AP Biology ALL CHAPTERS

seasonality, large bodies of water, mountains

3 things that affect climate

life table

A ___ _____ is an age-specific summary of the survival pattern of a population.

benthic

Invertebrates live in the ____ zone.

curved

Latitudinal variation in sunlight intensity is cause by the _____ shape of the Earth.

moderate

Oceans, their currents, and large lakes _____ the climate of nearby terrestrial environments.

tropics

Sunlight strikes the _____ most directly.

survivorship curve

a graphic way of representing the data in a life table

temperature, water/oxygen, salinity, sunlight, rocks/soil

abiotic factors that affect the distribution of organisms may include: (5)

predation, herbivory, mutualism, parasitism, competition

biotic factors that affect the distribution of organisms may include: (5)

trade winds

blow east to west in the tropics

westerlies

blow west to east in temperate zones

littoral zone

close to shore where rooted and floating aquatic plants live

global ecology

concerned with the biosphere

macroclimate

consists of patterns on the global, regional, and landscape level

marine benthic zone

consists of the seafloor, species adapted to continuous cold and high water pressure

community ecology

deals with the whole array of interacting species in a community

global, landscape, ecosystem, community, population, organismal

different kinds of ecology (GLECPO)

zooplankton

drifting heterotrophs that graze on the phytoplankton

ecosystem ecology

emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling among the various biotic and abiotic components

population ecology

explores how biotic and abiotic factors influence density, distribution, and size of population

population ecology

focuses on factors affecting population size over time

landscape ecology

focuses on the exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms across multiple ecosystems

temperate broadleaf forest

found at midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, with smaller areas in Chile, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, include deciduous trees

temperature, precipitation, sunlight, wind

four major abiotic components of climate

biosphere

global ecosystem, the sum of all the planet's ecosystems

photic zone

has sufficient light for photosynthesis

type 3 survivorship curve

high death rates for the young and a lower death rate for survivors

zooplankton

includes protists, worms, krill, jellies, and invertebrate larvae

wetlands

inundated by water at least sometimes and support plants adapted to water-saturated soil

ok

look at that diagram w all the winds and currents and stuff (a)

ok

look at that mountain diagram (b)

type 1 survivorship curve

low death rates during early and middle life and an increase in death rates among older age groups

biomes

major life zones characterized by vegetation type (terrestrial ____) or physical environment (aquatic ____)

oligotrophic lakes

nutrient-poor and generally oxygen-rich

eutrophic lakes

nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen if ice covered in winter

temperate grasslands

occur at midlatitudes, often in the interior of continents, seasonal precipitation, grasses and forbs, large grazing animals

deserts

occur in bands near 30˚ north and south of the equator and in the interior of continents, plants adapted for heat, water storage, and reduced leaf surface area, many nocturnal animals

zero population growth (ZPG)

occurs when the birth rate equals the death rate (r=0)

intertidal zones, high

periodically submerged and exposed by the tides; oxygen and nutrient levels are ____

pelagic zone

photic and aphotic zones make up the

climograph

plots the temperature and precipitation in a region

exponential population growth

population increase under idealized conditions

aphotic zone

receives little light

salinity

salt concentration, affects the water balance of organisms through osmosis

northern coniferous forest

spans northern North America and Eurasia and is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth, pine, spruce, fir, and hemlock trees dominate

organismal ecology

studies how an organism's structure, physiology, and (for animals) behavior meet environmental challenges

distribution, precipitation, temperature, plants, animals

terrestrial biomes can be characterized by: (5)

lakes

vary in size from small ponds to very large

limnetic zone

water is too deep to support rooted aquatic plants; the primary producers are phytoplankton

dominance

!!! The labeled __________ of two alleles can change as you go from organismal level to molecular level.

endangered species

"in danger of becoming extinct throughout all or a significant portion of its range"

pinocytosis

("cellular drinking") type of endocytosis; a cell continually "gulps" droplets of extracellular fluid into tiny vesicles, nonspecific for the substances it transports (any and all solutes are taken into the cell)

phagocytosis

("cellular eating") type of endocytosis; a cell engulfs a particle by wrapping pseudopodia around it and packaging it within a membranous sac called a food vacuole, where it will later be digested when the food vacuole fuses with a lysosome

mutualism

(+/+) an interspecific interaction that benefits both species

parasitism

(+/-) one organism, the parasite, derives nourishment from another organism, its host, which is harmed in the process

Herbivory

(+/-) refers to an interaction in which an herbivore eats parts of a plant or alga

predation

(+/-) refers to an interaction which one species, the predator, kills and eats the other, the prey

commensalism

(+/0) one species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor helped (hard to document because any close association likely affects both species)

interspecific competition

(-/-) occurs when species compete for a resource that limits their growth or survival

triploidy

(3n) three sets of chromosomes

tetraploidy

(4n) four sets of chromosomes

microfilaments

(also called actin filaments) the thinnest components of the cytoskeleton; a twisted double chain of actin subunits

gametophyte

(alternation of generations) After the sporophyte undergoes meiosis, each spore grows by mitosis, becoming a multicellular haploid called a _____________. *

gametes, sporophyte

(alternation of generations) Cells of the gametophyte give rise to _________ by mitosis. Fusion of two haploid gametes at fertilization results in a diploid zygote, which develops the next ____________ generation. *

spores

(alternation of generations) Meiosis in the sporophyte produces haploid cells called _______. *

methanogens

(archaea) produce methane as a waste product; strict anaerobes that are poisoned by O2; live in swamps and marshes, in the guts of cattle, and near deep-sea hydrothermal vents

secondary cell wall

(in some cells) added between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall

primary electron acceptor

(in the reaction center) accepts excited electrons and is reduced as a result

the Calvin cycle

(like the citric acid cycle) regenerates its starting material after molecules enter and leave the cycle

telophase I, cytokinesis

(meiosis I) In the beginning of _________ __, each half of the cell has a haploid set of chromosomes; each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids. _________ usually occurs simultaneously, forming two haploid daughter cells.

anaphase I

(meiosis I) Pairs of homologous chromosomes separate; one chromosome moves towards each pole, guided by the spindle apparatus. Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere and move as one unit toward the pole.

metaphase I

(meiosis I) Tetrads line up at the metaphase plate, with one chromosome facing each pole; microtubules from one pole are attached to the kinetochore of one chromosome of each tetrad. Microtubules from the other pole are attached to the kinetochore of the other chromosome.

metaphase II

(meiosis II) The sister chromatids are arranged at the metaphase plate; because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister chromatids of each chromosome are no longer genetically identical. The kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to microtubules extending from opposite poles.

prophase II

(meiosis II) a spindle apparatus forms; chromosomes (each still composed of two chromatids) moved towards the metaphase plate

telophase II

(meiosis II) the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles, nuclei form, and the chromosomes begin decondensing

anaphase II

(meiosis II) the sister chromatids separate and now move as two newly individual chromosomes toward opposite poles

prophase I

(meoisis I) typically occupies more than 90% of the time required for meiosis; chromosomes begin to condense

intersexual selection

(often called mate choice) occurs when individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates

synapsis

(prophase I) In _________, homologous chromosomes loosely pair up, aligned gene by gene.

alpha helix

(secondary structure) a delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid

beta pleated sheet

(secondary structure) two or more segments of the polypeptide chain lying side by side (called beta strands) are connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the two parallel segments of polypeptide backbone

secondary succession

(type of ecological succession) begins in an area where soil remains after a disturbance

primary succession

(type of ecological succession) occurs where no soil exists when succession begins

okay

***read this & look at Figure 20.4 (p. 383): the tree does not indicate that the wolf evolved more recently than the European otter; rather, the tree shows only that the most recent common ancestor of the wolf and the otter (branch point 1) lived before the most recent common ancestor of the wolf and coyote (branch point 2).

two

As each monomer nucleotide joins the DNA strand, it loses ____ phosphate groups as a molecule of pyrophosphate. (energy!!)

fluid, solid, types of lipids

As temperatures cool, membranes switch from a ______ state to a ______ state. The temperature at which a membrane solidifies depends on the ______ ___ ______.

expensive, universal

Asexual reproduction is less _________ than sexual reproduction; nonetheless, sexual reproduction is nearly ________ among animals.

control elements

Associated with most eukaryotic genes are multiple _______ _________, segments of noncoding DNA that serve as binding sites for transcription factors that help regulate transcription.

equilibrium, stability

At __________, forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate; it is a state of maximum ________.

interphase

At __________, most of the chromatin is compacted into a 30-nm fiber, which is folded further in some areas by looping; even during __________, centromeres and some other parts of chromosomes are highly condensed, similar to metaphase chromosomes.

diffuse

At higher latitudes, where sunlight strikes Earth at an oblique angle, light is more _____.

metaphase plate

At metaphase, the centromeres of all the chromosomes are at the ___________ _______, an imaginary structure at the midway point between the spindle's two poles.

haploid gametes

At sexual maturity, germ cells in the ovaries and testes produce ________ _________.

kinetochores

At the M phase checkpoint, anaphase does not begin if any _____________ remain unattached to spindle microtubules.

anaphase

At the end of _________, duplicate groups of chromosomes have arrived at opposite ends of the elongated parent cell.

four, haploid, genetically

At the end of meiosis, there are _____ daughter cells, each with a ______ set of unduplicated chromosomes. Each daughter cell is ___________ distinct from the others and from the parent cell.

restrains, fluidity, preventing

At warm temperatures, cholesterol _______ movement of phospholipids. At cool temperatures, it maintains _______ by _________ tight packing. (Thus it helps the membrane RESIST change in fluidity with changing temperatures!)

unreactive

Atoms with completed valence shells are ______.

separase, anaphase

Attachment of all the kinetochores activates a regulatory complex, which then activates the enzyme _________ (allows sister chromatids to seperate, triggering the onset of ________).

water and oxygen

Availability of _____ __ ______ is an important factor in species distribution.

vitamins, antibiotics, hormones, ethanol

Bacteria can be engineered to produce _________, ___________, and __________; bacteria are also being engineered to produce ________ from waste biomass.

restriction enzymes

Bacteria have defenses against phages, including ___________ _________ that recognize and cut up certain phage DNA.

restriction enzymes

Bacterial ___________ _________ cut DNA molecules at specific DNA sequences called restriction sites.

peptidoglycan

Bacterial cell walls contain ______________, a network of modified sugars cross-linked by polypeptides.

motor, hook, filament

Bacterial flagella are composed of a ______, _____, and _________.

restriction sites

Bacterial restriction enzymes cut DNA molecules at specific DNA sequences called ___________ ______.

heterozygote advantage, frequency-dependent selection

Balancing selection includes: (2)

separation

Barriers to reproduction are intrinsic; physical ___________ itself is not a biological barrier. ***

greater

Basic solutions have pH values _____ than 7.

homologous, analogous

Bat and bird wings are _____________ as forelimbs, but __________ as functional wings.

alternative RNA splicing

Because of ____________ ____ ________, the number of different protein products an organism produces can be much greater than its number of genes.

proteins, mRNA, introns

Because of ribozymes, RNA splicing can occur without _______, or even additional ____ molecules; the _______ can catalyze their own splicing.

genetic

Because of the effects of dominant and recessive alleles, an organism's traits do not always reveal its _______ composition. (PP and Pp are both purple but have different genetic compositions)

cations, anions

Because the inside of the cell is negative compared to the outside, the membrane potential favors the passive transport of _______ into the cell and _______ out of the cell.

acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA)

Before the citric acid cycle can begin, pyruvate must be converted to _______ ______ __ which links glycolysis to the citric acid cycle.

prey

Behavior defenses of ____ include hiding, fleeing, forming herds or schools, and active self-defense

morphology, physiology, biochemistry, DNA sequences

Biologists compare _____________, __________, _____________, and _____ ___________ when grouping organisms.

the small-population approach, the declining-population approach

Biologists focusing on conservation at the population and species levels follow two main approaches:

insulation, cellular, antifreeze

Birds and mammals can vary their __________ to acclimatize to seasonal temperature changes, whereas acclimatization in ectotherms often includes adjustments at the _______ level; some ectotherms that experience subzero temperatures can produce "__________" compounds to prevent ice formation in their cells.

ATP synthase complex

Both chloroplasts and mitochondria have an ____ ________ _______ that couples the diffusion of hydrogen ions down their gradient to the phosphorylation of ADP.

activators

Bound __________ facilitate a sequence of protein-protein interactions that result in transcription of a given gene.

DNA bending, promoter, initiation complex

Bound activators are brought into contact with a group of mediator proteins through _____ _________; the mediator proteins in turn interact with proteins at the _________; these protein-protein interactions help to assemble and position the __________ _________ on the promoter.

deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation

Breakage of a chromosome can lead to four types of changes in chromosome structure:

fossil record, morphological data, molecular data

Broad patterns in speciation can be studied using the ______ _______, ______________ _____, or __________ _____.

frameshift mutation

Insertion or deletion of nucleotides may alter the reading frame of the genetic message, producing a ___________ _________.

cell shape, fix organelles, permanent

Intermediate filaments support _____ ______, _____ _________ in place, and are more __________ cytoskeleton elements than the other two classes.

G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase

Interphase can be divide into subphases: (3)

90

Interphase makes up about ___% of the cell cycle.

isolated

Intrinsic reproductive barriers can develop in experimentally ________ populations.

endemic species, islands

Islands have many _________ _______ that are often closely related to species on the nearest mainland or island; Darwin explained that species on _______ gave rise to new species as they adapted to new environments.

small, reproduce by binary fission, short generation times

Key features of prokaryotic biology allow them to divide quickly: (3)

fungi, bacteria, cheese, yogurt

Lactic acid fermentation by some ______ and ________ is used to make ______ and _______.

green

Leaves appear green because chlorophyll reflects and transmits ______ light.

organisms, environment, shared characteristics, diversity

Lepidopterans illustrate three key observations about life: (1) the fit between ___________ and their _____________, (2) the ________ _______________ (unity) of life, and (3) the _________ of life

shape

Ligand binding generally causes a receptor protein to undergo a change in ______.

photons

Light also behaves as though it consists of discrete particles called _______.

ATP, NADPH

Light energy is initially converted to chemical energy in the form of two compounds:

electromagnetic radiation, waves

Light is a form of electromagnetic energy, also called ____________ ________; like other electromagnetic energy, light travels in rhythmic ______.

glycosidic linkages, ring

Like starch and glycogen, cellulose is a polymer of glucose, but the __________ ________ in cellulose differ; the difference is based on two _____ forms for glucose.

5, shorter

Limitations of DNA polymerase create problems for the linear DNA of eukaryotic chromosomes: the usual replication machinery cannot complete the __' ends of daughter strands; repeated rounds of replication produce _______ DNA molecules with uneven ends.

P680

Linear electron flow can be broken down into a series of steps: (1) A photon hits a pigment and its energy is passed among pigment molecules until it excites ______.

P680+

Linear electron flow can be broken down into a series of steps: (2) An excited electron from P680 is transferred to the primary electron acceptor (we now call it ______).

H2O, P680+, P680

Linear electron flow can be broken down into a series of steps: (3) Meanwhile, _____ is split by enzymes, and the electrons are transferred from hydrogen atoms to ______, thus reducing it to ______; O2 is released as a by-product.

PS I

Linear electron flow can be broken down into a series of steps: (4) Each electron "falls" down an electron transport chain from the primary electron acceptor of PS II to ___ __.

proton gradient, ATP

Linear electron flow can be broken down into a series of steps: (5) Energy released by the fall drives the creation of a ______ _______ across the thylakoid membrane; diffusion of H+ (protons) across the membrane drives ____ synthesis.

P700, P700+

Linear electron flow can be broken down into a series of steps: (6) In PS I (like PS II), transferred light energy excites ______, causing it to lose an electron to an electron acceptor (we now call it _____; accepts an electron passed down from PS II via the electron transport chain)

fall, ferredoxin

Linear electron flow can be broken down into a series of steps: (7) Excited electrons "_____" down an electron transport chain from the primary electron acceptor of PS I to the protein ___________ (Fd).

NADP+, NADPH, H+

Linear electron flow can be broken down into a series of steps: (8) The electrons are transferred to ______, reducing it to _______, and become available for the reactions of the Calvin Cycle. (This process also removes an ____ from the stroma.)

differ

Linnaean classification and phylogeny can _____ from each other.

species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain

Linnaeus introduced a system for grouping species in increasingly broad categories: the taxonomic groups from narrow to broad are: (8)

hydrophobic, hydrocarbons, nonpolar

Lipids are ________ because they consist mostly of __________, which form _________ covalent bonds.

increase, decreasing

Male showiness due to mate choice can _________ a male's chances of attracting a female, while ___________ his chances of survival.

peptidoglycan, antibiotic

Many antibiotics target ______________ and damage bacterial cell walls; gram-negative bacteria are more likely to be _________ resistant.

plasmids

Many bacteria contain ________, small circular DNA molecules that replicate separately from the bacterial chromosome.

defects

Many cloned animals exhibit ______.

genetic, environmental, lifestyle

Many diseases (such as heart disease, diabetes, alcoholism, mental illnesses, etc.) have both ________ and ______________ components. __________ has a tremendous effect on phenotype for cardiovascular health and other multifactorial characters.

alternative RNA splicing

Many genes can give rise to two or more different polypeptides, depending on which segments are used as exons; this process is called ____________ ____ ________.

recessive

Many genetic disorders are inherited in a __________ manner.

polyploids

Many important crops (oats, cotton, potatoes, tobacco, and wheat) are __________.

gated channels

Many ion channels function as _______ _________, which open and close in response to a stimulus.

life cycle

Many parasites have a complex ___ _____ involving multiple hosts.

enzymes, proteins, transcription factor

Many signaling pathways regulate the synthesis of ________ or other ________, usually by turning genes on or off in the nucleus. The final activated molecule in the signaling pathway may function as a ___________ _______.

reductional division

Meiosis I is called the ___________ ________ because it halves the number of chromosome sets per cell from diploid (2n) to haploid (n).

equational division

Meiosis II is called the ___________ ________ because the haploid cells divide to produce haploid daughter cells.

two, one

Meiosis includes ____ divisions after replication, while mitosis includes only ____.

one, alternate

Meiosis results in ____ set of chromosomes in each gamete; fertilization and meiosis _________ in sexual life cycles to maintain chromosome number.

meiosis I, meiosis II

Meiosis takes place in two sets of cell divisions:

nonidentical, chromosomes

Meiosis yields __________ daughter cells that have only one set of ____________, half as many as the parent cell.

beta proteobacteria

Members of the subgroup _____ ______________ are nutritionally diverse.

alpha proteobacteria

Members of the subgroup _______ ______________ are closely associated with eukaryotic hosts in many cases.

fluid

Membranes must be ______ to work properly.

characters

Mendel found that there are many varieties of peas with distinct heritable features, or _________ (such as flower color).

3:1

Mendel's segregation model accounts for the ___:__ ratio he observed in the F2 generation of his numerous crosses.

myosin

Microfilaments that function in cellular motility interact with the motor protein ________.

tubulin

Microtubules are constructed from a globular protein called ________.

various

Miller-Urey-type experiments demonstrate that organic molecules could have formed with _______ possible atmospheres.

double membrane, ribosomes, circular, reproduce, independently

Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities with bacteria: enveloped by a _______ __________, contain free ________ and _________ DNA molecules, grow and __________ somewhat ___________ in cells

prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

Mitosis is conventionally divided into five phases:

genetic changes, dates of branch points

Molecular clocks are calibrated by plotting the number of _______ ________ against the _____ ___ _______ ______ known from the fossil record; individual genes vary in how clocklike they are.

selectively neutral

Molecular clocks do not run as smoothly as expected if mutations were ___________ _______; irregularities result from natural selection in which some DNA changes are favored over others.

nucleotide sequence, taxa

Molecular homologies are determined based on the degree of similarity in ___________ __________ between _____.

biological effects

Molecules with similar shapes can have similar _____ ____.

carbons, carbonyl

Monosaccharides are classified by the number of _______ in the carbon skeleton and the placement of the ________ group.

Turner syndrome

Monosomy X, called ______ __________, produces X0 females, who are sterile; it is the only known viable monosomy in humans.

2,000

More than ______ types of viral diseases of plants are known; these have enormous impacts on the agricultural and horticultural industries.

crossing over

Morgan proposed that some process must occasionally break the physical connection between genes on the same chromosome; that mechanism was the ________ _____ between homologous chromosomes.

chromosomes

Most DNA is packaged into __________.

polypeptide subunits

Most allosterically regulated enzymes are made from _________ ______.

anchorage dependence

Most animal cells also exhibit __________ ___________, in which they must be attached to a substratum in order to divide.

saturated, unsaturated

Most animal fats are ________. Plant fats and fish fats are usually __________.

carcinogens, mutagenic

Most cancer-causing chemicals (___________) are __________, and the converse is also true.

DNA

Most cell division results in the distribution of identical genetic material (____) to two daughter cells.

oxygen, cease, fermentation, anaerobic respiration, ATP

Most cellular respiration requires ________ to produce ATP; without it, the electron transport chain will ______ to operate. In that case, glycolysis couples with ___________ or _________ _________ to produce ____.

introns, exons

Most eukaryotic mRNAs have long noncoding stretches of nucleotides that lie between coding regions; the noncoding regions are called intervening sequences, or _______; the other regions are called ______ and are usually translated into amino acid sequences.

pleiotropy

Most genes have multiple phenotypic effects, a property called __________; pleiotropic alleles are responsible for the multiple symptoms of certain hereditary diseases, such as cystic fibrosis and sickle-cell disease.

flagella

Most motile bacteria propel themselves by ________ scattered about the surface or concentrated at one or both ends; ________ of bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes are composed of different proteins and likely evolved independently.

multiprotein complexes, reduced, oxidized, free energy

Most of the electron transport chain's components are proteins, which exist in ________ ______. The carriers alternate _______ and _______ states as they accept and donate electrons. Electrons drop in ______ _____ as they go down the chain and are finally passed to oxygen.

laterally, rapidly

Most of the lipids and some proteins in a membrane can shift about ________. Phospholipids move more ______ than proteins.

unicellular

Most prokaryotes are __________, although some species form colonies.

energy

Bulk transport requires ________.

p, q, 1

By convention, if there are 2 alleles at a locus, __ and __ are used to represent their frequencies; the frequency of all alleles in a population will add up to __.

trp operon, tryptophan

By default the ____ _______ is on and the genes for ____________ synthesis are transcribed.

night, day, Calvin cycle

CAM plants open their stomata at _____, incorporating CO2 into organic acids; stomata close during the ____, and CO2 is released from organic acids and used in the _______ _____.

cyclic AMP (cAMP)

CAP is activated by binding with ______ _____ (______).

ocean acidification, carbonate

CO2 dissolved in seawater forms carbonic acid; this causes ____ ______. As seawater acidifies, H+ ions combine with CO3(2-) ions to form bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) - concern because organism that build coral reefs or shells require ______ ions.

greenhouse effect

CO2, water vapor, and other greenhouse gases reflect infrared radiation back toward Earth; important for keeping Earth's surface at a habitable temperature

regulate, growth factors

Cancer cells do not respond to signals that normally _________ the cell cycle; they may not need _______ ________ to grow and divide.

density-dependent inhibition, anchorage dependence

Cancer cells exhibit neither ________-___________ __________ nor __________ ___________.

tumors

Cancer cells that are not eliminated by the immune system form ______, masses of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue.

oncogenes

Cancer research led to the discovery of cancer-causing genes called ___________ in certain types of viruses.

plasmids, transposons

Candidates for the source of viral genomes are __________ (circular DNA in bacteria and yeasts) and _____________ (small mobile DNA segments).

capsomeres

Capsids are built from protein subunits called __________.

macromolecules

Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins can form huge molecules called ______________.

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)

Carbon enters the cycle as CO2 and leaves as a sugar called _____________ __-_________.

cellular respiration, light

Catabolic (exergonic) pathways, especially _______ __________, provide the energy for the endergonic process of making ATP. Plants also use ______ energy to produce ATP.

differentiation

Cell _______________ is the process by which cells become specialized in structure and function.

cell cycle

Cell division is an integral part of the ____ ______, the life of a cell from formation to its own division.

motor proteins

Cell motility generally requires the interaction of the cytoskeleton with _______ __________.

tissues, organs, organ systems, organism

Cell types are organized successively into _______, _______, ______ ________, and the whole _________.

open, equilibrium

Cells are not in equilibrium; they are ______ systems experiencing a constant flow of materials. A defining feature of life is that metabolism is never at _________.

tissues, organs, organ systems

Cells are organized into: (3)

F plasmid (F+), F factor (F-)

Cells containing the __ ________ (___) function as DNA donors during conjugation; cells without the __ ________ (___) function as DNA recipients during conjugation.

ordered

Cells create ______ structures from less ______ materials ... Organisms also replace ______ forms of matter and energy with less ______ forms. (?)

emergent

Cells form a functional animal body through __________ properties that arise from levels of structural and functional organization.

binding, surface, carbohydrates, extracellular surface

Cells recognize each other by ________ to _______ molecules, often containing __________, on the _____________ _______ of the plasma membrane.

metabolic pathway

Cells synthesize and degrade molecules in a series of steps (a __________ ________).

