. Suppression of CDK5 expression in neurons inhibits the movement of synaptic vesicles to the plasma membrane in response to a specific stimulus. D. Inhibition of CDK5 activity in neurons increases the movement of synaptic vesicles to the plasma membrane in response to a specific stimulus.

D. Inhibition of CDK5 activity in neurons increases the movement of synaptic vesicles to the plasma membrane in response to a specific stimulus.

Acridine Orange: Stains DNA/RNA Osmium Tetroxide: Stains lipids Eosin: Stains cell cytoplasm Nile Blue: Stain cell nuclei Which dye could the technician use to determine whether the cells are prokaryotic or eukaryotic? A. Acridine Orange B. Osmium Tetroxide C. Eosin D. Nile Blue

D. Nile Blue

*FIGURE on page 7 Steroid hormones, such as testosterone, pass through the plasma membrane and bind to an intracellular protein, as shown in the diagram below. The hormone-receptor complex then enters the nucleus, where it interacts with DNA to promote transcription of a specific gene. Based on the information presented, which of the following will also occur in response to steroid signaling? A. Histone protein synthesis will increase because histones maintain the DNA in an optimal conformation for chromosome assembly. B. Ribosome production will increase because ribosomes are specific for the mRNA with which they bind during translation. C. DNA replication will increase as a result of the binding of the hormone-receptor complex to the DNA. D. Production of a specific mRNA will increase as a result of the binding of the hormone-receptor complex to the DNA.

D. Production of a specific mRNA will increase as a result of the binding of the hormone-receptor complex to the DNA.

If one were to place an animal in a respirometer, what do you think would happen to its respiration rate as the temperature is reduced from 20 0C to 4 0C? A. Oxygen usage would increase to generate more heat energy at the lower temperature. B. It would always decrease as its enzymes would work more slowly at lower temperatures. C. No respiration would occur as proteins denature at very cold temperatures. D. Rates would vary depending on if the animal is ectothermic or endothermic.

D. Rates would vary depending on if the animal is ectothermic or endothermic.

When a stimulus is applied to a receptor in the skin, an action potential is propagated along a neuron to the brain, where another signal is sent back to the muscle for a response. Which of the following best describes what occurs when the action potential reaches a chemical synapse at the end of an axon? A. The action potential jumps from one axon to the next connecting axon. B. The action potential travels through the synapse to the next connecting dendrite. C. The action potential jumps the synapse to the next connecting dendrite. D. The action potential causes a release of neurotransmitters that travel across the synapse.

D. The action potential causes a release of neurotransmitters that travel across the synapse.

What most likely explains the difference observed between the beans soaked in water versus the beans soaked in NaCl solution? A. The beans soaked in salt had some of their proteins denature and thus less respiration occurred. B. The salt solution was anoxic which caused the beans to make ATP by fermentation. C. The salt solution entered the mitochondria and disrupted the electron transport chain. D. The beans soaked in the salt solution lost water which disrupted the internal osmolarity.

D. The beans soaked in the salt solution lost water which disrupted the internal osmolarity.

There are dozens of proteins involved in the process shown in Figure 4 of the review article. What is that process shown? A. phagocytosis B. endocytosis C. pinocytosis D. exocytosis

D. exocytosis

What do molecules such as NADPH, NADH, and FADH2 carry between the various reactions of the photosynthesis, fermentation and respiration pathways? A. ATP B. carbon dioxide C. ADP D. high-energy electrons

D. high-energy electrons

Genetic Drift

Genetic drift is when changes occur in the allelic frequency due to chance rather than natural selection. Genetic drift is unpredictable because the allele frequencies is by chance. As population increases, genetic drift has less influence on the overall fitness of a specific population. Additionally, as population increases, gene fixation (the loss of alleles) decreases. There is the bottleneck and founder effect.

What was the reason to include a trial with water alone on both sides of the membrane?

It acts as a control to identify systematic error of the soaking and massing procedures

Lysine

Good @ binding w DNA backbones bc it is positively charged & DNA is negatively charged

How Molecular Homology (DNA & proteins) Supports The Evolutionary Theory

Homologies: phenotypic & genetic similarities due to shared ancestry - align comparable sequences from species being studied, when closely related, sequences do not differ greatly (meaning there was a common ancestor) - orthologous genes: homology is result of speciation event & occurs b/n genes found in different species (diverge after speciation takes place, genes are found in different genes pools, like c genes in dogs&humans) - paralogous genes: homology results from gene duplication, so multiple copies of these genes have diverged from one another w/in a species (can diverge w/in a species bc present in more than one copy in the genome, like olfactory bulbs in humans)