32, 2

Cellular respiration produces ___ ATP per glucose molecule; fermentation produces ___ ATP per glucose molecule.

translocations

Certain cancers, including chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), are caused by ____________ of chromosomes.

intermediate

Certain protists exhibit types of cell division that seem ___________ between binary fission and mitosis.

plants, fungi

Certain vacuoles in ______ and ______ carry out enzymatic hydrolysis like lysosomes.

traits

Character variants (such as purple or white flowers) are called _______.

ancestral characters

Characters shared by the outgroup and ingroup are _________ ___________ that predate the divergence of both groups from a common ancestor.

species, A, T, G, C

Chargaff's rules: (1) the base composition of DNA varies between _______, (2) in any species the number of ___ and ___ bases is equal and the number of ___ and ___ bases is equal

chaos, regulating

Chemical _____ would result if a cell's metabolic pathways were not tightly regulated; a cell does this by switching on or off the genes by _________ the activity of enzymes.

abiotic synthesis, macromolecules, protocells, self-replicating

Chemical and physical processes on early Earth may have produced very simple cells through a sequence of stages: (1) _______ __________ of small organic molecules, (2) joining of these small molecules into _________________, (3) packaging of molecules into __________, and (4) origin of ____-___________ molecules.

valence shell

Chemical behavior of an atom depends mostly on the number of electrons in its outermost shell, or ______ ____.

decomposers

Chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes function as ______________, breaking down dead organisms and waste products.

virus

DNA (or RNA) enclosed by a protective coat; must infect cells and take over the cells' metabolic machinery in order to reproduce

chromatin

DNA and proteins of chromosomes are together called _________, which condenses to form discrete chromosomes as a cell prepares to divide.

messenger RNA, mRNA

DNA directs synthesis of _________ _____ and, through ______, controls protein synthesis.

double helix

DNA molecules have two polynucleotides spiraling around an imaginary axis, forming a ______ _____.

chromosomes

DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into _____________.

cannot

DNA polymerases _______ initiate synthesis of a polynucleotide; they can only add nucleotides to an already existing chain base-paired with the template.

replication

DNA provides directions for its own ________.

vary, offspring

Darwin drew two inferences from two observations: (1) members of a population often _____ in their inherited traits --> individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to leave more _________ than other individuals

environment, favorable

Darwin drew two inferences from two observations: (2) all species can produce more offspring than the _____________ can support, and many of these offspring fail to survive and reproduce --> this unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of _________ traits in the population over generations

unity, diversity, organisms, environment

Darwin explained three broad observations about life: (1) the _______ of life, (2) the _________ of life, and (3) the match between _________ and their _____________.

evolution, descent with modification

Darwin never used the word _________ in the first edition of The Origin of Species; the phrase ________ _____ _____________ summarized Darwin's perception of the unity of life.

artificial selection, nature

Darwin noted that humans have modified other species by selecting and breeding individuals with desired traits, a process called _________ _________; argued that a similar process occurs in ______.

Thomas Malthus

Darwin was influenced by ________ ________, who noted the potential for human population to increase faster than food supplies and other resources.

DNA virus, RNA virus

Depending on its type of nucleic acid, a virus is called a ____ _____ or an ____ _____.

single, many

Depending on the species in question, speciation might require the change of only a ______ allele or _____ alleles.

mitosis, meiosis

Depending on the type of life cycle, either haploid or diploid cells can divide by _______; however, only diploid cells can undergo _______.

small

Determining the number and relative abundance of species in a community is challenging, especially for ____ organisms.

chemical

Detritivores play a key role in the general pattern of _____ cycling.

organic, pyruvate, acetaldehyde, electron transport chain

Differences between fermentation with anaerobic and aerobic respiration: the processes use different methods to oxidize NADH back to NAD+; an _______ molecule (such as ________ or ___________) in fermentation, and the _________ _________ ______ in cellular respiration.

reflected, transmitted

Different pigments absorb different wavelengths; wavelengths that are not absorbed are ________ or _________.

increase

Disease transmission rates may _____ with increasing population density.

map units

Distance between genes can be expressed as ____ ______.

age

Multiple somatic mutations are generally needed for full-fledged cancer; thus the incidence increases with ____.

myoblasts

Muscle cells develop from embryonic precursor cells that have the potential to develop into a number of cell types, but particular conditions commit them to becoming muscle cells. Although the committed cells appear unchanged under the microscope, determination has occurred, and they are now __________.

low

Mutation rates are ____ in animals and plants.

prokaryotes, viruses

Mutation rates are often lower in _____________ and higher in ________.

Shannon diversity index

Diversity can be compared using a diversity index - a widely used diversity index is the _______ ______ ___.

prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II, cytokinesis

Division in meiosis II also occurs in five phases: (very similar to mitosis)

further

Duplicated genes can take on new functions by ________ mutation.

harmful

Duplications and translocations also tend to be _______.

altered, cut out, spliced

During RNA processing, both ends of the primary transcript are _______; also, usually some interior parts of the molecule are ____ ____ and the other parts ________ together.

synthesis

During _________, a polypeptide chain spontaneously coils and folds into its three-dimensional shape.

decreases, increases, work capacity

During a spontaneous change, free energy ________, the stability of a system ________, and there is less ______ _________.

broken up, fragmented, multilobed, vesicles, scavenger

During apoptosis, DNA is _______ ___ and organelles and other cytoplasmic components are __________; the cell becomes _________ and its contents are packaged up in ________, which are then engulfed by __________ cells.

separate, nuclei, chromosomes

During cell division, the two sister chromatids of each duplicated chromosome _________ and move into two _______. Once separate, the chromatids are called ___________.

glucose, NADH, electron transport chain, proton-motive force, ATP

During cellular respiration, most energy flows in the following sequence: (5)

oxidized, reduced

During cellular respiration, the fuel (such as glucose) is _______, and oxygen is _______.

C-terminus, elongation factors

During elongation, amino acids are added one by one to the previous amino acid at the __-_________ of the growing chain; each addition involves proteins called ____________ ________ and occurs in three steps.

heat

During every energy transfer or transformation, some energy is unusable and is often lost as _____.

kinetochores

During prometaphase, some spindle microtubules attach to the _____________ of chromosomes and begin to move the chromosomes.

warm, cool

During the day, air rises over ___ land and draws a ____ breeze from the water across the land.

template strand, same

During transcription, one of the two DNA strands, called the _________ ______, provides a template for ordering the sequence of complementary nucleotides in an RNA transcript; it is always the _____ strand for the transcription of any given gene.

codons

During translation, the mRNA base triplets, called _______, are read in the 5' to 3' direction.

pluripotent

ES cells are __________, capable of differentiating into many cell types.

nucleosome, linker DNA

Each 'bead' on the 10-nm fiber stage of DNA packing in chromatin is a ___________, the basic unit of DNA packing; the 'string' between beads is called ______ ____.

stored, ATP

Each NADH (the reduced form of NAD+) represents _______ energy that is tapped to synthesize _____.

ovum, sperm

Each _____ contains an X chromosome, while a ______ may contain either an X or a Y chromosome.

amino acid, 20

Each codon specifies the _______ _____ (one of ___) to be placed at the corresponding position along a polypeptide.

electronegative

Each component of the chain gets increasingly _____________.

sister chromatids

Each duplicated chromosome has two _______ ___________, joined identical copies of the original chromosome.

5' cap, poly-A tail

Each end of the pre-mRNA molecule is modified in a particular way: the 5' end receives a modified G nucleotide __' ____; the 3' end gets a _____-__ _____.

activator, inhibitor

Each enzyme has active and inactive forms; the binding of an ________ stabilizes the active form and the binding of an ________ stabilizes the inactive form.

temperature, pH, active shape

Each enzyme has an optimal ________ and ____ in which it can function; optimal conditions favor the most ________ _____ for the enzyme molecule.

locus

Each gene has a specific position, or ______, on a certain chromosome.

locus, chromosome

Each gene resides at a specific ______ on a specific ____________.

30-40

Each mesophyll cell contains ___-___ chloroplasts.

rings, nitrogen

Each nitrogenous base has one or two _____ that include ________ atoms.

nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, phosphate groups

Each nucleotide consists of a ___________ _____, a ________ ______, and one or more _________ ______.

sugar, phosphate

Each nucleotide that is added to a growing DNA consists of a ______ attached to a base and three _________ groups. (dATP!!!)

parent

Each pair of homologous chromosomes includes one chromosome from each ______.

nucleotides

Each polynucleotides is made of monomers called __________.

amino acids, carboxyl, C-terminus, amino, N-terminus

Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence of _______ _____, with a ________ end (__-________) and an ______ end (__-_______).

in situ hybridization

Each probe is labeled with a fluorescent tag to allow visualization; this technique allows us to see the mRNA in place (in situ) in the intact organism and is thus called ___ _____ _____________.

autosomes, single

Each set of 23 consists of 22 ___________ and a ______ sex chromosome.

enzyme

Each step of the metabolic pathway is catalyzed by a specific _______.

own

Each substance diffuses down its ____ concentrations gradient, unaffected by the concentration gradients of other substances.

codon, amino acid

Each tRNA can translate a particular mRNA ______ into a given _______ _____.

host range

Each virus has a _____ ______, a limited number of host cells that it can infect.

4.6 billion

Earth formed ____ billion years ago.

Pangaea

Earth's continents were formerly united in a single large continent called _________ but have since separated by continental drift.

water vapor, chemicals

Earth's early atmosphere likely contained ______ ______ and __________ released by volcanic eruptions (nitrogen, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen); as Earth cooled, water vapor condensed into oceans, and most of the hydrogen escaped into space.

homeotic genes

Edward B. Lewis discovered the __________ _____, which control pattern formation in late embryo, larva, and adult stages in Drosophila.

mitochondrial matrix, intermembrane space, ATP synthase

Electron transfer in the electron transport chain causes proteins to pump H+ from the ___________ ______ to the ____________ ______; H+ then moves back across the membrane, passing through the protein complex ____ _______.

electron shells

Electrons are found in different _____ ____, each with a characteristic average distance from the nucleus.

cytochromes

Electrons are passed through a number of proteins including __________ (each with an iron atom) to oxygen.

organic, NAD+

Electrons from ________ compounds are usually first transferred to _____, a coenzyme.

rejuvenating, remodeling

Endocytosis and exocytosis also provide mechanisms for __________ or ___________ the plasma membrane.

photoautotrophy, chemoautotrophy, photoheterotrophy, chemoheterotrophy

Energy and carbon sources are combined to give four major modes of nutrition: (look at the Table 24.1)

primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers

Energy and nutrients pass from _____ _______ (autotrophs) to _____ _______ (herbivores) to _____ _______ (carnivores) to _____ _______ (carnivores that feed on other carnivores).

solar radiation, chemical, heat

Energy enters an ecosystem as ____ ______, is transformed into ______ energy by photosynthetic organisms, and is dissipated as ____.

terminal phosphate bond

Energy is released from ATP when the __________ __________ ______ is broken; this release of energy comes from the chemical change to a state of lower free energy (not from the phosphate bonds themselves)

decrease, increases

Entropy (disorder) may _______ in an organism, but the universe's total entropy ________.

denature

Environments that are too hot/too acidic, however, can ________ the enzyme.

catalysts

Enzymatic proteins act as ________, to speed up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction.

genes, amino acid composition, substrate specificity

Enzymes are proteins encoded by ______, changes (mutations) in genes lead to changes in ______ ____ _________ of an enzyme, altered amino acids in enzymes may alter their _________ _______. (natural selection is the reason so many different enzymes exist)

DNA polymerases

Enzymes called _____ ____________ catalyze the elongation of new DNA at a replication fork.

lowering

Enzymes catalyze reactions by ______ the activation energy barrier; ∆G is unaffected.

shape

Enzymes change _____ due to chemical interactions (weak; hydrogen bonds/ionic bonds) with the substrate.

RNA processing

Enzymes in the eukaryotic nucleus modify pre-mRNA (____ ___________) before the genetic messages are dispatched to the cytoplasm.

inducible enzymes, repressible enzymes

Enzymes of the lactose pathway are called __________ _________; analogously, the enzymes for tryptophan synthesis are said to be ___________ _________.

alpha, beta

Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing ______ linkages can't hydrolyze _____ linkages in cellulose; cellulose passes through the digestive tract as insoluble fiber.

reversed

Epigenetic modifications can be ________, unlike mutations in DNA sequence.

low, generation, genetic variation

Error rate after proofreading repair is ____ but not zero; sequence changes may become permanent and can be passed on to the next ___________; these changes (mutations) are the source of the _______ _________ upon which natural selection operates.

cellulose, chitin

Eukaryote cell walls are made of __________ or ______.

RNA processing, nucleus

Eukaryotic RNA transcripts are modified through _____ ___________ to yield the finished mRNA, which must be transported out of the _______ to be translated.

mitosis, cytokinesis

Eukaryotic cell division consists of:

nucleus, organelles, cytoplasm, larger

Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having DNA in a ________ that is bounded by membranous nuclear envelope, membrane-bound _________, and _________ in the region between the plasma membrane and nucleus (generally ________ than prokaryotic cells)

multiple

Eukaryotic cells form ________ replication bubbles.

gap junctions, plasmodesmata

Eukaryotic cells may communicate by direct contact: ____ _______ in animal cells and ____________ in plant cells.

telomeres

Eukaryotic chromosomal DNA molecules have special nucleotide sequences at their ends called __________, which postpone the shortening of DNA; it has been proposed that the shortening of ___________ is connected to aging.

chromatin

Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of ________, a complex of DNA and protein.

regulated

Eukaryotic gene expression is __________ at many stages.

longer

Eukaryotic mRNA generally survives _______ than prokaryotic mRNA.

chromosomes

Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of ____________ in each cell nucleus.

chance, sorting

Evolution by natural selection involves both _______ and "_______": new genetic variations arise by chance, and beneficial alleles are "sorted" and favored by natural selection.

descent with modification

Evolution can be defined by Darwin's phrase _______ ____ ____________.

genes, common ancestor, dissimilar

Examples of homologies at the molecular level are ______ shared among organisms inherited from a _________ _________; homologous genes can be found in organisms as __________ as humans and bacteria.

DNA, gene cloning, transgenic plants

Experiments using prokaryotes have led to important advances in ____ technology; for example, E. coli is used in _____ ________, and agrobacterium tumefaciens is used to produce _________ ______.

irreversible

F. C. Steward and his students first cloned whole carrot plants in the 1950s; this work showed that differentiation is not necessarily ____________.

regulating, conforming

Faced with environmental fluctuations, animals manage their internal environment by either __________ or ___________.

passive transport

Facilitated diffusion is considered ________ _________ because the solute is moving down its concentration gradient, a process that requires no energy.

glycerol, fatty acids

Fats are constructed from two types of smaller molecules:

glycerol, fatty acids

Fats are digested to ________ (used in glycolysis) and ______ _____.

saturated fats, solid

Fats made from saturated fatty acids are called _______ ____ and are _____ at room temperature.

unsaturated fats, liquid

Fats made from unsaturated fatty acids, called ___________ _____ or oils, are _______ at room temperature.

length, double

Fatty acids vary in ______ (number of carbons) and in the number and locations of _______ bonds.

low, rapidly, evolution

Mutation rates during binary fission are ____, but because of rapid reproduction, mutations can accumulate _______ in a population; high diversity from mutations allows for rapid __________.

ras gene

Mutations in the ____ _____ can lead to production of a hyperactive Ras protein and increased cell division.

p53 gene

Mutations in the ____ _____ prevent suppression of the cell cycle.

ras, p53

Mutations in the ____ proto-oncogene and ____ tumor-suppressor gene are common in human cancers.

BRCA1, BRCA2

Mutations in the ______ or ______ gene are found in at least half of inherited breast cancers, and tests using DNA sequencing can detect these mutations.

electron transport chain

NADH passes the electrons to the _______ ________ _____.

evolve, Hardy-Weinberg

Natural populations can _______ at some loci while being in ______-__________ equilibrium at other loci.

trisomy X

Females with _______ ___ (XXX) have no unusual physical features except being slightly taller than average.

NAD+, glycolysis

Fermentation consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate ______, which can be reused by _________.

pyruvate, electron transport chain

Fermentation produces significantly less ATP than cellular respiration because the energy stored in ________ is unavailable without the _______ ________ _____.

substrate-level phosphorylation, NAD+

Fermentation uses ________-______ _____________ instead of an electron transport chain to generate ATP; for this to occur, there must be a sufficient supply of _____ to accept electrons during the oxidation step of glycolysis.

exaptation

Flagella likely evolved as existing proteins were added to an ancestral secretory system; this is an example of ____________, where existing structures take on new functions through descent with modification.

wobble

Flexible pairing at the third base of a codon is called _______ and allows some tRNAs to bind to more than one codon.

NADH, FADH2

Following glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, ______ and ______ account for most of the energy extracted from food; these two electron carriers then donate electrons to the electron transport chain.

two, homozygous, one, hemizygous

For a recessive X-linked trait to be expressed, a female needs ____ copies of the allele (___________) and a male needs only ____ copy of the allele (___________).

6

For every 3 molecules of CO2 that enter the Calvin cycle, __ molecules of G3P are formed.

46

For humans, the diploid number is ____ (2n = 46).

23

For humans, the haploid number is ____ (n = 23).

G1

For many cells, the ____ checkpoint seems to be the most important.

three

For net synthesis of on G3P, the cycle must take place _______ times, fixing three molecules of CO2.

allolactose

For the lac operon, the inducer is ___________, formed from lactose that enters the cell.

cetaceans

Fossils can document important transitions; for example, the transition from land to sea in the ancestors of __________. (:

cohesive behavior, ability to moderate temperature, expansion upon freezing, versatility as a solvent

Four emergent properties of water contribute to Earth's suitability for life:

habitat loss, introduced species, overharvesting, global change

Four major threats to species loss:

Pioneer, Dryas, alder, spruce

Four stages of glacier ecological succession:

helical, width, spacing

Franklin's X-ray crystallographic images of DNA enabled Watson to deduce that DNA was _______; also enabled Watson to deduce the ______ of the helix and the ________ of the nitrogenous bases.

cytosol, endomembrane, secreted

Free ribosomes mostly synthesize proteins that function in the ________; bound ribosomes make proteins of the _________________ system and proteins that are _________ from the cell.

DNA microarray assays, cDNAs

Genome-wide expression studies can be carried out using _____ ___________ ______; mRNAs from cells of interest are isolated and made into ______ labeled with fluorescent molecules.

James Hutton, Charles Lyell, Darwin

Geologists ______ ________ and ________ _____ perceived that changes in Earth's surface can result from slow, continuous actions still operating today; _____ further proposed that he mechanisms of change are constant over time, a view that strongly influenced _______'s thinking.

transcription, translation

Getting from DNA to protein requires two stages: ____________ and ___________.

solar

Global air circulation and precipitation patterns are initiated by intense _____ radiation near the equator.

three, hydroxyl

Glycerol is a _____-carbon alcohol with a ________ group attached to each carbon.

intersections

Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are major ___________ to various catabolic and anabolic pathways.

cytoplasm, investment, payoff

Glycolysis occurs in the _________ and has two major phases: energy ________ phase and energy ______ phase.

oxygen

Glycolysis occurs whether or not _______ is present.

DNA replication

Hereditary information is encoded in DNA and reproduced in all cells of the body (____ __________)

malaria (!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!)

Heterozygote carriers of the sickle-cell trait are less susceptible to the _______ parasite, so there is an advantage to being heterozygous.

H2A, H2B, H3, H4, H1

Histones responsible for the first level of DNA packing in chromatin: ____, ____, ___, ___; histone involved in a further stage of packing: ___.

moderates, eliminate

Homeostasis __________, but does not __________, changes in the internal environment.

negative feedback

Homeostasis in animals relies largely on _________ _________, a control mechanism that reduces the stimulus.

allele, meiosis

Homologs may have different versions of genes, each called an _______. They are not associated in any obvious way except during _______.

fossil evidence, degree of complexity, homologous

Homology can be distinguished from analogy by comparing _____ _________ and the _______ ___ ___________; the more complex two similar structures are, the more likely it is that they are _____________.

complicates

Horizontal gene transfer ____________ efforts to build a tree of life.

tangled web

Horizontal gene transfer may have been common enough that the early history of life is better depicted by a ________ _____ than a branching tree.

exchange of transposable elements and plasmids, viral infection, fusion of organisms

Horizontal gene transfer occurs by: (3)

grab, move, release, doublets, central microtubules, cross-linking proteins, bend

How dynein "walking" moves flagella and cilia: dynein arms alternately _____, _____, and _______ the outer microtubules, the outer _________ and _______ _________ are held together by flexible _____-_______ _________, movements of the doublet arms cause the cilium or flagellum to _______

reducing, volcanoes, deep-sea vents

However, the evidence is not yet convincing that the early atmosphere was in fact _________; instead of forming in the atmosphere, the first organic compounds may have been synthesized near __________ or _____-____ ______.

habitat

Human alteration of _____ is the greatest threat to biodiversity throughout the biosphere.

X

Human females have a homologous pair of ___ chromosomes.

X, Y

Human males have one ___ and one ___ chromosome.

lactic acid fermentation

Human muscle cells use ______ _____ _____________ to generate ATP when oxygen is scarce.

epistasis

In Labrador retrievers and many other mammals, coat color depends on two genes; one gene determines the pigment color, while the other gene determines whether the pigment will be deposited in the hair. This is an example of ___________.

density-independent

In _____-________ populations, birth rate and death rate do not change with population density.

density-dependent

In _____-________ populations, birth rates fall and death rates rise with population density.

lactic acid fermentation, lactate, CO2

In ______ _____ _____________, pyruvate is reduced by NADH, forming ______ as an end product, with no release of ____.

crossing over, chiasmata

In ________ _____, nonsister chromatids exchange DNA segments. Each homologous pair has one or more X-shaped regions called _________, which exist at points where crossing over has occurred.

nitrogen fixation, N2, NH3

In ________ _______, some prokaryotes convert atmospheric nitrogen (___) to ammonia (____).

histone acetylation

In ________ ___________, acetyl groups are attached to positively charged lysines in histone tails; this generally loosens chromatin structure, promoting the initiation of transcription. (can turn on gene transcription)

anaphase

In ________, sister chromatids separate and move along the kinetochore microtubules toward opposite ends of the cell.

inversions

In ________, the balance of genes is normal but phenotype may be influenced if the expression of genes is altered.

crossing over

In _________ _____, homologous portions of two nonsister chromatids trade places.

mismatch repair

In _________ ______ of DNA, other enzymes correct errors in base pairing.

anaphase, spindle, depolymerize

In _________, after the separation of sister chromatids, chromosomes are "reeled in" by motor proteins at ________ poles, and microtubules __________ after they pass by the motor proteins.

allopatric speciation

In __________ ___________, gene flow is interrupted when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations. (ex. a flightless cormorant of the Galápagos likely originated from a flying species on the mainland)

anaphase, depolymerizing

In __________, after the separation of sister chromatids, the microtubules shorten by _____________ at their kinetochore ends.

alternative RNA splicing

In ___________ _____ ________, different mRNA molecules are produced from the same primary transcript, depending on which RNA segments are treated as exons and which as introns.

nucleotide excision repair

In ___________ _________ ______, a nuclease cuts out and replaces damaged stretches of DNA.

sympatric speciation

In ___________ ___________, speciation takes place in populations that live in the same geographic area.

nondisjunction

In ____________, pairs of homologous chromosomes do not separate normally during meiosis.

stable hybrid zone

In a ______ _______ _____, hybrids continue to be produced over time.

random

In a _______ dispersion, the position of each individual is independent of other individuals; absence of strong attractions or repulsions.

phospholipid

In a __________, two fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to glycerol.

nucleoid

In a bacterium, the DNA is "supercoiled" and found in a region of the cell called the _________.

pyruvate, catabolic

In a facultative anaerobe, _________ is a fork in the metabolic road that leads to two alternative _________ routes.

ester linkage, triacylglycerol, triglyceride

In a fat, three fatty acids are joined to glycerol by an _____ _______, creating a ____________, or __________.

allele frequencies

In a given population where gametes contribute to the next generation randomly, ______ ____________ will not change.

taxis

In a heterogeneous environment, many bacteria exhibit _____, the ability to move toward or away from a stimulus.

plasmolysis

In a hypertonic environment, plant cells lose water; eventually, the membrane pulls away from the wall, a usually lethal effect called ___________.

hydrophobic, hydrophilic

In a phospholipid, the two fatty acid tails are ____________, but the phosphate group and its attachments form a ___________ head.

X, Y

In a sperm cell, the sex chromosome may be either ___ or ___.

hybridization

In a typical experiment, Mendel mated two contrasting, true-breeding varieties, a process called _____________.

electron transport chain, pyruvate

In aerobic conditions, NAD+ is recycled from NADH by the transfer of electrons to the _________ _________ ______; an anaerobic alternative is to transfer electrons from NADH to ________.

CO2, acetaldehyde, ethanol, NAD+

In alcohol fermentation, the first step releases ____ from pyruvate, and in the second step, NADH reduces ____________ to _______; this regenerates the supply of _____ needed for the continuation of glycolysis.

transcription

In all organisms, a common control point for gene expression is at _____________.

open

In an _____ system, energy and matter can be transferred between the system and its surroundings (i.e. ORGANISMS)

X

In an unfertilized egg (ovum), the sex chromosome is ___.

centrosome

In animal cells, assembly of spindle microtubules begins in the __________, the microtubule organizing center.

cleavage, cleavage furrow

In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process known as _________, forming a _________ _______.

multiple

In bacteria and eukaryotes _________ ribosomes translate an mRNA at the same time.

coordinately controlled genes, eukaryotic

In bacteria, groups of genes of related function are called _____________ ___________ ______ and are often clustered into an operon, which is regulated by a single promoter and transcribed into a single mRNA molecule; with a few minor exceptions, operons that work in this way have not been found in ______________ cells.

one way

In bacteria, the DNA transfer is ____ ____.

simultaneously, separates

In bacteria, the transcription and translation can take place ________________; in eukaryotes, the nuclear envelope __________ transcription and translation.

mRNA molecule

In bacterial and eukaryotic ribosomes the large and small subunits join to form a ribosome only when attached to an _______ __________.

elongates, inward

In binary fission, the two daughter chromosomes actively move apart while the cell ___________ and the plasma membrane pinches _______, dividing the cell into two.

ribulose bisphosphate, rubisco

In carbon fixation, CO2 is incorporated into the five carbon sugar _________ ___________ using the enzyme ________.

nuclear transplantation

In cloning of animals, the nucleus of an unfertilized egg cell or zygote is replaced with the nucleus of a differentiated cell, called ________ ________________.

control elements, specific transcription factors

In eukaryotes, high levels of transcription of particular genes depend on interaction between _______ __________ and _______ ______________ _______.

specific

In eukaryotic cells, some enzymes reside in _______ organelles; for example, enzymes for cellular respiration are located in the mitochondria.

chemoautotrophs

In few ecosystems, _______ are the primary producers.

cloning vector

In gene cloning, the original plasmid is called a ________ ______.

fertile individuals, gametes

In gene flow, alleles can be transferred through the movement of ______ ___________ or _________.

stimulus, sensor, response

In homeostasis, fluctuations above or below the set point serve as a _________; these are detected by a _______ and trigger a _________, which returns the variable to the set point.

X, Y

In humans and other mammals, there are two varieties of sex chromosomes; a larger ___ chromosome and a smaller ___ chromosome.

body temperature, blood pH, glucose concentration

In humans, _____ _____________, ______ ____, and ________ ______________ are each maintained at a constant level.

inactivated, Barr body

In mammalian females, one of the two X chromosomes in each cell is randomly _________ during embryonic development; the inactive X condenses into a _____ _____.

chromosome arms, anaphase I, centromeres, anaphase II

In meiosis, cohesins are cleaved along the ____________ ______ in _________ __ (separation of homologs) and at the ___________ in __________ ___ (separation of sister chromatids).

both

In meiosis, for a single pair of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell, _____ members of the pair are duplicated.

organic molecules, water

In mitochondria, the high-energy electrons dropped down the transport chain are extracted from _________ ________ (which are thus oxidized), while in chloroplasts, the source of electrons is _______.

metaphase

In mitosis, cohesins are cleaved at the end of ___________.

single-celled zygote, meiosis, mitosis, mitosis

In most fungi and some protists, the only diploid stage is the ______-______ _______; there is no multicellular diploid stage. The zygote produces haploid cells by _______; each haploid cell grows by ________ into a haploid multicellular organism. The haploid adult produces gametes by ________. *

nuclease

In nucleotide excision repair, a _________ cuts out and replaces damaged stretches of DNA.

cloning, parent

In organismal ________ one or more organisms develop from a single cell without meiosis or fertilization; the cloned individuals are genetically identical to the "_______" that donated the single cell.

recombination

In organisms that reproduce sexually, most genetic variation results from ____________ of alleles.

rubisco, O2, CO2, two, three

In photorespiration, _______ adds ____ instead of ____ in the Calvin cycle, producing a ___-carbon compound instead of the usual _______.

cell plate

In plant cells, a ____ _______ forms during cytokinesis.

replicated, condense

In preparation for cell division, DNA is __________ and the chromosomes __________.

nuclear envelope

In prokaryotes, translation of mRNA can begin before transcription has finished; in eukaryotes, the ________ _________ separates translation from transcription in both space and time.

adaptation

In reassessing his observations, Darwin perceived ____________ to the environment and the origin of new species as closely related processes.

blood, heat

In response to changes in environmental temperature, animals can alter ______ (and _____) flow between their body core and their skin.

biofilms

In some prokaryotic species, metabolic cooperation occurs in surface-coating colonies called ________.

genetic changes, chronological time

In some trees, the length of a branch can reflect the number of ________ ________ that have taken place in a particular DNA sequence in that lineage; in other trees, branch length can represent ______________ _____, and branching points can be determined from the fossil record.

dominant, recessive

A capital letter represents a __________ allele, and a lowercase letter represents a __________ allele.

feedback inhibition, gene regulation

A cell can regulate the production of enzymes by _________ __________ or by _____ __________.

chemical, transport, mechanical

A cell does three main kinds of work:

transfer RNA (tRNA)

A cell translates an mRNA message into protein with the help of _______ ____; transfers amino acids to the growing polypeptide in a ribosome.

donor, recombinant bacterium

A cell with the F factor built into its chromosomes functions as a ______ during conjugation; the recipient becomes a _____________ ___________, with DNA from two different cells.

ancestral, derived

A character can be both __________ and ________, depending on the context.

emergent

A compound has _____ properties, characteristics different from those of its elements.

inactive

A denatured protein is biologically ______.

genes, lethal

A diploid embryo that is homozygous for a large deletion is likely missing a number of essential ______; such a condition is generally ______.

carboxyl, carbon

A fatty acid consists of a ________ group attached to a long ______ skeleton.

polypeptides

A functional protein consists of one or more __________ precisely twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape.

genes

A fundamental question of evolutionary biology persists: How many ______ change when a new species forms?

haploid

A gamete (sperm or egg) contains a single set of chromosomes and is _______ (n).

DNA, polypeptide, RNA molecule

A gene can be defined as a region of ____ that can be expressed to produce a final functional product, either a ____________ or an ____ __________.

simultaneously

A gene can be transcribed _______________ by several RNA polymerases.

prokaryotic, eukaryotic

A genome can consist of a single DNA molecule (common in ___________ cells) or a number of DNA molecules (common in ___________ cells).

phosphorylation cascade

A hypothetical pathway containing two different protein kinases form a short _____________ _________.

cell wall

A key feature of nearly all prokaryotic cells is their ____ _____.

free energy

A living system's _____ ______ is energy that can do work when temperature and pressure are uniform, as in a living cell.

effective population size

A meaningful estimate of MVP requires determining the _____ ______ ___, which is based on the population's breeding potential.

unsaturated hydrocarbon tails

A membrane remains fluid to a lower temperature if it is rich in phospholipids with ___________ __________ ____. (the kinks in their tails prohibit them from packing as tightly)

inducer

A molecule called an ________ inactivates the repressor to turn the lac operon on.

The Origin of Species

A new era of biology began in 1859 when Charles Darwin published ____ ______ ___ ________; it focused on biologists' attention on the great diversity of organisms.

transformation

A normal cell is concerted to a cancerous cell by a process called ____________.

nucleotide

A nucleoside with at least one phosphate attached is a _________.

activator proteins

A particular combination of control elements can activate transcription only when the appropriate _________ _________ are present.

hypothesis, branch point

A phylogenetic tree represents a ___________ about evolutionary relationships; each ________ ______ represents the divergence of two taxa from a common ancestor.

turgid (very firm)

A plant cell in a hypotonic solution swells until the wall opposes uptake; the cell is now _______.

polymer

A polypeptide is a ________ of amino acids.

capsule

A polysaccharide or protein layer called a ________ covers many prokaryotes.

transformation

A prokaryotic cell can take up and incorporate foreign DNA from the surrounding environment in a process called _______________.

TATA box

A promoter called a _____ ____ is crucial in forming the initiation complex in eukaryotes.

restriction fragments

A restriction enzyme usually makes many cuts, yielding ___________ __________.

P site, A site, E site

A ribosome has three binding sites for tRNA:

structural

A slight _________ difference between chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b causes them to absorb slightly different wavelengths.

structure, function

A slight change in primary structure (sequence of amino acids) can affect a protein's _________ and ability to ________.

extinction vortex

A small population is prone to inbreeding and genetic drift, which draw it down an ______ _____.

realized niche

A species' ______ ____ is the niche actually occupied by that species.

fundamental niche

A species' ______ _____ is the niche potentially occupied by that species.

80

A tRNA molecule consists of a single RNA strand that is only about ___ nucleotides long.

specific

A transport protein is ________ for the substance it translocates.

territoriality

A uniform dispersion may be influenced by social interactions such as _______, the defense of a bounded space against other individuals

monophyletic

A valid clade is ______________, signifying that it consists of the ancestor species and all its descendants. (equivalent to a taxon!!)

adenosine diphosphate

ADP stands for:

adenosine, phosphate

ATP consists of an organic molecule called __________ attached to a string of three _________ groups.

phosphorylation

ATP drives endergonic reactions by ____________.

phosphorylating

ATP fuels transport work by ____________ transport proteins.

phosphate group, ADP

ATP is a renewable resource that is regenerated by addition of a ________ ______ to _______.

ribose, adenine, phosphate

ATP is composed of ______ (a sugar), ________ (a nitrogenous base), and three _________ groups.

adenosine triphosphate

ATP stands for:

32

About 34% of the energy in a glucose molecule is transferred to ATP during cellular respiration, making about ___ ATP.

oncogene, tumor-suppressor genes

About half a dozen changes must occur at the DNA level for a cell to become fully cancerous; these changes generally include at least one active __________ and the mutation or loss of several ______-___________ _____.

carotenoids

Accessory pigments called __________ also broaden the spectrum used for photosynthesis, but more importantly they absorb excessive light that would damage chlorophyll (photoprotection).

chlorophyll b, carotenoids

Accessory pigments include _________ __ and a group of pigments called _________.

broaden

Accessory pigments, such as chlorophyll b, _______ the spectrum used for photosynthesis.

aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase

Accurate translation requires two steps: (1) a correct match between a tRNA and an amino acid, done by the enzyme ___________-_____ __________, (2) a correct match between the tRNA anticodon and an mRNA codon.

less

Acidic solutions have pH values ____ than 7.

lac operon, RNA polymerase, accelerating, low

Activated CAP attaches to the promoter of the ____ ________ and increases the affinity of ____ ____________, thus _____________ transcription; when glucose levels increase, CAP detaches from the lac operon, and transcription proceeds at a very ____ rate, even if lactose is present.

binds DNA, activates transcription

Activators have two domains, one that ______ ____ and a second that __________ ______________.

organism, environment, continuous, dynamic

Adaptive evolution occurs as the match between an __________ and its _____________ increases; because the environment can change, adaptive evolution is a ___________, _________ process.

increase

Adding clay can _________ the rate of vesicle formation.

immigration

Additions occur through birth and _______, the influx of new individuals from other areas.

purines

Adenine and guanine are _______.

covalent, OH, 3, phosphate, 5

Adjacent nucleotides are joined by ________ bonds that form between the -____ group on the ___' carbon of one nucleotide and the _________ on the ___' carbon of the next.

NADPH

After carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle, _______ reduces the fixed carbon to carbohydrate by the addition of electrons.

DNA polymerase I, DNA ligase

After formation of Okazaki fragments, _____ __________ __ removes the RNA primers and replaces the nucleotides with DNA; the remaining gaps are joined together by ____ ______.

daughter strand

After replication, enzymes methylate the correct __________ _______ so that the methylation pattern is inherited.

control, selective degradation

After translation, various types of protein processing, including cleavage and chemical modification, are subject to _______; the length of time each protein functions in a cell is regulated by means of _________ ____________.

yeast

Alcohol fermentation by _______ is used in brewing, winemaking, and baking.

siRNAs, heterochromatin

In some yeasts RNA produced from centromeric DNA is copied into double-stranded RNA and then processed into _______; the _______, together with a complex of proteins, act as a homing device to target transcripts being made from centromeric sequences; proteins in the complex then recruit enzymes that modify the chromatin to form the highly condensed __________________ found at the centromere.

release factor, water, polypeptide

In termination of translation, the A site accepts a protein called a ________ ______, which causes the addition of a ______ molecule instead of an amino acid; this reaction releases the ____________, and the translation assembly then comes apart.

Carolus Linnaeus, two-part names, hierarchical classification

In the 18th century, ________ _________ published a system of taxonomy based on resemblances; two key features of his system remain useful today: ____-_____ ______ for species and _____________ _____________.

reducing environment

In the 1920s, A. I. Oparin and J. B. S. Haldane hypothesized that the early atmosphere was a _________ _____________.

antiparallel

In the DNA double helix, the two backbones run in opposite 5'-3' directions from each other, an arrangement referred to as _________.

endergonic, exergonic

In the cell, the energy from the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis can be used to drive an _________ reaction; overall, the coupled reactions are _________.

thylakoid space, stroma

In the chloroplasts, protons are pumped into the __________ ______ and drive ATP synthesis as they diffuse back into the _______.

oxaloacetate, citrate, citrate, oxaloacetate

In the citric acid cycle, the acetyl group of acetyl CoA joins the cycle by combining with ____________, forming ______; the next seven steps decompose the ______ back to ____________, making the process a cycle.

phenotype, genotypes

In the example of flower color in pea plants, PP and Pp plants have the same __________ (purple) but different __________.

pair, separate, separate, haploid

In the first meiotic division, homologous pairs of chromosomes _____ and _________. In the second meiotic division, sister chromatids of each chromosome ________. Four new _______ cells are produced as a result.

environmental signal, lytic

In the lysogenic cycle, an ______________ _______ can trigger the virus genome to exit the bacterial chromosome and switch to the _____ mode.

phage DNA, prophage

In the lysogenic cycle, every time the host divides, it copies the ______ ____ and passes the copies to daughter cells; a single infected cell can give rise to a large population of bacteria carrying the virus in _________ form.

chromosomes

In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units called ________, which each contain one long DNA molecule associated with proteins.

mitochondrion

In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate enters the _____________ (in eukaryotic cells), where the oxidation of glucose is completed. (in prokaryotic cells, this process occurs in the cytosol)

induction

In the process called _________, signal molecules from embryonic cells cause transcriptional changes in nearby target cells.

ferredoxin (Fd)

In the second electron transport chain (after PS I), photoexcited electrons are passed through the protein __________.

anticodon

In three dimensions, tRNA is roughly L-shaped, where one end of the L contains the __________ that base-pairs with an mRNA codon.

bending

In unsaturated fats, double bonds cause ________; this prohibits them from getting close enough together to form a solid at room temperature.

spontaneously, lipid bilayer

In water, lipids and other organic molecules can _______________ form vesicles with a ______ _______.

expressed

Individual genes are usually more heavily methylated in cells where they are not __________.

catabolic

Inducible enzymes usually function in _________ pathways; their synthesis is induced by a chemical signal.

genome

All the DNA in a cell constitutes the cell's _______.

dominant, recessive, alleles, phenotypes

Inheritance of characters by a single gene may deviate from simple Mendelian patterns in the following situations: (1) when alleles are not completely _________ or __________, (2) when a gene has more than two ___________, and (3) when a single gene influences multiple ____________.

pedigrees, offspring

Inheritance patters of particular traits can be traced and described using _________; they can also be used to make predictions about future ________.

plasma membrane, genome

An animal virus with an envelope uses it to enter the host cell; the envelope is derived from the _______ ___________ of a host cell, although some of the molecules on the envelope are specified by the ________ of the virus.

energy level

An electron's state of potential energy is called its ____ ____, or electron shell.

telomerase

An enzyme called ___________ catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in germ cells.

saturated

An enzyme is said to be _________ when the rate of the reaction is determined by the speed at which the active site converts substrate to product. (the concentration of substrate is high enough that all enzymes have their active sites engaged)

temperature, pH, chemicals

An enzyme's activity can be affected by general environmental factors, such as ____________ and ____, and __________ that specifically influence the enzyme.

hydrolysis of sucrose, sucrase

An example of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction is the _________ ___ ________ by the enzyme ________.

heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a gene is said to be ______________ for the gene controlling that character.

homozygous

An organism with two identical alleles for a character is said to be ____________ for the gene controlling that character.

life history

An organism's ___ ____ comprises the traits that affect its schedule of reproduction and survival.

production efficiency

An organism's ______ _____ is the fraction of energy stored in food that is not used for respiration.

physical appearance, internal anatomy, physiology, behavior

An organism's phenotype includes: (4)

genotype, environmental

An organism's phenotype reflects its overall _________ and unique ____________ history.

twice

An oxidized gram of fat produces more than _____ as much ATP as an oxidized gram of carbohydrate.

evolved

An understanding of continent movement and modern distribution of species allows us to predict when and where different groups ________.

oxygen, sulfate

Anaerobic respiration uses an electron transport chain with a final electron acceptor other than _________; for example, ________, where H2S is a by product instead of water.

homoplasies

Analogous structures or molecular sequences that evolved independently are also called _____________. (from the Greek, meaning "to mold in the same way")

glycolysis, oxygen

Ancient prokaryotes are thought to have used _______ long before there was ________ in the atmosphere; it is a very ancient process.

set point

Animals achieve homeostasis by maintaining a variable at or near a particular value, or ____ ______.

environment, genotype, norm of reaction

Another departure from Mendelian genetics arises when the phenotype for a character depends on the ____________ as well as _________; the ______ ___ _________ influenced by the environment.

density-dependent inhibition

Another of example of external signals is ________-___________ __________, in which crowded cells stop dividing.

R plasmids

Antibiotics kill sensitive bacteria, but not bacteria with specific ___ _________.

HIV

Applying the molecular clock: Phylogenetic analysis shows that _____ is descended from viruses that infect chimpanzees and other primates; comparison of HIV samples shows that the virus evolved in a very clocklike way; application of a molecular clock to one strain of HIV suggests that that strain spread to humans during the 1930s.

0.1

Approximately __% of chemical energy fixed by photosynthesis reaches a tertiary consumer.

polysaccharides, proteins, peptidoglycan

Archaeal cell walls contain ________________ and _________ but lack _______________.

untwists, 10, 20

As RNA polymerase moves along the DNA, it _______ the double helix, ___ to ___ bases at a time.

evaporative cooling

As a liquid evaporates, its remaining surface cools, a process called:

two, no

As a result of nondisjunction, one gamete receives ____ of the same type of chromosome, and another gamete receives ___ copy.

oxidizing

As an electron acceptor, NAD+ functions as an ________ agent during cellular respiration.

polygenic inheritance

Skin color in humans is an example of ___________ ____________.

polymerize

Small organic molecules ___________ when they are concentrated on hot sand, clay, or rock.

transport proteins, vesicles

Small solutes and water enter or leave the cell through the lipid bilayer or by means of _______ ________. Large molecules, such as polysaccharides and proteins, cross the membrane in bulk by means of _______.

evolved, introduced, smaller, larger, natural selection

Soapberry study: In all cases, beak size has ________ in populations that feed on ___________ plants with fruits that are ________ or _______ than the native fruits; these cases are examples of evolution by _______ _________.

heritable traits, rate, organisms, environment, adaptations, species

Natural selection (a summary): (1) individuals with certain _________ ______ survive and reproduce at a higher _____ than other individuals, (2) over time, natural selection increases the match between ___________ and their _____________, and (3) if an environment changes over time, natural selection may result in _____________ to these new conditions and may give rise to new _______.

phenotype

Natural selection brings about adaptive evolution by acting on an organism's ___________.

genetic component

Natural selection can only act on phenotypic variation that has a _________ ___________.

heritable traits

Natural selection can only increase or decrease __________ ______ that vary in a population.

chlorophyll a, primary electron acceptor

Solar-powered transfer of an electron from a __________ __ molecule to the ________ ________ _________ is the first step of the light reactions.

existing variations, historical constraints, compromises, chance, natural selection, environment

Natural selection cannot fashion perfect organisms because: (1) selection can act only on ________ __________, (2) evolution is limited by _________ ____________, (3) adaptations are often ______________, and (4) ______, _______ _________, and the ____________ interact.

create, edits, selects, environment

Natural selection does not _______ new traits, but _____ or _______ for traits already present in the population; the local _____________ determines which traits will be selected for or selected against in any specific population.

self-replicating

Natural selection has produced _____-___________ RNA molecules.

survival, reproduction

Natural selection increases the frequencies of alleles that enhance ________ and _____________.

environment

Natural selection results in the accumulation of genetic variations favored by the ____________.

daltons

Neutron mass and proton mass are almost identical and are measured in ______.

atomic nucleus

Neutrons and protons form the ______ _____.

mutation, gene duplication

New genes and alleles can arise by __________ or _____ ___________.

amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids

Nitrogen is a component of: (3)

amino acids, nucleic acids

Nitrogen is essential for the production of _______ _____ and ________ _____.

meiosis I, meiosis II, replicated

No chromosome replication occurs between the end of ________ __ and the beginning of ________ ___ because the chromosomes are already __________.

individuals, populations

Note that ___________ do not evolve; ____________ evolve over time.

genetic engineering

Nucleic acid hybridization forms the foundation of virtually every technique used in ________ __________, the direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes.

polynucleotides

Nucleic acids are polymers called _____________.

untranslated region (UTR)

Nucleotide sequences that influence the life span of mRNA in eukaryotes reside in the _____________ _______ (____) at the 3 end of the molecule.

rarely, introns, exons

Nucleotide variation ______ results in phenotypic variation because most differences occur in noncoding regions (_____); variations that occur in coding regions (_____) rarely change the amino acid sequence of the encoded protein.

embryonic lethals

Nüsslein-Volhard and Wieschaus studied segment formation; they created mutants, conducted breeding experiments, and looked for the corresponding genes; many of the identified mutations were ___________ ______, causing death during embryogenesis.

hydroxide ion

OH-

64, 61, 3

Of the ____ triplets, ___ code for amino acids; __ triplets are "stop" signals to end translation.

functional, modified

Often translation is not sufficient to make a ___________ protein; polypeptide chains are _________ after translation or targeted to specific sites in the cell.

stomata, photosynthesis, CO2

On hot, dry days, plants close _______, which conserves H2O but also limits _____________ due to the lack of _____.

thylakoids, electrons, phosphate

On the outside of the __________, molecules of NADP+ and ADP pick up __________ and __________, respectively, and NADPH and ATP are then released to the stroma, where they play crucial roles in the Calvin cycle.

DNA sequencing

Once a gene is cloned, complementary base pairing can be exploited to determine the gene's complete nucleotide sequence; this process is called _____ ___________.

ribosome, polyribosomes

Once a ribosome is far enough past the start codon, another _________ can attach to the mRNA; strings of ribosomes called _____________ (or polysomes) can be seen with an electron microscope.

phylogeny

Once homologous characters have been identified, they can be used to infer a ___________.

CO2, NADH, NAD+

Once inside the mitochondrion, pyruvate undergoes a series of enzymatic reactions that remove ____ and oxidizes the remaining fragment, forming _____ from _____. (the product is CoA!)

cell divisions

Once methylated, genes usually remain so through successive ____ _________.

PCR

Once the cDNA is produced, _____ is used to make many copies of the sequence of interest, using primers specific to that sequence.

individuals, populations

One common misconception is that organisms evolve during their lifetimes; natural selection acts on ___________, but only ___________ evolve.

1

One map unit represents a __% recombination frequency.

bicoid

One maternal effect gene, the _______ gene, affects the front half of the body; an embryo whose mother has no functional _______ gene lacks the front half of its body and has duplicate posterior structures at both ends.

terminal phosphate group

One way ATP can power active transport is by transferring its _________ _________ ______ directly to the transport protein.

respond, activates

Only cells that contain receptors for testosterone can _________ to it. The hormone binds to the receptor protein and _________ it.

gametes

Only mutations in cells that produce _________ can be passed to offspring.

adaptive evolution

Only natural selection causes __________ _________.

adaptive evolution

Only natural selection consistently results in _________ _________, an increase in the frequency of alleles that improve fitness.

negative, perform work

Only processes with a _______ ∆G are spontaneous; spontaneous processes can be harnessed to _______ ______.

homologous

Only the ends of the Y chromosome have regions that are ____________ with corresponding regions of the X chromosome.

hydrogen, fuels, released, ATP

Organic molecules with an abundance of ________, like carbohydrates and fats, are excellent _____; as hydrogen (with its electron) is transferred to oxygen, energy is _______ that can be used in ____ synthesis.

matter

Organisms are composed of _____.

radiation, evaporation, convection, conduction

Organisms exchange heat by four physical processes:

prokaryotic cells

Organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of ________ _____.

homeostasis

Organisms use _____________ to maintain a "steady state" or internal balance regardless of external environment.

morphologies, DNA sequences

Organisms with similar ______________ or _____ ___________ are likely to be more closely related than organisms with different structures or sequences.

fimbriae

Other bacteria have _________, which allow them to stick to their substrate or other individuals in a colony.