Cells in Different Solutions

Hypertonic: contracted cell membranes, indicative of being in a hypertonic solution that would remove water from inside the cell - white gaps, not all green - dark vertical & horizontal: cell walls - smaller, green, circular structures: chloroplasts

Energy Totals From Cellular Respiration

In presence of O2, the complete breakdown of glucose through CR results in about 36 ATP molecules 1. This represents about 36% of total energy of glucose, remaining 64% is lost as heat 2. The cell can generate ATP from about any source, even though it is modeled w glucose - complex carbs are broken down into simple sugars like glucose - lipids & proteins can be broken down into molecules that enter Krebs Cycle or glycolysis @ one of several places

*Explain why we can infer that the Universal Common Ancestor of all life on earth was UNICELLULAR

In the beginning, prokaryotes joined together to create eukaryotes

What are differences between ionic and covalent bonds?

Ionic bonds when atoms with opposite charges attract each other. Covalent bonds form when two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons

How to identify if a substance is covalent (molecular) or ionic

Ionic: If a compound is made from a metal and a non-metal Covalent: If a compound is made from two non-metals - The basic differences between these substances is that unlike ionic bonds, covalent bonds are formed between two individual atoms giving rise to true, discrete molecules

Why do atoms bond?

Ionic: atoms of opposite charges attract each other Covalent: more stable to share e-, rxt to make outer shells full

Explain the concept of an isomer. As the number of carbon atoms in a molecule increases, what happens to the number of possible isomers of that molecule?

Isomers are compounds that have the same number of atoms in the same elements but vary in structures - 3 types of isomers: structural isomers, geometric isomers, and enantiomers 1. Structural isomers differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms 2. Geometric isomers differ in their spatial arrangements from double bonds 3. Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other because they form around an asymmetric carbon - the number of possible isomers increases with the number of carbon atoms because new possibilities and variations can occur

Explain one normal function of lysosomes in multicellular organism and one abnormal function?

Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to destroy pathogens (disease-causing organisms) that might enter the cell. Macrophages (a type of white blood cell) carry out phagocytosis. Macrophages helps defend the body by engulfing pathogens, fusing with lysosomes, which then destroying bacteria and other invaders. Some people have inherited lysosomal storage diseases. These people lack a functioning hydrolytic enzyme that is usually in a lysosome. Lysosomes then can not break down substances and then they become engorged with these substances. They begin to interfere with cellular activities. One example is Tay-Sachs disease.

Lytic & Lysogenic Pathways

Lytic: Bacteriophage infects bacteria, attaching to host, uses proteins to inject DNA to cell - phage enters DNA & degrades host DNA - synthesis of viral genomes/proteins - assembly (head, tail, tail fibers) - Lysis Pops/cell release Lysogenic: Phage attaches to host & injects DNA (inserts genetic material into host genome, combines viral DNA w/ host chromosomes) - Phage DNA integrates w/in bacterial chromosome by recombination, becomes prophage - lysogenic bacterium produces normally - prohage may excise from chromosomes & initiate lytic cycle

Explain the effect that point mutations and frame-shift mutations can have on gene products in missense mutations

Missense Mutation: a point mutation in which a single nucleotide change results in a codon that codes for a different amino acid - For missense mutations the gene product is effected, affects one amino acid

How to analyze and create cladograms/ evolutionary trees

Phylogenetic tree: A branching diagram that reflects evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms - tree represents a hypothesis about evolutionary relationships - best data to use is genetic sequences in nature for PT (DNA, RNA, protein sequences) - based on assumption that genes are passed vertically, so horizontal events explains why trees built w dif genes give inconsistent results - each branch point represents the common ancestor of the two evolutionary lineages diverging from it - sister taxa: groups of organisms that share an immediate common ancestor not shared by any other group - rooted: a branch point w/in tree represents most recent ancestor of all taxa in tree (far left) - basal taxon: a lineage that diverges from all other members of its group early in the history of the group - show patterns of descent, not phenotypic similarity - length of branches do not indicate degree of evo change in each lineage (usually, but it can) Cladograms show common ancestors

How does one identify if a molecule is polar or non-polar?