90, substrate-level phosphorylation

Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for almost ___% of the ATP generated by cellular respiration; a small amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by ________-_____ ____________.

gene cloning

PCR amplification alone cannot substitute for _____ _______ in cells; instead, PCR is used to provide the specific DNA fragment to be cloned.

restriction site

PCR primers are synthesized to include a __________ _____ that matches the site in the cloning vector.

23

Pairs of chromosomes in a human somatic cell:

exotoxins, endotoxins

Pathogenic prokaryotes typically cause disease by releasing __________ or ___________.

lytic cycle, lysogenic cycle

Phages (the best understood of all viruses) have two reproductive mechanisms:

capsid head, protein tail

Phages have an elongated _______ _____ that encloses their DNA; a _______ ____ piece attaches the phage to the host and injects the phage DNA inside.

inherited genotype, environmental influences

Phenotype is the product of _________ _________ and _______________ ___________.

genetic variation, genes, DNA sequences

Phenotypic variation often reflects ________ _________; genetic variation among individuals is caused by differences in _______ or other _____ ___________.

amphipathic molecules

Phospholipids are ________ ______, containing hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions.

cell membranes

Phospholipids are major constituents of _____ ___________.

ATP, O2, organic fuel, ATP, sugar

Photorespiration decreased photosynthetic output by consuming ____, ____, and ________ ____ and releasing CO2 without producing any ____ or _______.

evolutionary relic

Photorespiration may be an ___________ _____ because rubisco first evolved at a time when the atmosphere had far less O2 and more CO2.

light reactions, Calvin cycle

Photosynthesis consists of the _____ ________ (the photo part) and the ______ ______ (the synthesis part).

redox, oxidized, reduced

Photosynthesis is a ______ process in which H2O is ________ and CO2 is ________.

endergonic, light

Photosynthesis is an _________ process; the energy boost is provided by _____.

respiration

Photosynthesis reverses the direction of electron flow compared to __________.

CO2

Photosynthetic organisms convert ___ to organic molecules that are used by heterotrophs.

700

Photosystem I (PS I) is best at absorbing a wavelength of ____ nm.

680

Photosystem II (PS II) functions first and is best at absorbing a wavelength of ____ nm.

ancestors, extinct descendants

Phylogenetic bracketing allows us to predict features of __________ and their ________ _____________ based on the features of closely related living descendants.

phenotypic similarity, when, change

Phylogenetic trees show patterns of descent, not ___________ _________; also, they do not generally indicate _____ a species evolved or how much _______ occurred in a lineage.

transposons

Piwi-associated RNAs (piRNAs) block expression of ___________, parasitic DNA elements in the genome.

cellulose fibers, polysaccharides, protein

Plant cell walls are made of _________ ______ embedded in other _____________ and _______.

external, inheritance, herbivores, insects, carry, outer layer of cells

Plant viral diseases spread by two major routes: (1) infection from an ________ source of virus or ___________ from a parent, and (2) ___________, especially _______, pose a double threat because they can both ______ a virus and help it get past the plant's ______ _____ ___ _____.

structure, mode of replication, RNA genome, helical capsid

Plant viruses have the same basic _________ and ______ ___ ___________ as animal viruses; most plant viruses known thus far have an ____ ________ and many have a _______ _______.

alternation of generations

Plants and some algae exhibit an __________ ___ __________; this life cycle includes both a diploid and haploid multicellular stage. *

radioactive isotopes

Some applications of ______ ____ in biological research are dating fossils, tracing atoms through metabolic processes, and diagnosing medical disorders.

endospores

Some bacteria develop resistant cells called ____________ when they lack an essential nutrient .

color blindness, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, hemophilia

Some disorders cause by recessive alleles on the X chromosome in humans: (3)

growth factors

Some external signals are _______ _________, proteins released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide.

dominant

Some human disorders are caused by __________ alleles; those that cause a lethal disease are rare and arise by mutation.

neutral

Some mutations are selectively ________ and have little or no effect on fitness; should be regular like a clock.

mats

Some of the earliest prokaryotic cells lived in dense _____ that resembled stepping stones.

single, many

Some phenotypic differences are due to differences in a _______ gene and can be classified on an "either-or" basis; other phenotypic differences are due to the influence of ______ genes and vary in gradations along a continuum.

protein, polypeptide

Some proteins are not enzymes, so researchers later revised the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis to one gene-one ________; however, many proteins are composed of several polypeptides, each of which has its own gene - therefore, Beadle and Tatum's hypothesis is now restated as the one gene-one ____________ hypothesis.

plasmids

Some species of bacteria also have smaller rings of DNA called __________.

two

Some traits may be determined by ____ or more genes.

repressors

Some transcription factors function as __________, inhibiting expression of a particular gene by a variety of methods.

symptoms

Some types of aneuploidy upset the genetic balance less than others, resulting in individuals surviving to birth and beyond; these surviving individuals have a set of _______, or syndrome, characteristic of the type of aneuploidy.

toxins, molecular components

Some viruses cause infected cells to produce ______ that lead to disease symptoms; others have __________ _____________ such as envelope proteins that are toxic.

viral envelopes

Some viruses have membranous envelopes that help them infect hosts; these _____ __________ are derived from the host cell's membrane and contain a combination of viral and host cell molecules.

cytoplasmic determinants (in the egg), induction (by nearby cells)

Sources of developmental information for the early embryo:

internal, external

Specialization requires organization and results in an ________ environment that differs from the _________ environment.

allopatric speciation, sympatric speciation

Speciation can occur in two ways:

replication, recombination, repair

Spontaneous mutations can occur during DNA ___________, ________________, or ______.

granules

Plants store surplus starch as _______.

mobile

Plasmids, transposons, and viruses are all _______ genetic elements.

nucleotide-pair substitutions, one or more nucleotide-pair insertions or deletions

Point mutations within a gene can be divided into two general categories:

multifactorial

Polygenic characters are called ____________ because genetic and environmental factors collectively influence phenotype.

cytosol, ER

Polypeptide synthesis always begins in the ________ and finishes in the ________ unless the polypeptide signals the ribosome to attach to the ___.

signal peptide

Polypeptides destined for the ER or for secretion are marked by a _______ _______.

few, thousand

Polypeptides range in length from a ____ to more than a ________ monomers.

appearance

Polyploids are more normal in _________ than aneuploids.

plants, animals

Polyploidy is common in ______, but not ________.

increase

Predation may _____ with increasing population size due to predator preference for abundant prey species.

alpha, beta

Starch consists of 1-4 linkages of _____ glucose ring structures while cellulose consists of 1-4 linkages of _____ glucose ring structures (looks like its alternating).

embryonic stem (ES) cells

Stem cells isolated from early embryos at the blastocyst stage are called ___________ _____ (___) _____; these are able to differentiate into all cell types.

hemagglutinin, neuraminidase

Strains of influenza A are given standardized names; the name H1N1 identifies forms of two viral surface proteins, _____________ (H) and _______________ (N).

mRNA, cytoplasm, protein

Process of synthesizing proteins: (1) synthesis of _____, (2) movement of mRNA into _________, (3) synthesis of _______ (mRNA is threaded through the ribosome, creating a polypeptide chain of amino acids)

binary fission

Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce by a type of cell division called ________ __________.

detritivores

Prokaryotes and fungi are important _______.

primitive, evolved

Prokaryotes are not "_________" but are highly ________.

Bacteria, Archaea

Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms in the domains _________ and _________.

phototrophs

Prokaryotes can be categorized by how they obtain energy and carbon: (1) ___________ obtain energy from light.

chemotrophs

Prokaryotes can be categorized by how they obtain energy and carbon: (2) ____________ obtain energy from chemicals.

autotrophs

Prokaryotes can be categorized by how they obtain energy and carbon: (3) __________ require CO2 as a carbon source.

heterotrophs

Prokaryotes can be categorized by how they obtain energy and carbon: (4) ____________ require an organic nutrient to make organic compounds.

nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, immobilize

Prokaryotes can sometimes increase the availability of ________, ____________, and ___________ for plant growth; they can also "_________" or decrease the availability of nutrients.

plasma membrane

Prokaryotes generate H+ gradients across their ________ _________.

rapid reproduction, mutation, genetic recombination

Prokaryotes have considerable genetic variation; three factors contribute to this genetic diversity:

chemical elements

Prokaryotes play a major role in the recycling of __________ _________ between the living and nonliving components of ecosystems.

identical

Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission, and offspring cells are generally _________.

binary fission, 1, 3

Prokaryotes reproduce quickly by _______ _______ and can divide every __-__ hours.

transformation, transduction, conjugation, horizontal gene transfer

Prokaryotic DNA from different individuals can be brought together by ________________, _____________, and ____________; movement of genes among individuals from different species is called ___________ _____ ________.

nucleus, nucleoid, organelles, cytoplasm

Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having no ________, DNA in an unbound region called the _________, no membrane-bound __________, and __________ bound by the plasma membrane

single

Prokaryotic cells form ______ replication bubbles.

compartmentalization, membranes, infoldings

Prokaryotic cells usually lack complex ______________________; some prokaryotes do have specialized ___________ that perform metabolic functions, but these are usually __________ of the plasma membrane.

adaptive radiation

Prokaryotic diversification can be viewed as a first great wave of _________ _________ in the evolutionary history of life.

start point

Promoters signal the transcriptional ______ ______ and usually extend several dozen nucleotide pairs upstream of the ______ ______.

50

Proteins account for more than ___% of the dry mass of most cells.

primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

Proteins are very diverse, but share three superimposed levels of structure called _______, __________, and _______ structure; a fourth level, __________ structure, arises when a protein consists of more than one polypeptide chain.

histones

Proteins called ________ are responsible for the first level of DNA packing in chromatin.

amino acids, deamination

Proteins must be digested to _______ ______ and amino groups must be removed (a process called __________) before amino acids can feed glycolysis or the citric acid cycle.

eukaryotic cells

Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of __________ _____.

active promoter, amplification, point mutations

Proto-oncogenes can be converted to oncogenes by: (1) movement of the oncogene to a position near an ______ _________, which may increase transcription, (2) ____________, increasing the number of copies of a proto-oncogene, or (3) ______ __________ in the proto-oncogene or its control elements, causing an increase in gene expression.

polygenic inheritance

Quantitative variation usually indicates ___________ __________, an additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotype.

crossover, recombination frequency

Sturtevant predicted that "the farther apart two genes are, the higher the probability that a ___________ will occur between them and therefore the higher the ______________ __________.

the endosymbiont theory

READ!! -an early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed a nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell, which formed an endosymbiont relationship with its host -the host cell and endosymbiont merged into a single organism, a eukaryotic cell with a mitochondrion -at least one of these cells may have taken up a photosynthetic prokaryote, becoming the ancestor of cells that contain chloroplasts

DNA

RNA could have provided the template for _____, a more stable genetic material.

ribose sugar, uracil, thymine

RNA is chemically similar to DNA, but RNA has a ______ _____ and the base ______ rather than ________.

ribozymes

RNA molecules called ___________ have been found to catalyze many different reactions.

ribozymes

RNA molecules that function as enzymes

stable, quickly

RNA molecules that were more ______ or replicated more _______ would have left the most descendant RNA molecules.

single

RNA molecules usually exist as a ______ polypeptide chains.

spliceosomes

RNA splicing is carried out by ______________, which consist of proteins and small RNAs.

RNA polymerase, 5, 3, primer

RNA synthesis is catalyzed by ____ ___________, which pries the DNA strands apart and joins together the RNA nucleotides; assembles polynucleotides in the ___' to ___' direction; can start a chain without a ______.

concentration gradient

Substance diffuse down their ___________ _______, from where it is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated. (no work must be done)

complementary DNA (cDNA)

RT-PCR relies on the activity of reverse transcriptase, which can synthesize a DNA copy of an mRNA, called a _______________ _____ (_____).

vegetation

Succession is the result of changes induced by the ______ itself.

p53

Suppression of the cell cycle can be important in the case of damage to a cell's DNA; ____ prevents a cell from passing on mutations due to DNA damage.

reception, transduction, response

Sutherland suggested that cells receiving signals undergo three processes:

reproductive barrier, polyploidy, natural selection, sexual selection

Sympatric speciation (a review): In sympatric speciation, a _____________ _______ isolates a subset of a population without geographic separation from the parent species; can result from ___________, _______ _________, or _______ _________.

ecological niches

Sympatric speciation can also result from the appearance of new ___________ _______; for example, the North American maggot fly can live on native hawthorn trees as well as more recently introduced apple trees.

polyploidy, habitat differentiation, sexual selection

Sympatric speciation occurs when gene flow is reduced between groups that remain in contact through factors including: (3)

maximum parsimony

Systematists can never be sure of finding the best tree in a large data set; they narrow possibilities by applying the principle of __________ _________.

derived, ancestral

Systematists compare each ingroup species with the outgroup to differentiate between shared _________ and shared __________ characteristics.

phylogenetic trees

Systematists depict evolutionary relationships in branching ______________ ______.

evolutionary relationships

Systematists have proposed that classification be based entirely on _____________ ______________.

recessive, incompletely dominant, codominant

Tay-Sachs disease: at the organismal level, the allele is ________; at the biochemical level, the phenotype (i.e. the enzyme activity level) is ___________ _________; at the molecular level, the alleles are __________.

somatic, cancer

Telomerase is not active in most human ________ cells; however, it does show inappropriate activity in some _______ cells.

stop codon, A

Termination occurs when a _____ _______ in the mRNA reaches the __ site of the ribosome.

limit

Territoriality can ____ population density when space becomes a limited resource

homozygous

Recessively inherited disorders show up only in individuals ____________ for the allele.

energy, work

Redox reactions that move electrons closer to electronegative atoms, like oxygen, release chemical ______ that can be put to _____. ***

geographic barriers

Regions with many ____________ ________ typically have more species than do regions with fewer barriers.

analogous

Regulation of room temperature by a thermostat is __________ to homeostasis.

negative

Regulation of the trp and lac operons involves _________ control of genes because operons are switched off by the active form of the repressor.

reproductive barriers, decreases

Reinforcement: natural selection strengthens (reinforces) _____________ _________, and, over time, the rate of hybridization __________.

homology

Related species can have characteristics with underlying similarity that function differently; _________ is similarity resulting from common ancestry.

emigration

Removal of individuals occurs through death and _______, the movement of individuals out of a population.

origins of replication, replication fork

Replication begins at particular sites called _______ ___ _________, where the two DNA strands are separated, opening up a replication "bubble"; at the end of a bubble is a ____________ _____, a Y-shaped region where the parental strands of DNA are being unwound.

anabolic

Repressible enzymes usually function in _________ pathways; their synthesis is repressed by high levels of the end product.

geographic distance

Reproductive isolation between populations generally increases as the ____________ _________ between them increases.

retroviruses, iPS, induced pluripotent stem cells

Researchers are able to reprogram fully differentiated cells to act like ES cells using ____________; cells transformed this way are called ____, or ________ __________ _____ _____.

alleles

Researchers used DNA from museum specimens to compare genetic variation in the population before and after the bottleneck; the results showed a loss of _______ at several loci.

reverse transcriptase

Retroviruses use ________ _____________ to copy their RNA genome into DNA.

rain shadow

Rising air releases moisture on the windward side of a peak and creates a "___ ______" as it absorbs moisture on the leeward side.

negatively, hydrophobic

Rosalind Franklin's conclusion that the sugar-phosphate backbones were on the outside of the DNA molecule was appealing because it put the __________ charged phosphate groups facing the aqueous surroundings, while the relatively _____________ nitrogenous bases were hidden in the interior.

endosymbiosis

Scientists hypothesize that mitochondria evolved from aerobic alpha proteobacteria through _____________.

X-ray crystallography

Scientists use ___-____ _______________ to determine 3-D protein based on diffractions of an X-ray beam by atoms of the crystalized molecule.

Gram stain

Scientists use the ______ ______ to classify bacteria by cell wall composition.

alpha helix, beta pleated sheet

Secondary structure can be either an _____ _____ or a ____ _________ _______.

phenotypes

Selection indirectly favors certain genotypes by acting directly on ___________.

mutation, natural selection, genetic drift

Separate populations may evolve independently through _________, ________ __________, and ________ ______.

crossing over, independent assortment, fertilization

Sexual reproduction can shuffle existing alleles into new combinations through three mechanisms:

genetic variation

Sexual reproduction contributes to the ________ _________ in a population, which originates from mutations.

sexual dimorphism

Sexual selection can result in _______ _____________, marked differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics.

molecular homoplasies

Shared bases in nucleotide sequences that are otherwise very dissimilar are called __________ _____________.

multiple steps, amplify

Signal transduction usually involves ________ _____. Multistep pathways can _______ a signal: a few molecules can produce a large cellular response.

glycolysis, NAD+

Similarities between fermentation with anaerobic and aerobic respiration: all use ________ to oxidize glucose and harvest chemical energy of food; in all three, ______ is the oxidizing agent that accepts electrons during glycolysis.

mitosis, binary fission

Since prokaryotes evolved before eukaryotes, _______ probably evolved from _______ _______.

evolved

Since viruses can replicate only within cells, they probably ________ after the first cells appeared.

DNA (the double helix), histones, 10-nm fiber, 30-nm fiber, looped domains (300-nm fiber), metaphase chromosome

Six stages of DNA packing in chromosomes: (see figure 13.21 on p. 260)

good genes, increase

The "______ ______" hypothesis suggests that if a trait is related to male genetic quality or health, both the male trait and female preference for that trait should _________ in frequency.

bottleneck effect

The ___________ ______ can result from a drastic reduction in population size due to a sudden environmental change; by chance, the resulting gene pool may not longer be reflective of the original population's gene pool, and if the population remains small, it may be further affected by genetic drift.

violet-blue, red

The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a suggests that _______-____ and _____ light work best for photosynthesis.

orienting substrates correctly, straining substrate bonds, providing a favorable microenvironment, covalently bonding to the substrate

The active site can lower an activation energy barrier by: (4) (cOSMiC)

methylation

The addition of methyl groups (____________) can condense chromatin and lead to reduced transcription. (can turn off gene transcription)

translation initiation complex, initiation factors

The addition of the large ribosomal subunit is last and completes the formation of the ___________ _________ _________; proteins called ___________ ________ are required to bring all these components together.

nonreproducing

The adult body also has stem cells, which replace ______________ specialized cells.

meiosis, fertilization

The alternation of _______ and ___________ is common to all organisms that reproduce sexually; the three main types of sexual life cycles differ in the timing of _______ and ___________.

gene

The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of inheritance called a _____.

countercurrent exchange

The arrangement of blood vessels in many marine mammals and birds allows for ________________ _________.

circular, small, linear, large

The bacterial chromosome is a doubled-stranded, __________ DNA molecule associated with a _______ amount of protein. Eukaryotic chromosomes have _______ DNA molecules associated with a ______ amount of protein.

MRSA, penicillin, methicillin

The bacterium Staphylococcus aureus is commonly found on people's skin or in their nasal passages, and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (______) strains are dangerous pathogens; S. aureus became resistant to _________ in 1945, two years after it was first widely used, and resistant to __________ in 1961, two years after it was first widely used.

double helix

The basis for Chargaff's rules was not understood until the discovery of the _______ ______.

meiosis, fertilization

The behavior of chromosomes during _______ and __________ is responsible for most of the variation that arises in each generation.

segregation, independent assortment

The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis can account for Mendel's laws of __________ and __________ ___________.

morphological, molecular, fossil, modified

The best hypotheses for phylogenetic trees fit the most data: _______________, __________, and ______; phylogenetic hypotheses are _________ when new evidence arises.

pattern formation, mother, polarity, position

The bicoid research is important for three reasons: (1) It identified a specific protein required for some early steps in ________ _________, (2) it is increased understanding of the _______'s role in embryo development, and (3) it demonstrated a key developmental principle that a gradient of molecules can determine ________ and ________ in the embryo.

fossils, asexual organisms, prokaryotes

The biological species concept cannot be applied to ______ or ________ __________ (including all ____________).

gene flow, distinct

The biological species concept emphasizes absence of _____ _____; however, gene flow can occur between _______ species.

food, glycolysis, the citric acid cycle

The body uses small molecules to build other substance; some of these small molecules come directly from _____; other can be produced during _________ or ___ ____ ____ _____.

hydrolysis

The bonds between the phosphate groups of ATP can be broken by _________.

exergonic

The breakdown of organic molecules is _________.

lineages

The broader taxa are not comparable between _________; for example, an order of snails has less genetic diversity than an order of mammals.

RNA

The broadest variety of ____ genomes is found in viruses that infect animals.

mitotic (M) phase, interphase

The cell cycle consists of:

internal, external, checkpoints

The cell cycle control system is regulated by both ________ and ________ controls; the clock has specific ___________ where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received.

cytoplasm

The cell cycle is driven by specific signaling molecules present in the _________.

kinases, cyclins

The cell cycle is regulated by a set of regulatory proteins and protein complexes including ________ and proteins called _______.

S

The cell grows during all three phases of interphase, but chromosomes are duplicated only during the __ phase.

cell shape, protects, bursting, hypotonic

The cell wall of a prokaryotic cell maintains its _____ ______, ________ the cell, and prevents it from _________ in a __________ environment.

interphase, prophase, prometaphase

The centrosome replicates during __________, forming two centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the cell during __________ and _____________.

abnormal

The change of a single nucleotide in a DNA template strand can lead to the production of an _________ protein.

pyruvate, 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2

The citric acid cycle oxidizes organic fuel derived from _________, generating __ ____, __ _____, and __ ______ per turn.

CO2, O2, photorespiration

The closing of stomata reduces access to ____ and causes ____ to build up; these conditions favor an apparently wasteful process called ______________.

benthos

The communities of organisms in the benthic zone are collectively called the _____.

nucleic acid probe

The complementary molecule in this case is a short single-stranded DNA or RNA called a _______ _____ ______.

transcription initiation complex

The completed assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase II bound to a promoter is called a _____________ __________ ________. (in eukaryotes)

vesicles

The components of the endomembrane system are either continuous or connected through transfer by _________ (sacs made of membrane).

negative

The cytoplasmic side of the membrane is _______ in charge relative to the extracellular side.

structure, activities

The cytoskeleton plays a major role in organizing the _______ and _________ of the cell.

disperse

The definition of a geographic barrier depends on the ability of a population to _________. (ex. a canyon may create a barrier for small rodents, but not birds, coyotes, or pollen)

model organisms

The development of a fertilized egg into an adult requires a precisely regulated program of gene expression; understanding this program has progressed mainly by studying ______ ___________.

deoxyribose, ribose

The difference between dATP and ATP is in the sugars: dATP has ___________, while ATP has ______.

passive transport

The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane is _________ ________ because no energy is expended by the cell to make it happen.

systematics

The discipline of ____________ classifies organisms and determines their evolutionary relationships.

Frederick Griffith, pathogenic, harmless

The discovery of the genetic role of DNA began with research by _________ _______ in 1928; he worked with two strains of bacterium, one ___________ and one __________.

region

The distribution of hybrid zones can be more complex if parent species are found in patches within the same _______.

chemoautotrophic bacteria

The ecological communities of hydrothermal vents depend on ____________________ _________ for energy.

harmless, neutral, redundancy

The effects of point mutations can vary; mutations in noncoding regions of DNA are often _________, and mutations in genes can be ________ because of ____________ in the genetic code.

harmful, beneficial

The effects of point mutations can vary; mutations that alter the phenotype are often ________, and mutations that result in a change in protein production can sometimes be __________.

directly, energy

The electron transport chain generates no ATP ________; it breaks the large free energy drop from food to oxygen into smaller steps that releases ______ in manageable amounts.

inner membrane (cristae) of the mitochondrion

The electron transport chain is in the:

couples, redox, ATP synthesis

The energy stored in a H+ gradient across a membrane _______ the _____ reactions of the electron transport chain to _____ ________.

released

The energy that keeps us alive is ________, not produced, by cellular respiration.

NADP+ reductase

The enzyme ______ ________ catalyzes the transfer of electrons from Fd to NADP+.

enzyme-substrate complex

The enzyme binds to its substrate, forming an _______-________ ________.

primase

The enzyme, _______, starts an RNA chain from a single RNA nucleotide and adds RNA nucleotides one at a time using the parental DNA as a template.

plastoquinone (Pq), plastocyanin (Pc)

The first electron transport chain (between PS II and PS I) is made up of the electron carrier ___________ and a protein called ___________.

mRNAs

The first evidence of differentiation is the appearance of _______ for tissue-specific proteins.

RNA

The first genetic material was probably _____, not DNA.

polyp

The first sign of colorectal cancer is often a ______, a small benign growth in the colon lining.

no mutations, random mating, no natural selection, extremely large population size, no gene flow

The five conditions for nonevolving populations are rarely met in nature:

triplet code

The flow of information from gene to protein is based on a _______ _____: a series of nonoverlapping, three-nucleotide words.

punctuated equilibria

The fossil record includes examples of species that appear suddenly, persist essentially unchanged for some time, and then apparently disappear; these periods of apparent stasis punctuated by sudden change are called ___________ ________.

extinction, origin, changes

The fossil record provides evidence of: (1) the ___________ of species, (2) the ______ of new groups, and (3) _______ within groups over time.

exergonic breakdown reactions (catabolism)

The free energy required to phosphorylate ADP comes from ___________ _________ _________ in the cell.

local

The free passage of substances in the cytosol from one cell to another is a type of ______ signaling.

total, 2, 2, homozygous, 1 heterozygous

The frequency of an allele in a population can be calculated: for diploid organisms, the total number of alleles at a locus is the _____ number of individuals times __; the total number of dominant alleles at a locus is __ alleles for each _____________ dominant individual plus __ allele for each _____________ individual; the same logic applies for recessive alleles.

molecular level

The frequency of cell division varies with the type of cell; these differences result from regulation at the __________ _______.

universal

The genetic code is nearly _________, shared by the simplest bacteria and the most complex animals.

codon, amino acid, codon, amino acid

The genetic code is redundant: more than one ______ may specify a particular ______ _____; but it is not ambiguous: no ______ specifies more than one ______ _____.

eukaryotic

The greater complexity of ___________ cell structure and function provides opportunities for regulating gene expression at many additional stages.

1650

The human population increased relatively slowly until about ____ and then began to grow exponentially.

F1 generation

The hybrid offspring of the P generation are called the ___ ___________.

nonpolar amino acids, alpha helices

The hydrophobic regions of an integral protein consists of one or more stretches of ________ _______ ________, often coiled into ______ ________.

protein kinase A

The immediate effect of cAMP is usually the activation of _______ _______ __, which then phosphorylates a variety of other proteins.

epigenetic inheritance

The inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence is called ___________ ___________.

primer

The initial nucleotide strand is a short RNA ______ so that polymerases can attach and start making the DNA.

regulatory proteins, simultaneously

The initiation of translation of selected mRNAs can be blocked by ___________ ________ that bind to sequences or structures of the mRNA; alternatively, translation of all mRNAs in a cell may be regulated ________________.

mRNA, tRNA, amino acid, ribosomal subunits, AUG

The initiation stage of translation brings together _______, a ______ with the first _______ _____, and the two ___________ _________; the small subunit moves along the mRNA until it reaches the start codon (____).

Taq polymerase

The key to PCR is an unusual, heat-stable DNA polymerase called ____ ___________.

phosphorylated intermediate, reactive

The key to coupling exergonic and endergonic reactions is the formation of the ________________ ___________, which is more _______ (less stable).

inducible, active, off

The lac operon is an ________ operon and contains genes that code for enzymes used in the hydrolysis and metabolism of lactose; by itself, the lac repressor is ______ and switches the lac operon ____.

Okazaki fragments

The lagging strand is synthesized as a series of segments called ________ ________.

proteins, ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs)

The large and small ribosomal are made of _________ and ___________ ______ (______).

protein synthesis

The life span of mRNA molecules in the cytoplasm is important in determining the pattern of ________ __________ in a cell.

H2O, O2, NADP+, NADPH, ATP, ADP

The light reactions (in the thylakoids) do 4 things: (1) split ____, (2) release ____, (3) reduce the electron acceptor, ______, to _______, and (4) generate ____ from ____ by adding a phosphate group (photophosphorylation)

s-shaped

The logistic model of population growth produces an __-_____ curve.

energy storage

The major function of fats is _______ _______.

identical

The mechanism of sister chromatid separation in meiosis II is _________ to that in mitosis.

terminator, modification, RNA polymerase II, polyadenylation, 10-35, polyadenylation

The mechanisms of termination are different in bacteria and eukaryotes; in bacteria, the polymerase stops transcription at the end of the ___________ and the mRNA can be translated without further ___________; in eukaryotes, ____ ____________ ___ transcribes the ______________ signal sequence; the RNA transcript is released ___-___ nucleotides past this ______________ sequence.

movement

The mitotic spindle controls chromosome __________ during mitosis.

morphogens

The morphogen gradient hypothesis: gradients of substances called __________ establish an embryo's axes and other features.

fats, phospholipids, steroids

The most biologically important lipids: (3)

clumped

The most common pattern of dispersion is ______, in which individuals aggregate in patches.

mRNAs

The most straightforward way to discover which genes are expressed by cells of interest is to identify the ________ being made.

sticky ends

The most useful restriction enzymes cleave the DNA in a staggered manner to produce ______ _____.

2 ATP, 2 NADH

The net energy yield from glycolysis (per glucose molecule):

hydrogen bonds, thymine, cytosine, complementary base pairing

The nitrogenous bases in DNA pair up and form _________ _____: adenine (A) always with _______, and guanine always with ________; this is called ______________ _____ _______.

cytosine (C), thymine (T), uracil (U), adenine (A), guanine (G)

The nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids are called: (5)

proto-oncogenes

The normal version of oncogenes, called ______-___________, code for proteins that stimulate normal cell growth and division.

n

The number of chromosomes in a single set is represented by ___.

2^n, n

The number of combinations possible when chromosomes assort independently into gametes is _____, where ___ is the haploid number.

reduced fertility

The offspring of matings between autopolyploids and diploids have _________ _______.

prokaryotes

The oldest fossil organisms are ____________ dating back to 3.5 billion years ago.

repressor

The operon can be switched off by a protein _________.

environment, embryonic cells

The other major source of developmental information is the _____________ around the cell, especially signals from nearby ___________ _____.

tissue-specific proteins

The outcome of determination, observable cell differentiation, is marked by the expression of genes for ______-________ _________. These proteins are found only in a specific cell type and give the cell its characteristic structure and function.

double helix

The pattern in the photo suggested that the DNA molecule was made up of two strands, forming a _______ ______.

polygenic characters

The phenotypic range is generally broadest for __________ _________.

direct, subtle, many

The phrases "struggle for existence" and "survival of the fittest" are misleading as they imply ______ competition among individuals; reproductive success is generally more ______ and depends on ______ factors.

morphogenesis

The physical processes that give an organism its shape constitute ________________.

cellulose

The polysaccharide ________ is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells.

5-10, 3

The primer is short (__-___ nucleotides long); the new DNA strand will start from the __' end of the RNA primer. (because it needs the -OH)

gene cloning

The production of multiple copies of a single gene is called _____ ________; useful to make many copies of a gene and to produce a protein product.

nucleoid

The prokaryote chromosome is not surrounded by a membrane; it is located in the ________ region.

DNA, circular

The prokaryotic genome has less ____ than the eukaryotic genome; most of the genome consists of a ________ chromosome.

hydronium

The proton (H+) binds to the other water molecule, forming a _____ ion (H3O+).

gradual change

The punctuated equilibrium model contrasts with a model of ________ _______ in a species' existence.

rapid

The punctuated pattern in the fossil record and evidence from lab studies suggest that speciation can be ______.

temperature, moisture, nutrient availability

The rate of decomposition is controlled by _______, _____, and ______ _______.

substrate

The reactant that an enzyme acts on is called the enzyme's ________.

P700

The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS I is called _____.

P680

The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS II is called _____.

operator

The regulatory "switch" is a segment of DNA called an ________ usually positioned within the promoter.

autosomes

The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes (besides sex chromosomes) are called _________.

active, inactive

The repressor can be in an _______ or ________ form, depending on the presence of other molecules.

corepressor, off

The repressor is active only in the presence of its ____________ tryptophan; thus the trp operon is turned ____ (repressed) if tryptophan levels are high.

regulatory gene

The repressor is the product of a separate ____________ _____.

RNA polymerase

The repressor prevents gene transcription by binding to the operator and blocking _____ ____________.

law of independent assortment

The results of Mendel's dihybrid experiments are the basis for the ____ ___ _____________ ___________.

amino acids, structure

The sequence of ______ _____, determined genetically, leads to a protein's three-dimensional _______; a protein's ________ determines its function.

cell cycle control system

The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct _____ ______ _______ _______, which is similar to a timing device of a washing machine.

hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, methyl

The seven functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life:

amylose

The simplest form of starch is _______.

cell division, cell differentiation, morphogenesis

The transformation from zygote to adult results from ____ ________, ____ _______________, and _______________.

long-distance

The transmission of an electrical signal along the length of a single nerve cell can also be _____-______ signaling, because nerve cells can be quite long.

rRNA genes, homologies

The tree of life is based largely on ______ ______, which have evolved slowly, allowing detection of ____________ between distantly related organisms.

eukaryotes, archaea, bacteria

The tree of life suggests that ____________ and _________ are more closely related to each other than to ________.

repressible

The trp operon is a ___________ operon.

P generation

The true-breeding parents are the ___ ___________.

four, two, half

The two cell divisions of meiosis result in _____ daughter cells rather than the ____ daughter cells of mitosis. Each daughter cell has only _____ as many chromosomes as the parent cell.

homologous chromosomes

The two chromosomes in each pair are called _____________ ____________, or homologs.

affinity for water

The unifying feature of lipids is having little to no _______ ____ _____.

polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

The use of ____________ ______ ________ (____) has allowed for more rapid sequencing of prokaryote genomes.

building code

The valences of carbon and its most frequent partners (hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen) are the "________ _____" that governs the architecture of living molecules.

polypeptide

The words of a gene are transcribed into complementary nonoverlapping three-nucleotide words of mRNA; these words are then translated into a chain of amino acids, forming a ___________.

somatic, mitosis

The zygote produces ________ cells by _______ and develops into an adult.

direct observations, homology, the fossil record, biogeography

There are four types of data that document the pattern of evolution:

replication, transcription, translation, bacterial growth

There are some differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes in DNA ___________, _____________, and ___________; these allow people to use some antibiotics to inhibit _________ _______ without harming themselves.

directional selection, disruptive selection, stabilizing selection

There are three modes of natural selection:

nature, single, double, envelope

There are two key variables to classify viruses that infect animals: (1) the ______ of the viral genome (______- or ______-stranded DNA or RNA), (2) the presence or absence of an __________.

endocrine, nervous

There are two major systems for controlling and coordinating responses to stimuli: the __________ and ________ systems.

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA)

There are two types of nucleic acids:

phenotype, genotype

Therefore, we distinguish between an organism's _________, or physical appearance, and its _________, or genetic makeup.

hypothalamus

Thermoregulation in mammals is controlled by a region of the brain called the _______________, which triggers heat loss or heat-generating mechanisms.

mRNA, cytoplasm, mRNA, hydrolytic enzymes, ribosomes, 5'

These modifications (5' cap and poly-A tail) share several functions: (1) facilitating the export of ______ to the ___________, (2) protecting ______ from ___________ ________, (3) helping ___________ attach to the ___' end.

enzymes

These processes (hydration/dehydration reactions) are facilitated by ________, which speed up chemical reactions.

rings

Though often drawn as linear skeletons, in aqueous solutions many sugars form _____.

synapsis and crossing over, homologous pairs at the metaphase plate, separation of homologs

Three events are unique to meiosis: (all three occur in meiosis I)

natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow

Three mechanisms cause allele frequency change (bring about the most evolutionary change):

independent assortment of chromosomes, crossing over, random fertilization

Three mechanisms contribute to genetic variation:

spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli), spirals

Three most common shapes of prokaryotes:

mutation, RNA, dissemination, unnoticed, animal

Three processes contribute to the emergence of viral diseases: (1) the __________ of existing viruses, which is especially high in ____ viruses, (2) ______________ of a viral disease from a small, isolated human population, allowing the disease to go __________ before it begins to spread, and (3) spread of existing viruses from ________ populations; about three-quarters of new human diseases originate this way.

single-stranded, base pairs, functional groups, hydrogen bond

Three properties of RNA enable some RNA molecules to function as enzymes: (1) Because RNA is ______-_________, it can form _____ _____ with itself, creating a three-dimensional structure, (2) some of its bases contain __________ ________ that may participate in catalysis, and (3) the ability of RNA to __________ _____ with other nucleic acid molecules (either RNA or DNA) adds specificity to its catalytic activity.

coupled, NADH, ATP

Three reasons why the total number of ATP produces is not exact: (1) Phosphorylation and the redox reactions are not directly ________ to each other, so the ratio of the number of ______ molecules to the number of _____ molecules is not a whole number.

shuttle, cytosol, mitochondrion

Three reasons why the total number of ATP produces is not exact: (2) The ATP yield varies slightly depending on the type of _______ used to transport electrons from the _______ into the ______________. (they can either be passed on from NADH to mitochondrial NAD+ or FAD)

proton-motive force, work

Three reasons why the total number of ATP produces is not exact: (3) The use of the ______-______ _______ generated by the redox reactions of respiration to drive other kinds of ______. (if all force goes to drive ATP synthesis, a maximum of 28 ATP molecules can be synthesized)

codon recognition, peptide bond formation, translocation

Three steps of elongation (in translation):

repair damaged DNA, control cell adhesion, inhibit the cell cycle

Three things tumor-suppressor proteins do:

clumped, uniform, random

Three types of dispersion:

directly, template, retroviruses

Three types of single-stranded RNA genomes found in animal viruses: (1) the RNA genome can ________ serve as mRNA, (2) the RNA genome serves as a _________ for mRNA synthesis, or (3) _____________.

attempting, completion, fertilization, successful

Three ways prezygotic barriers block fertilization from occurring: (1) impeding different species from ___________ to mate, (2) preventing the successful ___________ of mating, and (3) hindering ____________ if mating is ___________.

ions, polar

_____ and _________ (hydrophilic) molecules such as glucose, other sugars, and water pass slowly through the lipid bilayer.

form, function

_____ and _________ are closely correlated.

plant

_____ defenses include chemical toxins and protective structures.

density

_____ is the result of an interplay between processes that add individuals to a population and those that remove individuals.

dATP

_____ is used to make DNA and is similar to the ATP of energy metabolism.

intrinsic factors

______ _____ (for example, physiological factors like hormonal changes) appear to regulate population size.

sister taxa

______ ______ are groups that share an immediate common ancestor.

distal control elements

______ ________ ________, groupings of which are called enhancers, may be far away from a gene or even located in an intron.

short

______ generation times allow mutations to accumulate rapidly in prokaryotes and viruses.

unlimited, limited

______ growth occurs under ideal conditions; in nature, growth is _____ by various factors.

headwater

______ streams are generally cold, clear, turbulent, swift, and oxygen-rich; they are often narrow and rocky.

downstream

______ waters form rivers and are generally warmer and more turbid; they are often wide and meandering and have silty bottoms.

Gram-positive

______-________ bacteria have simpler walls with a large amount of peptidoglycan.

Gram-negative

______-_________ bacteria have less peptidoglycan and an outer membrane that can be toxic.

metapopulations

_______ are groups of populations linked by immigration and emigration.

clades

_______ can be nested in larger _______, but not all groupings of organisms qualify as _______.

wobble

_______ explains why the synonymous codons for a given amino acid most often differ in their third nucleotide base, but not in the other bases.

temperature

_______ is an important environmental factor in the distribution of organisms because of its effects on biological processes.

fusion

_______ of the parent species into a single species may occur if hybrids are as fit as parents, allowing substantial gene flow between species.

oxygen, ATP

_______ pulls electrons down the chain in an energy-yielding tumble; the energy yield is used to regenerate _____.

protein-protein

_______-_______ interactions are crucial to the initiation of eukaryotic transcription.

glucose

________ (C6H12O6) is the most common monosaccharide.

quaternary structure

________ _______ results from interactions between multiple polypeptide chains.

tertiary structure

________ ________ is determined by interactions among various side chains (R groups).

anaerobic respiration, fermentation

________ __________ uses an electron transport chain; _____________ does not.

humans

________ are not good subjects for genetic research because generation time is too long, parents produce relatively few offspring, and breeding experiments are unacceptable. (However, basic Mendelian genetics endure as the genetic foundation.)

proteins

________ are the links between genotype and phenotype.

diploidy, heterozygotes

________ maintains genetic variation in the form of hidden recessive alleles; ______________ can carry recessive alleles that are hidden from the effects of selection.

stability

________ of the hybrid zone may be achieved if extensive gene flow from outside the hybrid zone can overwhelm selection for increased reproductive isolation inside the hybrid zone.

proximal control elements

_________ ______ ________ are located close to the promoter.

malignant tumors, metastasize

_________ _______ invade surrounding tissues and can ________, exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form additional tumors.

anabolic pathways

_________ ________ consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones. ('uphill' avenue of metabolic landscape)

catabolic pathways

_________ ________ release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds. ('downhill' avenue of metabolic landscape)

obligate aerobes

_________ ________ require O2 for cellular respiration.

secondary structure

_________ ________, found in most proteins, consists of coils and folds in the polypeptide chain.

obligate anaerobes

_________ __________ are poisoned by O2 and use fermentation of anaerobic respiration.

genetic recombination

_________ _______________, the combining of DNA from two sources, contributes to diversity.

vaccines, antibiotics

_________ can prevent certain viral illnesses; viral infections cannot be treated by _________; antiviral drugs can help treat, though not cure, viral infections.

Lamarck

_________ hypothesized that species evolve through use and disuse of body parts and the inheritance of acquired characteristics; the mechanisms he proposed are unsupported by evidence.

nonpolar

__________ (hydrophobic) molecules, such as hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, and oxygen, can dissolve in the lipid bilayer of the membrane and cross it easily, without the aid of membrane proteins.

molecular systematics

__________ ____________ led to the splitting of prokaryotes into bacteria and archaea.

insertions, deletions

__________ and _________ are additions or losses of nucleotide pairs in a gene; these mutations have a disastrous effect on the resulting protein more often than substitutions do.

mitosis, meiosis

__________ conserves the number of chromosome sets, producing cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. ________ reduces the number of chromosome sets from two (diploid) to one (haploid), producing cells that differ genetically from each other and from the parent cell.

phylogeny, DNA sequences

__________ provides important information about similar characteristics in closely related species; phylogenetic trees based on _____ ___________ can be used to infer species identities.

glycolysis

__________, like fermentation, doesn't require oxygen - it produces 2 ATP no matter what.

analogous traits

___________ ______ arise when groups independently adapt to similar environments in similar ways.

intracellular receptor proteins, small, hydrophobic

___________ __________ _______ are found in the cytosol or nucleus of target cells. ______ or ____________ chemical messengers can readily cross the membrane and activate these receptors.

maximum parsimony

___________ ___________ assumes that the tree that requires the fewest evolutionary events (appearances of shared derived characters) is the most likely.

Mendelian inheritance

___________ ___________ preserves genetic variation in a population.

cytokinesis

___________ begins during anaphase or telophase and the spindle eventually disassembles.

endotherms

___________ can maintain a stable body temperature in the face of large fluctuations in environmental temperature.

ribosomes

___________ facilitate specific coupling of tRNA anticodons with mRNA codons during protein synthesis.

ectotherms, endotherms

___________ generally need to consume less food than ___________, because their heat source is largely environmental.

protocells

___________ may have been fluid-filled vesicles with a membrane-like structure

ectotherms

___________ may regulate temperature by behavioral means.

cytokinesis

___________ overlaps the latter stages of mitosis.

consanguineous

____________ (between close relatives) matings increase the chance of mating between two carriers of the same rare allele.

replication, metabolism

____________ and ____________ are key properties of life and may have appeared together.

ectothermic

____________ animals gain heat from external sources; most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and nonavian reptiles.

transduction

____________ is the movement of genes between bacteria by bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria).

conjugation

_____________ is the process where genetic material is transferred between prokaryotic cells.

reproductive isolation

______________ _________ may arise as a result of genetic divergence. (ex. mosquitofish in the Bahamas comprise several isolated populations in different ponds)

endothermic

______________ animals generate heat by metabolism; birds and mammals.

multicellularity

_______________ allows for cellular specialization with particular cells devoted to specific activities.

bacteriophages, phages

________________, also called _______, are viruses that infect bacteria; they have the most complex capsids found among viruses.

protein

a biologically functional molecule that consists of one or more polypeptides

food web

a branching food chain with complex trophic interactions

enzyme

a catalytic protein

endosymbiont

a cell living inside another cell

microevolution

a change in allele frequencies in a population over generations

transformation

a change in genotype and phenotype due to assimilation of foreign DNA

point mutation

a change in one base in a gene

mutation

a change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA

catalyst

a chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction

primary cilium

a cilium that acts as a signal-receiving antenna for the cell

piwi-associated RNAs (piRNAs)

a class of small ncRNAs that also induce formation of heterochromatin

chromatin

a complex of DNA and protein found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells

organic compound

a compound containing carbon

polyploidy

a condition in which an organism has more than two complete sets of chromosomes

type 2 survivorship curve

a constant death rate over the organism's life span

dihybrid cross

a cross between F1 dihybrids that can determine whether two characters are transmitted to offspring as a package or independently

monohybrid cross

a cross between monohybrids

Huntington's disease

a degenerative disease of the nervous system; no obvious phenotypic effects until the individual is about 35 to 45 years of age

stroma

a dense interior fluid in chloroplasts

Punnett square

a diagram for predicting the results of a genetic cross between the individuals of known genetic makeup

sickle-cell disease

a disease caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein in red blood cells; in homozygous individuals, all hemoglobin is abnormal (sickle-cell), while heterozygotes are usually healthy but may suffer some symptoms

plastids

a family of closely related plant organelles (includes chloroplast)

pedigree

a family tree that describes the interrelationships of parents and children across generations

collagen

a fibrous protein that has three identical helical polypeptides intertwined into a larger triple helix, giving the long fibers great strength

cooperativity

a form of allosteric regulation that can amplify enzyme activity; one substrate molecule primes an enzyme to act on additional substrate molecules more readily

sex-linked gene

a gene that is located on either sex chromosome

epidemic

a general outbreak of illness

linkage map

a genetic map of a chromosome based on recombination frequencies

pandemic

a global epidemic

absorption spectrum

a graph plotting a pigment's light absorption versus wavelength

clone

a group of genetically identical individuals from the same parent; produced through asexual reproduction

cohort

a group of individuals of the same age, from birth to death

population

a group of individuals of the same species living in an area

community

a group of populations of different species in an area

clade

a group of species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants

vaccine

a harmless derivative of a pathogen that stimulates the immune system to mount defenses against the harmful pathogen

solution

a liquid that is a homogeneous mixture of substances

population

a localized group of individuals capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring

polymer

a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks

entropy

a measure of disorder, or randomness

surface tension

a measure of how hard it is to break the surface of a liquid; related to cohesion

Celsius scale

a measure of temperature using Celsius degrees

thermal energy

a measure of the total amount of kinetic energy due to molecular motion

lysosome

a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that an animal cell uses to digest (hydrolyze) macromolecules

lysosome

a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules

beta oxidation

a metabolic sequence in which fatty acids are broken down and yield acetyl CoA

the fluid mosaic model

a model that states that the membrane is a mosaic of protein molecules bobbing in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids

corepressor

a molecule that cooperates with a repressor protein to switch an operon off

landscape

a mosaic of connected ecosystems

movement corridor

a narrow strip of habitat connecting otherwise isolated patches

nuclear lamina

a netlike array of protein filaments that maintain the shape of the nucleus

cytoskeleton

a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm

Batesian mimicry

a palatable or harmless species mimics an unpalatable or harmful model

fermentation

a partial degradation of sugars that occurs without oxygen

lytic cycle

a phage replicative cycle that culminates in the death of the host cell; produces new phages and lyses (breaks open) the host's cell wall, releasing the progeny viruses

virulent phage

a phage that reproduces only by the lytic cycle

activator

a protein that binds to an enhancer and stimulates transcription of a gene

G protein

a protein that binds to the energy-rich molecule GTP (similar to ATP); acts as an on-off switch; very similar in structure

hydrolysis

a reaction that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction that disassembles polymers into monomers

hybrid zone

a region in which members of different species mate and produce hybrids; can occur in a single band where adjacent species meet

centrosome

a region that is often located near the nucleus and is considered a "microtubule-organizing center"

symbiosis

a relationship where two or more species live in direct and intimate contact with one another

biodiversity hot spot

a relatively small area with a great concentration of endemic species and many endangered and threatened species

stem cell

a relatively unspecialized cell that can reproduce itself indefinitely and differentiate into specialized cells of one or more types

plasma membrane

a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell, generally a double layer of phospholipids

cytosol

a semifluid, jellylike substance in which subcellular components are suspended

signal transduction pathway

a sequence of changes in a series of different molecules required in transduction

ligand

a signalling molecule that specifically binds to another molecule, often a larger one

asexual reproduction

a single individual passes genes to its offspring without the fusion of gametes

aqueous solution

a solution in which water is the solvent

peroxisome

a specialized metabolic compartment bounded by a single membrane; produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water

interbreed, offspring, successfully

a species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to ___________ in nature and produce viable, fertile ________; they do not breed ____________ with other populations

allopolyploid

a species with multiple sets of chromosomes derived from different species; cannot interbreed with either parent species (a hybrid)

colloid

a stable suspension of fine particles in a liquid

transduction

a step or series of steps that converts the signal to a form that can bring about a specific cellular response

glycogen

a storage polysaccharide in animals

starch

a storage polysaccharide of plants; consists entirely of glucose monomers

mitotic spindle

a structure made of microtubules and associated proteins

compound

a substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio

element

a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions

hydrophobic substance

a substance that does not have an affinity for water

hydrophilic substance

a substance that has an affinity for water

taxon

a taxonomic unit at any level of hierarchy

thermocline

a temperate boundary that separates the warm upper layer from the cold deeper water in oceans and most lakes

character displacement

a tendency for characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric populations of two species than in allopatric populations of the same two species (?? can someone explain this to me thx)

estuary

a transition area between river and sea; salinity varies with the rise and fall of the tides

electrogenic pump

a transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane, help store energy that can be used for cellular work (ex. sodium-potassium pump of animal cells)

reaction-center complex

a type of protein complex in a photosystem

endergonic reaction

absorbs free energy from its surroundings and is nonspontaneous; ∆G is positive

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells; continuous with the nuclear envelope

oxidative phosphorylation

accounts for most of the ATP synthesis

small interfering RNAs (siRNAs)

another class of small RNAs; are similar to miRNAs but form form different RNA precursors