Polar: electrons are equally shared Nonpolar: bonds (e-) are equally shared

How ATP is made in respiration: Step One

Step One: Glycolysis (anaerobic, cytoplasm) 1. Glucose is broken down into 2 molecules of the 3-carbon molecule pyruvic acid, 2 ATP & 2 NADH are produced - This ATP is made by substrate level phosphorylation 2. Produces only a small amount of energy, most of glucoses energy (90%) remains locked in chemical bonds of pyruvic acid (pyruvate) at end of glycolysis

How ATP is made in respiration: Step Three

Step Three: Electron Transport Chain (aerobic, mitochondria) 1. Produces bulk of energy in cellular respiration by using oxygen, a powerful electron acceptor - in prokaryotes, takes place in plasma membrane (generate gradients across this membrane) 2. High energy e- get transferred thru ETC, creates H2O & and H+ gradient that can be used to make ATP using ATP synthase complex - this ATP is made by oxidative phosphorylation (uses O2 to make ATP in ETC) - NADH & FADH2 pump H+ from matrix to intermembrane space, then H+ moves back to matric through ATP synthase Chemiosmosis: Process where energy stored in form of H+ ion gradient across a membrane is used to drive cellular work to synthesize ATP

How ATP is made in respiration: Step Two

Step Two: Krebs Cycle (aerobic, mitochondria) 1. A little more energy is generated from pyruvic acid, which acts as a reactant & CO2 is produced - pyruvate enters mitochondria & is oxidized to acetyl CoA (in prokaryotes it happens in cytosol) 2. PA is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy extracting rxns - each molecule of glucose results in 2 "turns" of Krebs Cycle (PA enters matrix) - 3 carbon PA loses one carbon (once carbon is lost, CO2 is given off), 2 carbon fragment attaches to CoA & makes Acetyl CoA (as bonds break, more e- make more NADH) - 3 CO2 are lost, more ATP production (substrate level) so directly put phosphates onto ADP = ATP 3. For each glucose, 6 CO2, 2 ATP, 8 NADH & 2 FADH2 are produced - NADH & FADH2 carry high energy e-

Steroid & Peptide Hormone Differences

Steroid hormones bind to the receptors inside the cytoplasm to act as second messengers, modifying the transcription, whereas peptide hormones mainly bind to the cell surface receptors the DNA in the nucleus 1. Steroid are made of cholesterol, peptide made of AA 2. Steroid are hydrophobic, peptide hydrophilic 3. Steroid made in SER, peptide in RER 4. Steroid= made when needed, peptide= stored 5. S= stuck to protein carriers to travel thru blood, P= freely transport 6. S= 2nd messengers, P= bind directly to DNA 7. S= slower & permanent, P= rapid & temporary 8. Steroids: estrogen&cortisol Peptides: calcitonin&antidiuretic

5' capping

The 5' cap adds a modified nucleotide that has phosphate attached - added to the first nucleotide in the transcript during transcription - increases RNA stability by blocking 5' exonucleases (catalyze removal of nucleotides)

Differences between smooth and rough ER

The difference between rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum is that the rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes attached to the outer surface of the membrane and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have attached ribosomes.

How structure of H2O molecules accounts for cohesion & how it is useful for living systems

The polarity of water molecules causes them to be attracted to one another (H bond), holds molecules together - responsible for making H2O a liquid @ moderate temps & surface tension - helps transport water against gravity in plants

How does the type of bonds present in a substance influence the chemical and physical properties of that substance?

The properties of a compound depend on the chemical bonds that hold its atoms together - Most ionic compound will be a solid at room temperature, have extremely high melting and boiling points, The rigid crystal network also makes them hard, brittle, and poor conductors of electricity - No moving electrical charges means no current will flow, They often dissolve easily in water, separating into positive ions and negative ions - the separated ions can move freely, so solutions of ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity. Covalent compounds have almost the exact opposite properties of ionic compounds - Since the atoms are organized as individual molecules, melting or boiling a covalent compound does not require breaking chemical bonds - often melt and boil at lower temperatures than ionic compounds - molecules stay together when dissolved in water, which means covalent compounds are poor conductors of electricity

polyploidy

a species may originate from an accident during cell division that results in extra sets of chromosomes - autopolyploid: individual that has more than two chromosome sets that are all derived from a single species (can perform reproductive isolation w/o geographic separation) - allopolyploid: in subsequent generations, various mechanisms can change a sterile hybrid into a fertile polyploid (represent a new biological species)

Interspecies interactions

any interaction between members of different species

*The adaptive strategies of animal, plant and protist cells for dealing with tonicity of their environments

contractile vacuole-fills with water instead of entire cell filling with water, expels once full

From your viewing of the icefish video, which of the following genes is non-functional in the organism, which is in fact an adaptation for living in extremely cold oceans?

hemoglobin

Why energy pyramid has its shape

the energy flow in a food chain is always unidirectional. Also, with every increasing trophic level, some energy is lost into the environment and never goes back to the sun.