Krebs cycle

another name for the citric acid cycle

egg-polarity genes

another name of maternal effect genes because they control orientation of the egg and consequently the fly

chitin

another structural polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of arthropods; also provides structural support for the cell walls of many fungi

joule

another unit of energy (1 cal = 4.184 J)

reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)

another widely used method for comparing the amounts of specific mRNAs in several different samples; turns sample sets of mRNAs into double-stranded DNAs with the corresponding sequences

acid

any substance that increases the H+ concentration of a solution

base

any substance that reduces the H+ concentration of a solution

matter

anything that takes up space and has mass

physical and chemical environment, geological features, photosynthetic organisms, heterotrophs

aquatic biomes can be characterized by their: (4)

extremophiles

archaea that live in extreme environments

coral reefs, oxygen

are formed from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals, require high ____ concentrations

nonpolar covalent bond

atoms share the electron equally

Van der Waals interactions

attractions between molecules that are close together as a result of electrons that are distributed asymmetrically in molecules or atoms

plasma membrane, cytosol, chromosomes, ribosomes

basic features of all cells: (4)

metabolic pathway

begins with a specific molecule that is altered in a series of defined steps and results in a product

single-strand binding proteins

bind to and stabilize single-stranded DNA

noncompetitive inhibitors

bind to another part of an enzyme, causing the enzyme to change shape and making the active site less effective

competitive inhibitors

bind to the active site of an enzyme, competing with the substrate; can be overcome by increasing the concentration of substrates

prezygotic barriers

block fertilization from occurring

mutualism

both symbiotic organisms benefit

cell fractionation

breaks up cells and separates the components, using centrifugation

aposematic coloration

bright warning coloration displayed by animals with effective chemical defenses

autotrophs

build molecules themselves using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis as an energy source

cryptic coloration

camouflage; makes prey difficult to spot

reproductive isolation

can be classified by whether barriers act before or after fertilization

sexual selection

can drive sympatric speciation

lysosomal enzymes

can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids (work best in the acidic environment inside the lysosome)

facultative anaerobes

can survive using either fermentation or cellular respiration; i.e. yeast and many bacteria

facultative anaerobes

can survive with or without O2

obligate anaerobes

carry out only fermentation or anaerobic respiration and cannot survive in the presence of oxygen

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)

causes AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)

lysosomes, centrosomes, flagella

cell components that are only found in animal cells: (3)

chloroplasts, central vacuole, cell wall, plasmodesmata

cell components that are only found in plant cells: (4)

tight junctions

cell junction that doesn't allow water/extracellular fluid to pass through (ex: prevents HCl from leaving the stomach)

adhering junctions

cell junction that functions like a rivet, fastening cells together into strong sheets (ex: attaches muscle cells to each other in a muscle, allows while blood cells/water to get to different areas)

gap junctions

cell junction that provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to an adjacent cell (like the plasmodesmata but for animal cells)

totipoten

cells that can give rise to all specialized cell types in the organism

nonsense mutations

change an amino acid codon into a stop codon, nearly always leading to a nonfunctional protein

mutations

changes in an organism's DNA; the original source of genetic diversity (create different versions of alleles)

mutations

changes in the genetic material of a cell or virus

aquaporins, ion channels

channel proteins include: (2)

aquaporins

channel proteins that facilitate the passage of water

ion channels

channel proteins that transport ions

plasmodesmata

channels that perforate plant cell walls; through them, water and small solutes (and sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell

plasmodesmata

channels through cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent cells -ONLY IN PLANT CELLS-

quantitative characters

characters that vary in the population along a continuum

point mutations

chemical changes in just one or a few nucleotide pairs of a gene

redox reactions

chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants

cladistics

classifies organisms by common descent

intrasexual selection

competition among individuals of one sex (often males) for mates of the opposite sex

ribosomes

complexes of ribosomal RNA and protein; the cellular components that carry out protein synthesis

ribosomes

complexes that make proteins; free in cytosol or bound to rough ER or nuclear envelope

nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, plasma membrane

components of the endomembrane system: (6) (NEG LV P)

ionic compounds/salts

compounds formed by ionic bonds

biological magnification

concentrates toxins at higher trophic levels, where biomass is lower (toxins become more concentrated in successive trophic levels!)

ok

concentration of PCB's diagram demonstrates biological magnification nicely (l)

heterochromatin

condensed chromatin

thylakoids

connected sacs in the chloroplasts where chlorophyll is found

photosystem

consists of a reaction-center complex surrounded by light-harvesting complexes

ecosystem

consists of all organisms living in a community, as well as the abiotic factors with which they interact

gene pool

consists of all the alleles for all loci in a population

microevolution

consists of changes in allele frequency in a population over time

Golgi apparatus

consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae

light-harvesting complex

consists of pigment molecules (bound to proteins in a photosystem) that transfer the energy of photons to the reaction center (act as antennae and transfer the energy from one pigment to another)

gene flow

consists of the movement of alleles among populations

visible light

consists of wavelengths (including those that drive photosynthesis) that produce colors we can see

fats

constructed from two types of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids

aerobic respiration

consumes organic molecules and oxygen and yields ATP

chloroplasts

contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and other molecules that function in photosynthesis

nucleus

contains most of the cell's genes and is usually the most conspicuous organelle

crossing over

contributes to genetic variation by combining DNA, producing chromosomes with new combination of maternal and paternal alleles

behavioral isolation

courtship rituals and other behaviors unique to a species are effective barriers

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

critically important molecules of all living things fall into four main classes:

radioactive isotopes

decay spontaneously, giving off particles and energy

detritivores

decomposers; are consumers that derive their energy from detritus

the phylogenetic species concept

defines a species as the smallest group of individuals on a phylogenetic tree; it applies to sexual and asexual species, but it can be difficult to determine the degree of difference required for separate species

the morphological species concept

defines a species by structural features; it applies to sexual and asexual species but relies on subjective criteria

ok

definitely look at table 24.2 and maybe make a quizlet for it later

variation

demonstrated by the differences in appearance that offspring show from parents and sibings

K-selection

density-dependent selection; selects for life history traits that are sensitive to population density

r-selection

density-independent selection, selects for life history traits that maximize reproduction

heterotrophs

depend on the biosynthetic output of other organisms

genetic drift

describes how allele frequencies fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next; tends to reduce genetic variation through losses of alleles, especially in small populations

sex chromosomes

determine the sex of the individual; X and Y

molecular shape

determines how biological molecules recognize and respond to one another

sustainable development

development that meets the needs of people today without limiting the ability of future generations to meet their needs

organs

different types of tissues organized into functional units

natural selection

differential success in reproduction results in certain alleles being passed to the next generation in greater proportions

resource partitioning

differentiation of ecological niches, enabling similar species to coexist in a community

lysosome

digestive organelle where macromolecules are hydrolyzed -ONLY IN ANIMAL CELLS-

nucleus

directs protein synthesis by synthesizing messenger RNA (mRNA) according to instructions provided by the DNA

strong acid/base

dissociates completely in water

lipids

do not form true polymers

nuclear envelope

double membrane enclosing the nucleus; perforated by pores; continuous with ER

synaptic signaling

electrical signal along nerve cell triggers release of neuro-transmitter, which diffuses across the synapse, stimulating the target cell

valence electrons

electrons that occupy the valence shell

nuclear envelope

encloses the nucleus, separating its contents from the cytoplasm

maternal effect genes

encode cytoplasmic determinants that initially establish the axes of the body of Drosophila

tumor-suppressor genes

encode proteins that help prevent uncontrolled cell growth

kinetic energy

energy associated with motion

first law of thermodynamics

energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed

potential energy

energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure

helicases

enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication forks

reduced hybrid fertility

even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile (ex. mule!!)

second law of thermodynamics

every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe; for a process to occur spontaneously, it must increase the entropy of the universe

pesticides, antibiotics

examples of inhibitors: (2)

toxins, poisons

examples of irreversible inhibitors: (2)

keystone species

exert strong control on a community by their ecological roles, or niches; not necessarily abundant

selective permeability

exhibited by the plasma membrane, allowing some substances to cross it more easily than others

extreme halophiles

extremophiles (archaea) that live in highly saline environments

extreme thermophiles

extremophiles (archaea) that thrive in very hot environments

Tay-Sachs disease

fatal; a dysfunctional enzyme causes an accumulation of lipids in the brain

unsaturated fatty acids

fatty acids that have one or more double bonds

saturated fatty acids

fatty acids that have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds

intermediate filaments

fibers with diameters in between microtubules and microfilaments in the cytoskeleton

scanning electron microscope (SEM)

focuses a beam of electrons onto the surface of a specimen, providing images that look three-dimensional

transmission electron microscope (TEM)

focuses a beam of electrons through a specimen, studies the internal structure of cells

second concept of Mendel's model

for each character, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parents

disaccharide

formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides

speciation

forms a conceptual bridge between microevolution and macroevolution

hydrogen bond

forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom

central vacuole

found in many mature plant cells, hold organic compounds and water

chloroplasts

found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis

hormonal proteins

function: coordination of an organism's activities

contractile and motor proteins

function: movement

defensive proteins

function: protection against disease

receptor proteins

function: response of cell to chemical stimuli

enzymatic proteins

function: selective acceleration of chemical reactions

storage proteins

function: storage of amino acids

structural proteins

function: support

transport proteins

function: transport of substances

shape and support the cell, guide movement of organelles, separate chromosomes during cell division

functions of microtubules: (3)

modifies products of the ER, manufactures certain macromolecules, sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

functions of the Golgi apparatus: (3)

protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, prevents excessive uptake of water

functions of the cell wall: (3)

has bound ribosomes, distributes transport vesicles, is a membrane factory for the cell

functions of the rough ER: (3)

synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbohydrates, detoxifies drugs and poisons, stores calcium ions

functions of the smooth ER: (4) (SMDS)

linked genes

genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together

reduced hybrid viability

genes of the different parent species may interact and impair the hybrid's development or survival

X-linked genes

genes on the X chromosome

Y-linked genes

genes on the Y-chromosome; there are few of these

neutral variation

genetic variation that does not confer a selective advantage or disadvantage; various mechanisms help preserve genetic variation in a population

genetic diversity

genetic variation within a population and between populations

collagen, proteoglycans, fibronectin

glycoproteins that make up the ECM

proteobacteria

gram-negative bacteria including photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, and heterotrophs; some are anaerobic and others aerobic

streptomyces

gram-positive bacteria; are the source of anitbiotics

staphylococcus, streptococcus

gram-positive bacteria; can be pathogenic (2)

actinomycetes

gram-positive bacteria; decompose soil

bacillus anthracis

gram-positive bacteria; the cause of anthrax

clostridium botulinum

gram-positive bacteria; the cause of botulism

mycoplasms

gram-positive bacteria; the smallest known cells

enhancers

groupings of distal control elements

tissues

groups of cells with similar appearance and common function

organ systems

groups of organs that work together

primary producers

have a very large impact on community structure; ex. plants and phytoplankton

monosaccharides

have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of CH2O

silent mutations

have no effect on the amino acid produced by a codon because of redundancy in the genetic code

spirochetes

helical heterotrophs; some are parasites, including Treponema pallidum, which causes syphilis, and Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease

fossils

helped to lay the groundwork for Darwin's ideas; remains or traces of organisms from the past, usually found in sedimentary rock, which appears in layers or strata

primary consumers

herbivores and zooplankton

carriers

heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but are phenotypically normal

independent assortment of chromosomes

homologous pairs of chromosomes orient randomly at metaphase I of meiosis; each pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal homologs into daughter cells independently of the other pairs

endocrine (hormonal) signaling

hormonal signaling in animals; endocrine cells release hormone molecules, which travel in the bloodstream and bind to target cells

overharvesting

human harvesting of wild plants or animals at rates exceeding the ability of populations of those species to rebound

nutrient enrichment, accumulation of toxins, climate change

human-caused changes in the environment include: (3)

Darwin

hypothesized that species from South America had colonized the Galápagos and speciated on the islands

third concept of Mendel's model

if the two alleles at a locus differ, then one (the dominant allele) determines the organism's appearance, and the other (the recessive allele) has no noticeable effect on appearance

gram-positive bacteria

include actinomycetes, streptomyces, bacillus anthracis, clostridium botulnum, straphylococcus, streptococcus, mycoplasms

carbohydrates

include sugars and the polymers of sugars

bacteria

include the vast majority of prokaryotes familiar to most people

cellular respiration

includes both aerobic and anaerobic respiration but is often used to refer to aerobic respiration

zoned reserve

includes relatively undisturbed areas surrounded by human-modified areas of economic value

cytogenetic maps

indicate the positions of genes with respect to chromosomal features

monohybrids

individuals that are heterozygous for one character (the F1 offspring produced in Mendel's cross)

horizontal transmission

infection from an external source of virus

vertical transmission

inheritance of the virus from a parent

transmembrane proteins

integral proteins that span the membrane

Carolus Linnaeus

interpreted organismal adaptations as evidence that the Creator had designed each species for a particular purpose; the founder of taxonomy; developed the binomial format for naming species (ex. Homo sapiens)

linear electron flow

involves the flow of electrons through both photosystems to produce ATP and NADPH using light energy

carbon fixation (phase 1)

involves the incorporation of the CO2 molecules into ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) using the enzyme rubisco; forms two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate per CO2 molecule

regeneration (phase 3)

involves the rearrangement of G3P to regenerate the initial CO2 receptor, RuBP (takes 3 ATP)

reduction (phase 2)

involves the reduction and phosphorylation of 3-phosphoglycerate to G3P (by first adding a phosphate group from ATP, then being reduced by NADPH and losing the phosphate group)

sister chromatid cohesion

keeps sister chromatids of a single chromosome attached during meiosis and mitosis

thermal energy

kinetic energy associated with random movement of atoms or molecules

vacuoles

large vesicles derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus

strata

layers of sedimentary rock

threatened species

likely to become endangered in the near future

food chains

link trophic levels from producers to top carnivores

steroids

lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings

competitive exclusion

local elimination of a competing species (result of strong competition)

paracrine signaling

local regulator diffuses through extracellular fluid (type of local signaling that involves growth factors); multiple cells can simultaneously receive and respond to molecules produced by a nearby cell

nucleolus

located within the nucleus and is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis

pili (sex pili)

longer than fimbriae and allow prokaryotes to exchange DNA

ok

look at interesting hot spot map (k)

ok

look at that carbon cycle diagram (g)

ok

look at that cool caterpillar pic (e)

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look at that diversity pic (m)

ok

look at that nice chemical cycling & energy flow diagram (d)

ok

look at that nitrogen cycle diagram (h)

ok

look at that phosphorus diagram (i)

ok

look at that really awesome chart at the end of the powerpoint (c)

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look at that water cycle diagram (f)

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look at the extinction vortex pic (j)

k

look over Mendel's experiment & results

okay

make a quizlet for table 32.1

chromatin

material consisting of DNA and proteins; visible in a dividing cell as individual condensed chromosomes

cytoplasmic determinants

maternal substances in the egg that influence early development

allosteric regulation

may either inhibit or stimulate an enzyme's activity

spectrophotometer

measures a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths; sends light though pigments and measures the fraction of light transmitted at each wavelength

transcription factors

mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription in eukaryotes (in prokaryotes, the RNA polymerase itself specifically recognizes and binds to the promoter)

glycolipids

membrane carbohydrates covalently bonded to lipids

glycoproteins

membrane carbohydrates covalently bonded to proteins

plasma membrane

membrane enclosing the cell

peripheral proteins

membrane proteins that are loosely bound to the surface of the membrane

integral proteins

membrane proteins that penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer

protocells

membrane-bound droplets that maintain a consistent internal chemistry

thylakoids

membranous system in the form of flattened, interconnected sacs (inside the chloroplast)

testcross

method of finding out the genotype of an individual with the dominant phenotype; breeding the mystery individual with a homozygous recessive individual

stomata

microscopic pores through which CO2 enters and O2 exits the leaf

cilia (s. cilium), flagella (s. flagellum)

microtubule-containing extensions projecting from some cells; beating controlled by microtubules

C4 photosynthesis

minimizes the cost of photorespiration by incorporating CO2 into a four-carbon compound

euchromatin

more dispersed, less compacted chromatin

mechanical isolation

morphological differences prevent successful mating

flagellum

motility structure present in some animal cells, composed of a cluster of microtubules within an extension of the plasma membrane -ONLY IN ANIMAL CELLS-

translocation

moves a segment from one chromosome to another (possible result of breakage of a chromosome)

active transport

moves substances against their concentration gradient; requires energy, usually in the more of ATP (sometimes H+s)

sexual selection

natural selection for mating success

essential elements

needed by an organism to live a healthy life and reproduce (20-25% of natural elements)

anion

negatively charged ion

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

network of membranous sacs and tubs; active in membrane synthesis and other synthetic and metabolic processes; has rough (ribosome-studded) and smooth regions

pyrimidines

nitrogenous bases with a single ring (cytosine and thymine)

purines

nitrogenous bases with two organic rings (adenine and guanine)

detritus

nonliving organic matter

nucleolus

nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes; a nucleus has one or more

cofactors

nonprotein enzyme helpers; can be inorganic (such as metal in ionic form) or organic

somatic cells

nonreproductive cells; have two sets of chromosomes

wild-type

normal; phenotypes that are common in wild populations

atomic number

number of protons in the nucleus

biogeochemical cycles

nutrient cycles in ecosystems involving biotic and abiotic components

heterotrophs

obtain their organic material from other organisms; consumers of the biosphere

spontaneous processes

occur without energy input; they can happen quickly or slowly (it must increase the entropy of the universe)

reinforcement

occurs in a hybrid zone where hybrids are less fit than the parent species

savanna

occurs in equatorial and subequatorial regions, seasonal precipitation, made of up grasses and forbs, dominate plant species are fire-adapted and tolerant of seasonal drought

chaparral

occurs in the midlatitude coastal regions on several continents, seasonal rainfall, dominated by shrubs and small trees, browsing mammals, etc.

allosteric regulation

occurs when a regulatory molecule binds to a protein at one site and affects the protein's function at another site (if inhibition, it's noncompetitive!)

cotransport

occurs when active transport of a solute indirectly drives transport of other solutes

heterozygote advantage

occurs when heterozygotes have a higher fitness than do both homozygotes; natural selection will tend to maintain two or more alleles at that locus (for example, the sickle-cell allele causes deleterious mutations in hemoglobin but also confers malaria resistance)

balancing selection

occurs when natural selection maintains stable frequencies of two or more phenotypic forms in a population

complete dominance

occurs when phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are identical

convergent evolution

occurs when similar environmental pressures and natural selection produce similar (analogous) adaptations in organisms from different evolutionary lineages

frequency-dependent selection

occurs when the fitness of a phenotype declines if it becomes too common in the population; selection can favor whichever phenotype is less common in a population (for example, this kind of selection selects for approximately equal numbers of "right-mouthed" and "left-mouthed" scale-eating fish)

incomplete dominance

occurs when the phenotype of F1 hybrids is somewhere between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties

codominance

occurs when two dominant alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways

dehydration reaction

occurs when two monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule

parental types

offspring with a phenotype matching on of the parental phenotypes

recombinant types (recombinants)

offspring with nonparental phenotypes (new combinations of traits)

prokaryotes

often form symbiotic relationships with larger organisms

polar covalent bond

one atom is more electronegative, and the atoms do not share the electron equally

growth factors

one class of local regulators in animals that consist of compounds that stimulate nearby target cells to grow and divide

commensalism

one organism benefits while neither harming nor helping the other in any way

sodium-potassium pump

one type of active transport system that exchanges Na+ for K+ across the plasma membrane of animal cells

ocean pelagic zone, high, phytoplankton, zooplankton

open ocean, constantly mixed by wind-driven oceanic currents, oxygen levels are ___, dominant organisms are ________ and ________.

Golgi apparatus

organelle active in synthesis, modification, sorting, and secretion of cell products

mitochondrion

organelle where cellular respiration occurs and most ATP is generated

peroxisome

organelle with various specialized metabolic functions; produces hydrogen peroxide as a by-product, then converts it to water

methane

organic compound with one carbon single-bonded with four hydrogens (CH4)

ethene

organic compound with two carbons, each double-bonded to two hydrogens

ethane

organic compound with two carbons, each single-bonded to three hydrogens (C2H6)

hydrocarbons

organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen

amino acids

organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups

invasive species

organisms that become established outside their native range

cell wall

outer layer that maintains cell's shape and protects cell from mechanical damage; made of cellulose, other polysaccharides, and protein -ONLY IN PLANT CELLS-

peroxisomes

oxidative organelles

1

p + q = __

pathogens

parasites that cause disease

ectoparasites

parasites that live on the external surface of a host

chlamydias

parasites that live within animal cells; chlamydia trachomatis causes blindness and nongonococcal urethritis by sexual transmission

endoparasites

parasites that live within the body of their host

interphase

part of the cell cycle that includes cell growth and the copying of chromosomes in preparation for cell division

mitotic (M) phase

part of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis

temperate phages

phages that use both the lytic and lysogenic cycles

homologies

phenotypic and genetic similarities due to shared ancestry

9:3:3:1

phenotypic ratio of a dihybrid cross:

cyanobacteria

photoautotrophs that generate O2; evolved into plant chloroplasts likely by the process of endosymbiosis

6, 6, 6

photosynthesis reaction: __CO2 + __H2O -> C6H12O6 + __O2

chloroplast

photosynthetic organelle; converts energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored in sugar molecules -ONLY IN PLANT CELLS-

mutagens

physical or chemical agents that can cause mutations

true-breeding

plants that produce offspring of the same variety when they self-pollinate

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)

plasma membrane receptors that work with the help of a G protein; extremely diverse in function

polysaccharides

polymers composed of many sugar building blocks; carbohydrate macromolecules

cation

positively charged ion

reduced hybrid viability, reduced hybrid fertility, hybrid breakdown

postzygotic barriers: (3)

chemical energy

potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction

postzygotic barriers

prevent the hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult

habitat isolation, temporal isolation, behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation, gametic isolation

prezygotic barriers: (5)

exergonic reaction

proceeds with a net release of free energy and is spontaneous; ∆G is negative

facilitated diffusion

process in which transport proteins speed the passive movement of molecules across the plasma membrane

2 NADH, 2 CO2 (for 2 pyruvates)

products of pyruvate oxidation: (2)

1 ATP, 2 CO2, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2

products of the citric acid cycle per turn: (4)

action spectrum

profiles the relative effectiveness of different wavelength of radiation in driving a process

microvilli

projections that increase the cell's surface area

central vacuole

prominent organelle in older plant cells; functions include storage, breakdown of waste products, hydrolysis of macromolecules; its enlargement is a major mechanism of plant growth -ONLY IN PLANT CELLS-

cohesins

protein complexes that are responsible for sister chromatid cohesion

kinetochores

protein complexes that assemble on sections of DNA at centromeres

actin

protein subunits of microfilaments

glycoprotein

proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates; secreted by bound ribosomes in the rough ER

secretory proteins

proteins produced by ribosomes in the rough ER; kept separate in transport vesicles from proteins produced by free ribosomes

transport vesicles

proteins surrounded by membranes; distributed by the rough ER

contractile vacuole

pump excess water out of the cell, found in many freshwater protists

aster

radial array of short microtubules that extend from each centrosome

chemical equilibrium

reached when the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal

cis face

receiving side of the Golgi apparatus

integrins

receptor proteins in the plasma membrane that ECM proteins bind to

macroevolution

refers to broad patterns of evolutionary change above the species level; the cumulative effect of many speciation and extinction events

sympatric

refers to different species or populations of the same species that live in the same geographic area

determination

refers to the unseen events that lead to the observable differentiation of a cell; commits a cell irreversibly to its final fate

descent with modification

refers to the view that all organisms are related through descent from an ancestor that lived in the remote past

allopatric

refers to two populations of the same species which cannot interbreed because they are separated by a geographic barrier

smooth ER

region of the ER that lacks ribosomes

rough ER

region of the ER whose surface is studded with ribosomes

centrosome

region where the cell's microtubules are initiated; contains a pair of centrioles -ONLY IN ANIMAL CELLS-

pores

regulate the entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus

endomembrane system

regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell

cytoskeleton

reinforces cell's shape; functions in cell movement; components are made of protein

interspecific interactions

relationships between species in a community

primary cell wall

relatively thin and flexible cell wall (secreted by a young plant cell)

endotoxins

released by pathogenic prokaryotes only when bacteria die and their cell walls break down

topoisomerase

relieves the strain cause by tight twisting ahead of the replication fork by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands

vestigial structures

remnants of features that served important functions in the organism's ancestors

deletion

removes a chromosomal segment (possible result of breakage of a chromosome)

RNA splicing

removes introns and joins exons, creating an mRNA molecule with a continuous coding sequence

duplication

repeats a segment (possible result of breakage of a chromosome)

temperature

represents the average kinetic energy of molecules

gametes

reproductive cells (sperm and eggs); have one set of chromosomes

trace elements

required in only minute quantities

aneuploidy

results from the fertilization of gametes in which nondisjunction occurred; offspring with this condition have an abnormal number of a particular chromosome

inversion

reverses orientation of a segment within a chromosome (possible result of breakage of a chromosome)

bound ribosomes

ribosomes attached to the ER

bound ribosomes

ribosomes attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum

free ribosomes

ribosomes in the cytosol

free ribosomes

ribosomes suspended in the cytosol

local regulators

secreted by a signaling cell; messenger molecules that travel only short distances

exotoxins

secreted by pathogenic prokatyotics and cause disease even if the prokaryotes that produce them are not present

conservation biology

seeks to preserve life, and integrates several fields (ecology, evolutionary biology, molecular biology, genetics, and physiology)

trans face

shipping side of the Golgi apparatus (facing plasma membrane)

anaerobic respiration

similar to aerobic respiration but consumes compounds other than oxygen

analogy

similarity due to convergent evolution

homology

similarity due to shared ancestry

monosaccharides

simple sugars; the simplest carbohydrates

transport, enzymatic activity, attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM), cell-cell recognition, intercellular joining, signal transduction

six major functions of membrane proteins: (TEA CIS)

monomers

small building-block molecules that make up polymers

microRNAs (miRNAs)

small single-stranded RNA molecules that can bind to complementary mRNA sequences; these can degrade the mRNA or block its translation

second messengers

small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecules or ions that spread throughout the cell by diffusion

hypertonic solution (the solution is hypertonic to the cell)

solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water

hypotonic solution (the solution is hypotonic to the cell)

solute concentration is less than that inside the cell; cell gains water

isotonic solution

solute concentration is the same as inside the cell; no net water movement across the plasma membrane

hybrid breakdown

some first-generation hybrids are fertile, but when they mate with another species or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile

transcription factors

special proteins that control which genes are turned on (transcribed into mRNA) in a particular cell at a particular time

dominant species

species that are most abundant or have the highest biomass (lowest level)

endemic species

species that are not found anywhere else in the world

temporal isolation

species that breed at different times of the day, different seasons, or different years cannot mix their gametes

introduced species

species that humans move from native locations to new geographic regions

gametic isolation

sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize eggs of another species

grana

stacks of thylakoids

grana (s. granum)

stacks of thylakoids in the chloroplast

the addition rule

state that the probability that any one of two or more mutually exclusive events will occur is calculated by adding together their individual probabilities

the chromosome theory of inheritance

states that (1) mendelian genes have specific loci (positions) on chromosomes (2) chromosomes undergo segregation and independent assortment

biological species concept

states that a species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring; they do not breed successfully with other populations

law of independent assortment

states that each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation; applies to genes on different, nonhomologous chromosomes or those far apart on the same chromosome

Hardy-Weinberg principle

states that frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population remain constant from generation to generation

law of conservation of mass

states that matter cannot be created or destroyed

the multiplication rule

states that the probability that two or more independent events will occur together is the product of their individual probabilities; can be applied to an F1 monohybrid cross

missense mutations

still code for an amino acid, but not the correct amino acid; the most common of substitution mutations

platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)

stimulates the division of human fibroblast cells in culture (ex. of a growth factor)

ok~! :D! :)) )))!!

study functional group notecards~!

electrons

subatomic particle with negative charge

neutrons

subatomic particle with no electrical charge

protons

subatomic particle with positive charge

G1 phase

subphase of interphase; "first gap"

G2 phase

subphase of interphase; "second gap"

S phase

subphase of interphase; "synthesis"

anaerobic respiration

substances other than O2 act as electron acceptors in obligate anaerobes

pigments

substances that absorb visible light

buffers

substances that minimize changes in concentrations of H+ and OH- in a solution

6, 12, light energy, 1, 6, 6

summarized photosynthesis equation: __CO2 + __H2O + _____ _______ --> __C6H12O6 + __O2 + __H2O

autotrophs

sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms; "self-feeders"

base-pair

tRNA molecules can _____-_____ with themselves.

kilocalories

the "calories" on food packages

tonicity

the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water

DNA methylation

the addition of methyl groups to certain bases in DNA; usually cytosine

phosphorylation

the addition of phosphate groups to a protein

critical load

the amount of added nutrient that can be absorbed by plants without damaging ecosystem integrity

calorie

the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1˚C

specific heat

the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of that substance to change its temperature by 1˚C

primary production

the amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by autotrophs during a given time period

ecotone

the area of intergradation between two biomes

atomic mass

the atom's total mass, can be approximated by the mass number

phytoplankton

the basis of aquatic systems - uses sunlight

taxonomy

the branch of biology concerned with classifying organisms

cellular respiration

the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen (an example of a pathway of catabolism)

RNA

the bridge between DNA and protein synthesis; usually single-stranded

energy

the capacity to cause change

energy

the capacity to cause change; exists in various forms, some of which can perform work

endocytosis

the cell takes in molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane; the reversal of exocytosis, involving different proteins

somatic cells

the cells of the body except for gametes and their precursors; have 46 chromosomes

adhesion

the clinging of one substance to another

ecosystem

the community of organisms in an area and the physical factors with which they interact

mitochondrial matrix

the compartment enclosed by the inner membrane of a mitochondrion, where some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed

functional groups

the components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions

relative fitness

the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation, relative to the contributions of other individuals

osmoregulation

the control of solute concentrations and water balance; a necessary adaption for life in hypertonic/hypotonic environments

glycosidic linkage

the covalent bond between two monosaccharides

microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules

the cytoskeleton includes: (3)

pattern formation

the developments of a spatial organization of tissues and organs (contributed to by cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals)

osmosis

the diffusion of free water across a selectively permeable membrane

solvent

the dissolving agent of a solution

wavelength

the distances between crests of waves; determines the type of electromagnetic energy

cytokinesis

the division of the cytoplasm

mitosis

the division of the genetic material in the nucleus

gross primary production (GPP)

the ecosystem's total primary production

oxidizing agent

the electron acceptor

reducing agent

the electron donor

feedback inhibition

the end product of a metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway; prevents the cell from wasting chemical resources by synthesizing more product than is needed

rough ER, smooth ER

the endoplasmic reticulum includes: (2)

kinetic energy

the energy of motion

sunlight

the energy source for photosynthetic organisms and, as such, can limit their distribution

potential energy

the energy that matter has because of its location or structure

electromagnetic spectrum

the entire range of electromagnetic energy or radiation

operon

the entire stretch of DNA that includes the operator, the promoter, and the genes that they control

convergent evolution

the evolution of similar, or analogous, features in distantly related groups; does not provide information about ancestry

phylogeny

the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species

reproductive isolation

the existence of biological barriers that impede two species from producing viable, fertile offspring

trophic structure

the feeding relationships between organisms and community

alcohol fermentation

the fermentation process in which pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps

zygote

the fertilized egg; has one set of chromosomes from each parent

products

the final molecules of a chemical reaction

genus

the first part of a binomial

transcription

the first stage of gene expression

stroma

the fluid outside the thylakoids, contains the chloroplast DNA and ribosomes as well as many enzymes

interstitial fluid

the fluid surrounding body cells

life cycle

the generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism

biogeography

the geographic distribution of species, provides evidence of evolution

chlorophyll

the green pigment in chloroplasts

chlorophyll

the green pigment within chloroplasts

heat of vaporization

the heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas

the "particulate" hypothesis

the idea that parents pass on discrete heritable units (genes)

activation energy

the initial energy needed to start a chemical reaction

intermembrane space, mitochondrial matrix

the inner membrane of a mitochondrion creates two compartments:

cristae

the inner membrane of a mitochondrion is folded into: (increases surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP!)

mesophyll

the interior tissue of the leaf where chloroplasts are found

climate

the long-term prevailing weather conditions in an area

proton pump

the main electrogenic pump of plants, fungi, and bacteria; actively transports protons (H+) out of the cell

chemical reactions

the making and breaking of chemical bonds

carrying capacity (K)

the maximum population size the environment can support

resolution

the measure of the clarity of the image, or the minimum distance between two distinguishable points

organelles

the membrane-enclosed structures within eukaryotic cells

intermembrane space, stroma, thylakoid space

the membranes of the chloroplast divide the chloroplast space into three compartments:

Minimum viable population (MVP)

the minimum population size at which a species can survive

positional information

the molecular cues that control pattern formation; tells a cell its location relative to the body axes and to neighboring cells

cystic fibrosis

the most common lethal genetic disease in the United States, striking one out of every 2,500 people of European descent

horizontal gene transfer

the movement of genes from one genome to another

dispersal

the movement of individuals away from centers of high population density or from their area of origin

chemotaxis

the movement toward or away from a chemical stimulus

sporophyte

the multicellular diploid stage of a plant/algae that exhibits the 'alternation of generations' life cycle *

intermembrane space

the narrow region between the inner and outer membranes of a mitochondrion

vasoconstriction

the narrowing of the diameter of superficial blood vessels, reduces heat loss

abiotic factors

the nonliving chemical and physical attributes of the environment

nuclear envelope, nucleolus, chromatin

the nucleus includes: (3)

valence

the number of bonds that the atom can form; corresponds to the number of electrons required to complete the atom

species richness

the number of different species in the community

density

the number of individuals per unit area or volume

molarity (M)

the number of moles of solute per liter of solution

hybrids

the offspring of crosses between different species

prokaryotes

the oldest fossil organisms, dating back to 3.5 billion years ago; single-celled organisms in the domains of Bacteria and Archaea

taxonomy

the ordered division and naming of organisms

benthic zone

the organic and inorganic sediment at the bottom of all aquatic zones

biotic factors

the organisms that make up the living component of the environment

dispersion

the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population

logistic population growth

the per capita rate of increase declines as carrying capacity is reached

trophic efficiency

the percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next, usually about 10%

RNA interference (RNAi)

the phenomenon of inhibition of gene expression by siRNAs

polysaccharides

the polymers of sugars; have storage and structural roles

nucleoside

the portion of a nucleotide without the phosphate group

polyploidy

the presence of extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division; much more common in plants than in animals

gene expression

the process by which DNA directs protein synthesis, includes two stages: transcription and translation

thermoregulation

the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range

speciation

the process by which one species splits into two or more species; explains the features shared between organisms due to inheritance from their recent common ancestor

epistasis

the process in which a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus

oxidation

the process in which a substance loses electrons

reduction

the process in which a substances gains electrons

phagocytosis

the process in which amoebas and many other protists eat by engulfing smaller organisms or food particles, forming a food vacuole

induced fit

the process in which enzymes change shape due to chemical interactions with the substrate; enhances their ability to catalyze the region

natural selection

the process in which individuals with favorable inherited traits are more likely to survive and reproduce

autophagy

the process in which lysosomes use their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle the cell's own organic material

evolution

the process of descent with modification

photophosphorylation

the process of generating ATP from ADP by adding a phosphate group in light reactions/photosynthsis

glycolysis

the process that breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate

the citric acid cycle

the process that completes the breakdown of glucose

photosynthesis

the process that converts solar energy into chemical energy

autotrophs

the producers of the biosphere; produce organic molecules from CO2 and other inorganic molecules

genetic recombination

the production of offspring with combinations of traits differing from either parent

relative abundance

the proportion each species represents of all individuals in the community

capsid

the protein shell that encloses the viral genome

magnification

the ratio of an object's image size to its real size

peroxisomes

the reactions of _______ have many different functions; for example, in the liver, they can detoxify alcohol and other harmful compounds by transferring hydrogen from the poisons to oxygen

phosphorylated intermediate

the recipient molecule of phosphorylation

active site

the region on the enzyme where the substrate binds

dephosphorylation

the removal of phosphate groups from a protein (the opposite of phosphorylation)

cell division

the reproduction of cells; crucial in the continuity of life

Klinefelter syndrome

the result of an extra chromosome in a male, producing XXY individuals

hybrids

the result of mating between species with incomplete reproductive barriers; often have reduced fitness compared with parent species

genetics

the scientific study of heredity and variation

ecology

the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and the environment

specific epithet

the second part of a binomial; unique for each species within the genus

ecological succession

the sequence of community and ecosystem changes after a disturbance

covalent bond

the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms

mitochondria (s. mitochondrion)

the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP

ribosomes

the sites of translation

atom

the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element

ecological niche

the specific set of biotic and abiotic resources used by an organism; can also be thought of as an organism's ecological role

hydration shell

the sphere of water molecules that surrounds each ion when an ionic compound is dissolved in water

reactants

the starting molecules of a chemical reaction

pyruvate oxidation

the step in which pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA

anatomy

the study of biological form of an organism

cytology

the study of cell structure

thermodynamics

the study of energy transformations

paleontology

the study of fossils, largely developed by French scientist Georges Cuvier, also Ross's profession

bioenergetics

the study of how organisms manage their energy resources

physiology

the study of the biological functions an organisms performs

biochemistry

the study of the chemical processes of cells

demography

the study of the vital statistics of a population and how they change over time

solute

the substance that is dissolved

molecular mass

the sum of all masses of all atoms in a molecule

mass number

the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

transcription

the synthesis of RNA using information in DNA

translation

the synthesis of a polypeptide, using information in the mRNA

reception

the target cell's detection of a signaling molecule coming from outside the cell

diffusion

the tendency for molecules to spread out evenly into the available space

microtubules

the thickest of the three components of the cytoskeleton; hollow rods constructed from globular protein dimers called tubulin

response

the third stage of cell signaling where the transduced signal finally triggers a specific cellular response

metabolism

the totality of an organism's chemical reactions; an emergent property of life that arises from interactions between molecules within the cell

heredity

the transmission of traits from one generation to the next

law of segregation (fourth concept of Mendel's model)

the two alleles for a heritable character separate (segregate) during gamete formation and end up in different gametes (thus, an egg or a sperm only gets one of the two alleles that are present in the organism)

cyclic AMP, calcium ions

the two most common second messengers:

binomial

the two-part scientific name of a species

fertilization

the union of gametes (the sperm and the egg)

genes

the units of heredity; made up of segments of DNA

energy coupling

the use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one (how cells manage energy resources)

chemiosmosis

the use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work

bioremediation

the use of organisms to detoxify ecosystems (ex: prokaryotes, fungi, or plants)

bioremediation

the use of organisms to remove pollutants from the environment; prokaryotes are the principal agents

species diversity

the variety of organisms that make up the community

species diversity

the variety of species in an ecosystem or throughout the biosphere

prophage

the viral DNA molecule that is incorporated into the host cell's chromosome in the lysogenic cycle

membrane potential

the voltage across a membrane

vasodilation

the widening of the diameter of superficial blood vessels, promotes heat loss

smooth ER, rough ER

there are two distinct regions of the ER:

heat

thermal energy in transfer from one body of matter to another

heat

thermal energy in transfer from one object to another

middle lamella

thin layer between primary walls of adjacent plant cells

hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, Van der Waals interactions, disulfide bridges, ionic bonds

things that give tertiary structures their shape/hold them together: (5)

genetic diversity, species diversity, ecosystem diversity

three main components of biodiversity:

microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments

three main types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton:

phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis

three types of endocytosis:

paracrine, synaptic, endocrine

three types of local signaling:

carrier proteins

transport proteins that bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane

channel proteins

transport proteins that have a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions can use as a tunnel

exocytosis

transport vesicles migrate to the membrane, fuse with it, and release their contents

isotopes

two atoms of an element that differ in number of neutrons

scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM)

two basic types of electron microscopes (EMs)

electrochemical gradient

two combined forces (chemical and electrical) that drive the diffusion of ions across a membrane

species richness and relative abundance

two components of species diversity:

integral proteins, peripheral proteins

two main types of membrane proteins:

G protein-coupled receptors, ligand-gated ion channels

two major types of membrane receptors:

C4 photosynthesis, crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)

two most important photosynthetic adaptions:

molecule

two or more atoms held together by valence bonds

Müllerian mimicry

two or more unpalatable (not edible) species resemble each other ("We all taste bad!")

sexual reproduction

two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the two parents

habitat isolation

two species encounter each other rarely, or not at all, because they occupy different habitats, even though not isolated by physical barriers

channel proteins, carrier proteins

two types of transport proteins:

receptor-mediated endocytosis

type of endocytosis; specialized type of pinocytosis that enables the cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances, even though those substances may not be very concentrated in the extracellular fluid

disruptive selection

type of natural selection that favors individuals at both extremes of the phenotypic range

directional selection

type of natural selection that favors individuals at one end of the phenotypic range

stabilizing selection

type of natural selection that favors intermediate variants and acts against extreme phenotypes

bacteriophage T4

type of virus that has a complex capsid consisting of an icosahedral head and a tail apparatus (like other "T-even" phages)

tobacco mosaic virus

type of virus that has a helical capsid with the overall shape of a rigid rod

adenovirus

type of virus that has an icosahedral capsid with a glycoprotein spike at each vertex

influenza virus

type of virus that has eight different RNA molecules , each wrapped in a helical capsid, and an outer envelope studded with glycoprotein spikes

tight junctions, adhering junctions (desmosomes), gap junctions (in plant cells: plasmodesmata)

types of intercellular junctions that facilitate direct physical contact between animal cells: (3)

polypeptides

unbranched polymers built from the same set of 20 amino acids

retroviruses

use reverse transcriptase to copy their RNA genome into DNA

ribosomes

use the information from the DNA to make proteins

crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)

used by some plants (i.e. succulents) to fix carbon; involves opening the stomata at night and closing the stomata during the day

biological augmentation

uses organisms to add essential materials to a degraded ecosystem

ATP synthase

uses the exergonic flow of H+ to drive phosphorylation of ATP (the H+ flows from the intermembrane space back to the mitochondrial matrix)

food vacuole

vacuole formed by phagocytosis

the ecological species concept

views a species in terms of its ecological niche; it applies to sexual and asexual species and emphasizes the role of disruptive selection

provirus

viral DNA that is integrated into the host genome

bacteriophages (phages)

viruses that infect bacteria; widely used in molecular genetics research

emerging viruses

viruses that suddenly become apparent (HIV is a classic example)

contrast

visible light differences in parts of the sample

light microscope (LM)

visible light is passed through a specimen and then through glass lenses

centromere

where the two chromatids are most closely attached

promoter, heterochromatin, histone proteins

Three ways the structural organization of chromatin helps regulate gene expression: (1) The location of a gene's _________ relative to nucleosomes and to the sites where the DNA attaches to the chromosome scaffold/nuclear lamina can affect wether the gene is transcribed, (2) gene within __________________ (highly condensed) are usually not expressed, and (3) certain chemical modifications to the ________ _________ and to the DNA of chromatin can influence both chromatin structure and gene expression.

shape, bind

Through hydrolysis, ATP powers mechanical work in the cell by changing the protein's ________ and it's ability to _____ another molecule. (ex. motor proteins!)

DNA, RNA

Thymine is found only in ____, and uracil only in ____; the rest are found in both DNA and RNA.

prosthetic groups

Tightly bound to the proteins of the electron transport chain are __________ _______, nonprotein components essential for the catalytic functions of certain enzymes.

recombinant DNA

To clone pieces of DNA, researchers first obtain a plasmid and insert DNA from another source ("foreign DNA") into it; the resulting plasmid is called ____________ _____.

lagging strand

To elongate the other new strand, called the ________ _______, DNA polymerase must work in the direction away from the replication fork.

assumption

To extend molecular phylogenies beyond the fossil record, we must make an ____________ about how molecular change occurs over time.

morphologies, genes, biochemistry

To infer phylogeny, systematists gather information about _______________, ______, and ____________ of living organisms.

transcription factors

To initiate transcription, eukaryotic RNA polymerase requires the assistance of proteins called ______________ _______.

ubiquitin

To mark a particular protein for destruction, the cell commonly attaches molecules of _________ to the protein, which triggers its destruction.

gel electrophoresis, length

To see the fragments produced by cutting DNA molecules with restriction enzymes, researchers use ____ ______________; this technique separates a mixture of nucleic acid fragments based on _______.

DNA cloning

To work directly with specific genes, scientists prepare well-defined segments of DNA in identical copies, a process called _____ _______.

mutant

Traits alternative to the wild type are called _______ phenotypes.

gene expression, environmental changes

Transcription alone does not account for _____ ___________; regulatory mechanisms can operate at various stages after transcription; such mechanisms allow a cell to fine-tune gene expression rapidly in response to _______________ ________.

messenger RNA (mRNA)

Transcription produces ____________ _____.

40 nucleotides

Transcription progresses at a rate of ____ ___________ per second in eukaryotes.

mRNA, 5', 3'

Translation proceeds along the ______ in a __' to __' direction.

respiration, feces, unconsumed

Trophic efficiencies take into account energy lost through ______ and contained in _____, as well as the energy stored in ________ portions of the food source.

permanent, RNA polymerase, mRNA, genomes

Unlike a prophage, a provirus is a ___________ resident of the host cell; the host's _____ ___________ transcribes the proviral DNA into RNA molecules, which function both as ______ for synthesis of viral proteins and as __________ for new viruses released from the cell.

true-breeding

Unlike homozygotes, heterozygotes are not _____-_________.

anabolic

Unlike the citric acid cycle, the Calvin cycle is _________.

promoter, control elements

Unlike the genes of a prokaryotic operon, each of the co-expressed eukaryotic genes has a _________ and _______ _________; these genes can be scattered over different chromosomes, but each has the same combination of control elements.

chromosomal banding

Using methods like _____________ ________, geneticists can develop cytogenetic maps of chromosomes.

reproduction, metabolism, internal chemical environment

Vesicles exhibit simple ______________ and ___________ and maintain an _________ ________ ______________.

protocells

Vesicles with RNA capable of replication would have been _________.

single-stranded or double-stranded DNA or RNA

Viral genomes may consist of:

obligate intracellular parasites

Viruses are _________ ____________ _________, which means they can replicate only within a host cell.

nucleic acid, protein coat

Viruses are not cells but are a _______ _____ enclosed in a ________ _____.

life-forms, chemicals

Viruses lead "a kind of borrowed life," existing in a shady area between ____-______ and __________.

hydrolytic enzymes, lysosomes

Viruses may damage or kill cells by causing the release of __________ _________ from __________.

ions

Voltage is created by differences in the distribution of positive and negative ____ across a membrane.

resists

Water ____ changing its temperature because of its high specific heat.

slight

Water can absorb or release a large amount of heat with only a _____ change in its own temperature.

cohesion

Water molecules that are linked together by hydrogen bonds stay closer together - this is called ______.

evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, surface, groundwater

Water moves by the processes of _______, ______, _______, ______, and movement through _____ and ______.

4

Water reaches its greatest density at __˚C.

semiconservative model, conservative, dispersive

Watson and Crick's ______________ _______ of replication predicts that when a double helix replicates, each daughter molecule will have one old strand (derived or "conserved" from the parent molecule) and one newly made strand; competing models were the _________ model (the two parent strands rejoin) and the _________ model (each strand is a mix of old and new).

antiparallel

Watson built a model in which the backbones were __________ (their subunits run in opposite directions).

nucleic acid hybridization

We can detect mRNA in a cell using ________ _____ _____________, the base pairing of a strand of nucleic acid to its complementary sequence.

gene

We have considered a _____ as: a discrete unit of inheritance, a region of specific nucleotide sequence in a chromosome, and a DNA sequence that codes for a specific polypeptide chain.

F2 generation

When F1 individuals self-pollinate or cross-pollinate with other F1 hybrids, the ___ ___________ is produced.

tetrahedron, plane

When a carbon atom forms four single covalent bonds, the bonds angle toward the corners of an imaginary ___________; however, when two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond, the atoms joined to those carbons are in the same ______ as the carbons.

transition state

When a molecule has absorbed enough energy for its bonds to break, the reactants are in an unstable condition known as the _________ ______.

ground, excited

When a pigment absorbs light, it goes from a ______ state to an _______ state, which is unstable.

ligand-gated ion channel receptor

When a signaling molecule binds as a ligand to a ______-_______ ___ ________ _________ protein, the gate opens or closes, allowing or blocking the diffusion of specific ions through a channel in the protein.

add more enzyme

When an enzyme population is saturated, the only way to increase the rate of products formation is to:

reinforcement, fusion, stability

When closely related species meet in a hybrid zone, there are three possible outcomes:

homology, analogy

When constructing a phylogeny, systematists need to distinguish whether a similarity is the result of __________ or ________.

photons, fluorescence

When excited electrons fall back to the ground state, _______ are given off (an afterglow called ___________).

nonresistant, antibiotics

When exposed to methicillin, MRSA strains are more likely to survive and reproduce than ___________ S. aureus strains; MRSA strains are now resistant to many __________.

activator

When glucose is scarce, CAP (catabolite activator protein) acts as an _________ of transcription.

shared derived character

When inferring evolutionary relationships, it is useful to know in which clade a _______ ________ __________ first appeared.

bilayer, interior, phospholipid bilayer

When phospholipids are added to water, the self-assemble into a _______, with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the ________; in cells, this is called the __________ ______.

trp repressor protein

When tryptophan is present, it binds to the ____ __________ _______, which then turns the operon off .

sympatric, allopatric

Where reinforcement occurs, reproductive barriers should be stronger for __________ than for __________ species. (?? i dont understand this someone pls text me if you do)

product

While enzyme and substrate are joined, the catalytic action of the enzyme converts the substrate to the ________(s) of the reaction.

apoptosis

While some cells are differentiating in a developing organism, some are genetically programmed to die; _________ is the best-understood type of "programmed cell death".

four

With _____ valence electrons, carbon can form four covalent bonds with a variety of atoms; this ability makes large, complex molecules possible.

centrioles

Within the centrosome is a pair of ___________, each composed of nine sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring.

males, females

X-linked recessive disorders are much more common in ______ than in _________.

rocks and soil

____ __ ____ have many characteristics that limit the distribution of plants and thus the animals that feed on them

salt and nutrients, oxygen

____ ___ ______ increase from headwaters to mouth; _____ content decreases from headwaters to mouth.

DNA breakage

____ _________ can contribute to cancer, thus the risk of cancer can be lowered by minimizing exposure to agents that damage DNA, such as ultraviolet radiation and chemicals found in cigarette smoke.

ATP, ADP

____ binds to several catabolic enzymes allosterically, lowering their affinity for substrate and thus inhibiting their activity; ____, however, functions as an activator of the same enzymes.

fat

____ is a compact way for animals to carry their energy stores with them.

death, birth

____ rates and ____ rates are of particular interest to demographers.

tropical rain forests, estuaries, coral reefs

_____ ___ _____, _____, and ____ ____ are among the most productive ecosystems per unit area.

stem cells

_____ _____ are key to the developmental process.

gene flow

_____ _____ between populations holds the populations together genetically.

RNA monomers

_____ ____________ have been produced spontaneously from simple molecules.

tropical forest

(can be rain/dry) occurs in equatorial and subequatorial regions; home to millions of different species

reproductive table

(or fertility schedule) is an age-specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population

tundra

covers expansive areas of the Arctic; exists on high mountaintops at all latitudes, low precipitation, permafrost restricts growth of plant roots

shared derived character

A _______ ________ __________ is an evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade.

shared ancestral character

A _______ __________ __________ is a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon.

rooted

A _______ tree includes a branch to represent the most recent common ancestor of all taxa in the tree.

monosomic

A ________ zygote has only one copy of a particular chromosome.

trisomic

A ________ zygote has three copies particular chromosome.

primary transcript

A _________ _________ is the initial RNA transcript from any gene prior to processing.

polytomy

A _________ is a branch from which more than two groups emerge.

karyotype

A _________ is an ordered display of the pairs of chromosomes from a cell. (basically lining up the 23 types according to length)

molecular clock

A __________ ______ uses constant rates of evolution in some genes to estimate the absolute time of evolutionary change; the number of nucleotide substitutions in related genes is assumed to be proportional to the time since they last shared a common ancestor.

repressible, repressor

A ___________ operon is one that is usually on; binding of a __________ to the operator shuts off transcription.

nucleotide-pair substitution

A ___________-_____ ____________ replaces one nucleotide and its partner with another pair of nucleotides.

paraphyletic

A _____________ grouping consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of the descendants.

polyphyletic

A _____________ grouping consists of various taxa with different ancestors.

phosphorylation-dephosphorylation, kinase, phosphatase

A ________________-______________ system acts as a molecular switch in the cell, turning an activity on or off as required. At any given moment, the activity of a protein regulated by phosphorylation depends on the balance in the cell between active ________ molecules and active __________ molecules.

microarray

A ___________—also called a DNA chip—contains tiny amounts of many single-stranded DNA fragments affixed to the slide in a grid.

created, destroyed, transferred

Conservation of Energy: the first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be ____ or ______, only ______ or transformed

entropy

Conservation of Energy: the second law of thermodynamics states that every exchange of energy increases the _____ of the universe (heat is more disordered than a photon of light)

regulation

Control elements and the transcription factors they bind are critical for the precise ___________ of gene expression in different cell types.

heterocysts, heterocytes

Cooperation between prokaryotes allows them to use environmental resources they could not use as individual cells; in the cyanobacterium Anabaena, photosynthetic cells and nitrogen-fixing cells called ____________ (or ____________) exchange metabolic products.

mutualisms

Coral form _____ with symbiotic algae that provide them organic molecules.

fluids, opposite, reduce

Countercurrent heat exchangers transfer heat between ______ flowing in _________ directions and _______ heat loss.

recombinant chromosomes

Crossing over produces ___________ ___________, which combine DNA inherited from each parent.

dihybrids

Crossing two true-breeding parents differing in two characters produces _________ in the F1 generation, heterozygous for both characters.

catastrophe

Cuvier speculated that each boundary between strata represents a ____________ that destroyed many species.

pyrimidines

Cytosine, thymine, and uracil are all _________.

vector

The transfer of pathogens can be direct or through an intermediate species called a ______.

community

A biological ______ is an assemblage of populations of various species living close enough for potential interaction.

conformer

An animal that is a ___________ allows its internal condition to change in accordance with external changes.

specific heat of water

1 cal/g/˚C

signal-recognition particle (SRP)

A ______-__________ _______ binds to the signal peptide, bringing the signal peptide and its ribosome to the ER.

water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus

4 nutrient cycles through an ecosystem

photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2

50

A ___% frequency of recombination is observed for any two genes on different chromosomes.

basal taxon

A ______ ______ diverges early in the history of a group and originates near the common ancestor of the group.

uniform

A ______ dispersion is one in which individuals are evenly distributed.

prime (')

A ______ is used to identify the carbon atoms in the ribose. (i.e. 2' carbon or 5' carbon)

diploid cell

A _______ ____ (2n) has two sets of chromosomes.

variations

Alleles are simply _________ in a gene's nucleotide sequence.

geographic isolation, natural selection, genetic drift, sexual selection, reproductive barriers

Allopatric speciation (a review): In allopatric speciation, ____________ _________ restricts gene flow between populations; reproductive isolation may then arise by _______ _________, ________ _____, or _______ __________ in the isolated populations; even if contact is restored between populations, interbreeding is prevented by ____________ ________.

differential gene expression

Almost all the cells in an organism are genetically identical; differences between cell types result from ___________ _____ ___________, the expression of different genes by cells with the same genome.

leading strand

Along one template strand of DNA, the DNA polymerase synthesizes a ________ _______ continuously, moving toward the replication fork.

oncogene, tumor-suppressor gene, proto-oncogene, oncogene

Also, viruses play a role in about 15% of human cancers by donating an ___________ to a cell, disrupting a ______-___________ _____, or converting a ______-__________ into an ___________.

pH, salt concentration, temperature, environmental factors, denaturation

Alterations in ____, ____ ___________, __________, or other ____________ _______ can cause a protein to unravel; this loss of a protein's native structure is called ___________.

glucose

Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are all consumes as fuel, it is helpful to trace cellular respiration with the sugar _______.

cardiovascular disease

Although cholesterol is essential in animals, high levels in the blood may contribute to ______________ ________.

peptide bonds

Amino acids are linked by ______ _____.

carboxyl, amino

Amino acids consists of ________ and ______ groups.

R groups

Amino acids differ in their properties due to differing side chains, called ___ ______.

isolated

An _______ system, such as that approximated by liquid in a thermos, is isolated from its surroundings.

inducible, inducer

An ________ operon is one that is usually off; a molecule called an ________ inactivates the repressor and turns on transcription.

outgroup, ingroup

An _________ is a species or group of species that is closely related to the ________, the various species being studied.

oncogene

An __________ arises from a genetic change leading to either an increase in the amount or the activity of the protein product of the gene.

fixed

An allele for a particular locus is ______ if all individuals in a population are homozygous for the same allele.

some, others, conform, regulates

An animal may regulate ______ internal conditions and not _______; for example, a fish may _________ to surrounding temperature in the water, but it _________ solute concentrations in its blood and interstitial fluid.

regulator

An animal that is a __________ uses internal mechanisms to control internal change despite external fluctuation.

energy

Chloroplasts and mitochondria generate ATP by chemiosmosis but use different sources of _________.

chemiosmosis

Chloroplasts and mitochondria generate ATP by the same basic mechanism:

ATP, NADPH

Chloroplasts are solar-powered chemical factories; their thylakoids transform light energy into the chemical energy of ____ and ______.

photosynthetic bacteria

Chloroplasts are structurally similar to and likely evolved from _____________ _________.

hydrogen, oxygen, sugar, oxygen

Chloroplasts split H2O into __________ and _________, incorporating the electrons of hydrogen into ______ molecules and releasing _________ as a by-product.

harmful, increases, harmful

Chromosomal mutations that delete, disrupt, or rearrange many loci are typically ________; duplication of small pieces of DNA _________ genome size and is usually less ________.

length, shape, genes, characters

Chromosomes in a homologous pair are the same ______ and _______ and carry ______ controlling the same inherited _________.

microtubules, basal body, dynein

Cilia and flagella share a common structure: a core of _________ sheathed by the plasma membrane, a _______ ______ that anchors the cilium or flagellum, a motor protein called ________, which drives the bending movements of a cilium or flagellum

parent

Cloned animals do not always look or behave exactly the same as their "_______".

reading frame, 5, 3

Codons must be read in the correct ________ ______ (correct groupings) in order for the specified polypeptide to be produced; codons are read one at a time in a nonoverlapping fashion in the ___'-___' direction.

productive, biomass, environmental stresses, invasive species

Communities with higher diversity are more _______, able to produce _______ more consistently, able to withstand and recover from _______ _____, and more resistant to _____ _____.

nucleic acid hybridization

Complementary base pairing of DNA is the basis for ________ _____ ____________, the base pairing of one strand of a nucleic acid to another, complementary sequence.

RNA, U

Complementary pairing can also occur between two _____ molecules or between parts of the same molecule; in RNA, thymine (T) is replaced by uracil (U), so A and ___ pair instead of A and T.

defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, structural support

Functions of proteins: (6) (MT SS CD)

the change in free energy (∆G)

G(final state) - G(initial state) = ?

net primary production (NPP)

GPP minus energy used by primary producers for "autotrophic respiration"

meiosis

Gametes are produced by a variation of cell division called _______.

haploid, meiosis, cell division

Gametes are the only _______ cells in animals; they are produced by _______ and undergo no further ____ _________ before fertilization.

meiosis

Gametes are the only types of human cells produced by _________ rather than mitosis.

diploid zygote, mitosis

Gametes fuse to form a _______ _______ that divides by ________ to develop into a multicellular organism.

human

Gene flow is an important agent of evolutionary change in modern _______ populations.

reduce, increase, decrease

Gene flow tends to _______ genetic variation among populations over time; also can ________ or ________ the fitness of a population.

loci, heterozygous

Gene variability can be quantified as the average percent of _____ that are ______________.

viral proteins, nucleic acid molecules, capsomeres

General features of the viral replicative cycles: Once a viral genome has entered a cell, the cell begins to manufacture _____ ________, making use of host enzymes, ribosomes, tRNAs, amino acids, ATP, and other molecules; viral _______ _____ __________ and _____________ spontaneously self-assemble into new viruses, which exit from the host cell, usually damaging or destroying it.

nucleic acid

Genes are made of DNA, a ________ _____ made of monomers called nucleotides.

gametes

Genes are passed to the next generation via reproductive cells called _________ (sperm and eggs).

R plasmids

Genes for antibiotic resistance are carried in ___ _________.

inherited

Genes located near each other on the same chromosome tend to be ________ together.

50, linked, unlinked

Genes that are far apart on the same chromosome can have a recombination frequency near ___%; such genes are physically ______, but genetically ________, and behave as if found on different chromosomes.

consistently, increase, decrease

Genetic drift and gene flow do not ____________ lead to adaptive evolution, as they can _________ or _________ the match between an organism and its environment.

small populations, random, loss, fixed

Genetic drift main points: (1) is significant in ______ __________, (2) can cause allele frequencies to change at _______, (3) can lead to a ____ of genetic variation within populations, and (4) can cause harmful alleles to become _____.

nucleotide variability

Genetic variation can be measured at the molecular level of DNA as ___________ __________.

gene variability

Genetic variation can be measured at the whole gene level as _____ __________.

hydrogen ion

H+

AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is the retrovirus that causes _____ (_________ __________________ _________).

glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation/the citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation

Harvesting of energy from glucose has three stages:

higher, lower

Heat is always transferred from an object of _______ temperature to one of ______ temperature.

energy

Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of ______.

10^-14

IN any aqueous solution at 25˚C: [H+][OH-]=____

ordered

Ice floats in liquid water because hydrogen bonds in ice are more "_____", making ice less dense.

ATP, ADP, ATP

If ____ production lags behind its use, ____ accumulates and activates the enzymes that speed up catabolism, producing more ____.

G1, S, G2, M

If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the ____ checkpoint, it will usually complete the ____, ____, and ____ phases and divide.

mosaic

If a female is heterozygous for a particular gene located on the X chromosome, she will be a _______ for that character after the inactivation of one X chromosome.

flaccid (limp)

If a plant cell and its surroundings are isotonic, there is no net movement of water into the cell; the cell becomes _______, and the plant may wilt.

benign tumor

If abnormal cells remain only at the original site, the lump is called a _______ ______.

heterozygous

If any offspring display the recessive phenotype after testcrossing, the mystery parent must be __________.

homozygous, heterozygous

If p and q represent the relative frequencies of the only two possible alleles in a population at a particular locus, then p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1, where p^2 and q^2 represent the frequencies of the ____________ genotypes and 2pq represents the frequency of the _____________ genotype.

accumulate, frequency, the match between organisms and their environment

If some heritable traits are advantageous, these will ___________ in a population over time, and this will increase the ___________ of individuals with these traits; this process explains ____ ______ _________ ___________ ____ ______ ____________.

G0 phase

If the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal, it will exit the cycle, switching into a nondividing state called the ____ _______.

covalent bonds, weak

If the inhibitor attaches to the enzyme by ________ _____, inhibition is usually irreversible; many enzyme inhibitors, however, bind to the enzyme by _____ interactions, in which case inhibition is reversible.

natural selection

In 1844, Darwin wrote an essay on ________ _________ as the mechanism of descent with modification but did not introduce his theory publicly.

species

In 1950, Erwin Chargaff reported that DNA composition varies from one _______ to the next.

T2, genetic information

In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase showed that DNA is the genetic material of a phage known as ____; to determine this, they designed an experiment showing that only the DNA of the T2 phage, and not the protein, enters an E. coli cell during infection. They concluded that the injected DNA of the phage provides the _________ __________.

James Watson, Francis Crick

In 1953, ______ _______ and _______ ______ introduced an elegant double-helical model for the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.

Stanley Miller, Harold Urey

In 1953, ________ ______ and _______ _____ conducted lab experiments that showed that the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules in a reducing environment is possible.

mesophyll, low, bundle-sheath, CO2

In C4 plants, an enzyme in the _________ cells has a high affinity for CO2 and can fix carbon even when CO2 concentrations are ____; these four-carbon compounds are exported to _______-______ cells, where they release ____ that is then used in the Calvin Cycle.

origin of replication

In E. coli, the single chromosome replicates, beginning at the _______ ___ ___________.

energy, ATP

The transfer of electrons during chemical reactions releases _______ stored in organic molecules; this released energy is ultimately used to synthesize _____.

mother, father

The 46 chromosomes in a human somatic cell are two sets of 23: one from the _______ and one from the _______.

catabolic, anabolic

The ATP cycle is a revolving door through which energy passes during its transfer from _______ to _______ pathways.

sugar, CO2, ATP, NADPH

The Calvin cycle (in the stroma) forms _____ from ____, using ____ and _______.

carbon fixation

The Calvin cycle begins with ______ _______, (powered by ATP) incorporating CO2 into organic molecules.

carbon fixation, reduction, regeneration of the CO2 acceptor

The Calvin cycle has three phases:

dark, directly

The Calvin cycle is sometimes referred to as the _______ reactions or the light-independent reactions, because none of the steps require light ________. (they only require ATP and NADPH)

promoter, terminator

The DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches is called the _________; in bacteria, the sequence signaling the end of transcription is called the ___________.

transferable

The F factor is ____________ during conjugation.

Aristotle

The Greek philosopher ________ viewed species as fixed and arranged them on a scala naturae.

proton-motive force

The H+ gradient is referred to as a ______-_____ _____, emphasizing its capacity to do work.

not evolving, evolving

The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes a population that is ____ ________; if a population does not meet the criteria of the Hardy-Weinberg principle, it can be concluded that the population is ________.

hypothetical, allele, genotype

The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes a _____________ population that is not evolving; in real populations, ______ and __________ frequencies do change over time.

H2O, CO2

The O2 released through photosynthesis is from ____. The oxygen in the organic compound produces and the water by-product is from _____.

F factor

The __ _______ is a piece of DNA required for the production of pili.

P

The __ site holds the tRNA that carries the growing polypeptide chain.

A

The __ site holds the tRNA that carries the next amino acid to be added to the chain.

E

The __ site is the exit site, where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome.

pH

The ___ of a solution is defined by the negative logarithm of H+ concentration, written as: pH = -log[H+]

small-population

The ___-_____ approach studies processes that can make small populations become extinct

SRY

The ____ gene on the Y chromosome is required for the developments of testes.

declining-population

The _____-______ approach focuses on threatened and endangered populations that show a downward trend, regardless of population size.

cystic fibrosis

The ______ ________ allele results in defective or absent chloride transport channels in plasma membranes leading to a buildup of chloride ions outside the cell.

ecological footprint

The _______ _____ concept summarized the aggregate land and water area needed to sustain the people of a nation.

central dogma

The _______ ______ is the concept that cells are governed by a cellular chain of command. (DNA --> RNA --> protein)

founder effect

The _______ ______ occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population; allele frequencies in the small founder population can be different from those in the larger parent population due to chance.

primary structure

The _______ _______ of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids.

neutral mutation rate

The _______ _________ _____ is dependent on how critical a gene's amino acid sequence is to survival.

NADH, FADH2

The _______ and _______ produced by the cycle relay electrons extracted from food to the electron transport chain.

smaller, chance

The ________ a sample, the more likely it is that _______ alone will cause deviation from a predicted result (genetic drift).

lysogenic cycle

The _________ ______ replicates the phage genome without destroying the host; the viral DNA molecule is incorporated into the host cell's chromosome.

thylakoids, stroma

The _________ are the sites of the light reactions, while the Calvin cycle occurs in the ______.

outgroup

The _________ is a group that has diverged before the ingroup.

polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

The ___________ ______ ________, (____), can produce many copies of a specific target segment of DNA; a three-step cycle brings about a chain reaction that produces an exponentially growing population of identical DNA molecules.

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

The specialized, complex organ systems of animals are built from a limited set of cell and tissue types; animal tissues can be grouped into four categories:

shape, amino acid sequence

The specificity of an enzyme results from its ________, which is a consequence of its ______ _____ _________.

centrosomes, spindle microtubules, asters

The spindle includes the __________, the _______ __________, and the _______.

reading frame

The start codon is important because it establishes the _________ _______ for the mRNA.

transcription unit

The stretch of DNA that is transcribed is called a _____________ _____.

to bear tension (resists pulling forces within the cell)

The structural role of microfilaments:

delta proteobacteria

The subgroup ______ _______________ includes the slime-secreting myxobacteria and bdellovibrios, a bacteria that attacks other bacteria.

epsilon proteobacteria

The subgroup ________ _______________ contains many pathogens including Campylobacter, which causes blood poisoning, and Helicobacter pylori, which causes stomach ulcers.

gamma proteobacteria

The subgroup ________ _______________ includes sulfur bacteria such as Thiomargarita namibiensis and pathogens such as Legionella, Salmonella, and Vibrio cholerae.

deoxyribose, ribose

The sugar in DNA is __________; in RNA it is ______.

cri du chat

The syndrome ____ ___ _____ ("cry of the cat") results from a specific deletion in chromosome 5; a child born with this syndrome is mentally retarded, has a catlike cry, and usually dies in infancy or early childhood.

anabolism

The synthesis of protein from amino acids is an example of __________.

amino acid, nucleotide triplet, codon

The tRNA contains an _______ _____ at one end and at the other end has a ___________ ______ that can base-pair with the complementary ______ on mRNA.

nontemplate, coding

The term codon is also used for the DNA nucleotide triplets along the _____________ strand; these codons are complementary to the template strand and thus identical in sequence to the mRNA, except that they have T instead of U. (For this reason, the nontemplate DNA strand is sometimes called the _______ strand.)

initiation, elongation, termination

The three stages of transcription:

initiation, elongation, termination

The three stages of translation: (the same as transcription)

UAG, UAA, UGA

The three stop codons:

hydrolysis of ATP

The three types of cellular work (mechanical, transport, and chemical) are powered by the ________ ___ _____. (energy is harnessed by the cell's proteins to perform this work)

genomes

The three-domain system (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya) is supported by data from many sequenced ________. (new info from analysis of DNA sequence data/new understanding of evolutionary history)

single-celled

The three-domain system highlights the importance of ______-_______ organisms in the history of life.

identical, differ

Two alleles at a particular locus may be ________, as in the true-breeding plants of Mendel's P generation. Alternatively, the two alleles at a locus may ______, as in the F1 hybrids.

alcohol fermentation, lactic acid fermentation

Two common types of fermentation:

introduced plant species, drug-resistant bacteria

Two examples provide evidence for natural selection: (1) natural selection in response to ___________ _____ _______ and (2) the evolution of _____-_________ ________.

species diversity, feeding relationships

Two fundamental features of community structure are ____ ______ and ______ _________.

free ribosomes, bound ribosomes

Two populations of ribosomes are evident in cells:

polypeptides, alternative splicing, RNA

Two reasons why the one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis isn't completely accurate: (1) Many eukaryotic genes can each code for a set of closely related ______________ (via ____________ ________), and (2) quite a few genes code for _____ molecules that have important functions in cells even though they are never translated into protein.

Photosystem II, Photosystem I

Two types of photosystems in the thylakoid membrane:

ligand-gated ion channel receptor

acts as a "gate" for ions when the receptor changes shape; signaling molecule opens/closes the gate; very important in the nervous system

random ferilization

adds to genetic variation because any sperm can fuse with an ovum (unfertilized egg)

ecosystem services

all the processes through which natural ecosystems help sustain human life (purification of air and water, detoxification, pollination, pest control, soil preservation, etc.)

transport proteins

allow passage of hydrophilic substances across the membrane

apoptosis

also occurs in the mature organism in cells that are infected, damaged, or at the end of their functional lives

global change

alterations in climate, atmospheric chemistry, and broad ecological systems

alleles

alternative versions of a gene

first concept of Mendel's model

alternative versions of genes account for variations in inherited characters

RNA sequencing

an alternative to microarray analysis; simply sequences cDNA samples from different tissues or stages to discover which genes are expressed; this method is becoming more widespread as the cost of sequencing decreases

down syndrome

an aneuploid condition that results from three copies of chromosome 21

electronegativity

an atom's attraction for the electrons in a covalent bond

ionic bond

an attraction between an anion and a cation

symbiosis

an ecological relationship in which two species live in close contact: a larger host and a smaller symbiont

adenylyl cyclase

an enzyme in the plasma membrane that rapidly converts ATP to cAMP in response to a number of extracellular signals

protein phosphatase

an enzyme that rapidly removes the phosphates from proteins

protein kinase

an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein (phosphorylation)

disturbance

an event that changes a community by removing organisms and altering resource availability

cell wall

an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells from animal cells, made of cellulose

metaphase plate

an imaginary structure at the midway point between the spindle's two poles

cholesterol

an important steroid; a component in animal cell membranes

autopolyploid

an individual with more than two chromosome sets, derived from one species

virus

an infectious particle consisting of little more than genes packages into a protein coat

sickle-cell disease

an inherited blood disorder that results from a single amino acids substitution in the protein hemoglobin

genetic map

an ordered list of genetic loci among a particular chromosome; constructed by Alfred Sturtevant (one of Morgan's students)

coenzyme

an organic cofactor; includes vitamins

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)