AP BIOLOGY UNIT 1 TEST FINAL NOTECARDS

golgi apparatus

Organelle active in synthesis, modification, sorting, and secretion of cell products. • Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs—cisternae. • Two sides of a Golgi stack are referred to as the cis face and the trans face. • Cis face is usually located near the ER. Transport vesicles move material form the ER to the Golgi apparatus. They vesicle can bind with lumen of the cis face. • Trans face gives rise to vesicles that pinch of and travel to other sites.

G1 checkpoint

"restriction point," if not passed, the cell enters G0

opiates

(morphine and heroin) relieve pain and alter mood by weakly binding to specific receptor molecules on surfaces of neurons and glial cells.

fluorescence

Absorbing one photon of light excites an electron to a higher energy state. As excited electrons fall back to their ground states, photons are given off f the energy of the electron is to be captured and used in photosynthesis, a photosystem is required

anchorage dependence

Most animal cells must be attached to a substratum (any underlying surface) in order to divide

G0 phase

Cells that do not divide (nerve cells, for example) spend all their time in the G1 or G0 phase. Most cells int he body are in this phase and do not divide, unless they are "called back" by external cues, such as injury

ion channels

Channel proteins that transport ions across the membrane

density dependent inhibition

Crowded cells will stop dividing If some cells are removed, those cells near the empty space will divide until the space is filled. It seems that the binding of proteins between neighboring cells controls this process

Contractile and Motor Proteins

Movement Motor proteins are responsible for the undulation of cilia and flagella. Actin and Myosin proteins are responsible for the contraction of muscles.

sister chromatids

Each duplicated chromosome has two identical

Order of cell cycle phases

G1 --> S --> G2 --> M

chromatin

Material consisting of DNA and proteins; visible in a dividing cell as individual condensed chromosomes.

cisternae

Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs

Cytology

study of cell structure

Calorie

the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 °C.

ribosomes

the area in which protein synthesis occurs form genetic instruction. Complexes that make proteins; free in cytosol or bound to rough ER or nuclear envelope. use genes as instructions for synthesizing proteins complexes made of rRNA and protein—cellular components that carry out protein synthesis.

contrast

the difference in brightness between the light and dark areas of an image. Enhancing contrast might include staining or labeling cell components so that they stand out.

cotransport

the diffusion of one ion down its electrochemical gradient is used to drive the active transport of another molecule.

chemical work

the pushing of endergonic reactions that would not occur spontaneously, such as the synthesis of polymers from monomers.

concentration gradient

the region along which the density of a substance increases or decreases. represents potential energy, drives diffusion.

concentration gradient

the region along with the density of a substance increases or decreases no work is done to make this happen higher to lower = down the concentration gradient lower to higher = up the concentration gradient

atoms

the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element.

metabolism

the totality of an organism's chemical reactions. It is an emergent property of life that arises from orderly interactions between molecules.

phosphorylation

the transfer of a phosphate group form ATP to some other molecule such as the reactant.

β-pleated sheet beta

two or more segments of the polypeptide chain lying side by side (β strands) are connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the two parallel segments of the polypeptide backbone. - make up the core of many globular proteins.

vesicular transport

uses vesicles in cytoplasm to move macromolecules across membrane

metabolic pathway

when a specific molecule is altered in a series of defined steps, it results in a product. An enzyme catalyzes each step

centromere

where it is most closely attached to its sister chromatid

carbonic acid

which is formed when CO2 reacts with water in blood plasma. (H2CO3), dissociates to yield a bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) and a hydrogen ion H+.

spontaneous

with no input of energy not affected by other concentration gradients represents potential energy drives diffusion

spontaneous reaction

without input of energy

plasma membrane

• A selective barrier that binds the cell functions as a selective barrier that allows passage of enough oxygen, nutrients, and wastes to service the entire cell.

hydrophilic

• Any substance that has an affinity for water some dissolve and some don't. polar

glycosidic linkages

• Differing glycosidic linkages in starch and cellulose give the two molecules distinct three-dimensional shapes.

nucleoid

• In prokaryotic cells, DNA is concentrated in the nucleoid, a region not bounded by any membrane.

Van Der Waals Forces

• Individually weak and occur only when atoms and molecules are very close.

nuclear lamina

• Nuclear side of the envelope a netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope.

pH

• The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm (base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration: • pH=-log[H+] • For neutral aqueous solutions [H+] is 10-7 M, giving us, o -log 10-7= -(-7)= 7 • pH declines as H+ concentrations increase.

buffers

• The presence of buffers allows biological fluids to maintain a relatively constant pH. • Buffers minimize change in pH.

R side chain amino acid

• The side chain (R group) can be a hydrogen atom, or can be a carbon skeleton with various functional groups attached as in glutamine. • R group determines unique characteristics of a particular amino acid, and therefore affects its functional role in a peptide.

cellular respiration

• The waste products of this type of respiration, carbon dioxide and water, are the raw materials for photosynthesis. • Photosynthesis generates oxygen and organic molecules used by mitochondria of eukaryotes as fuel for cellular respiration. includes both aerobic and anaerobic processes. • Cellular respiration is often used to refer to the aerobic process.

Structures of DNA and RNA molecules

• Two polynucleotides forming a double helix. • The two sugar-phosphate backbones run in opposite directions 3'→5' referred to as antiparallel. • Held together by hydrogen bonds between paired bases. • Matching base pairs are complementary.

endergonic

(most metabolic reactions) require input of energy from hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) (^_G = -7.3 kcal/mol) hydrolysis of ATP is exergonic, but coupled with endergonic metabolic reaction coupling = transfer of energy with one inorganic phosphate from ATP to one of the reactants *coupled reactions*

endergonic

(most metabolic reactions) require input of energy from hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) (^_G = -7.3 kcal/mol) hydrolysis of ATP is exergonic, but coupled with endergonic metabolic reaction coupling = transfer of energy with one inorganic phosphate from ATP to one of the reactants *coupled reactions* • Absorbs free energy from its surroundings. • Stores free energy in molecules. • G increases. • Non spontaneous reactions.

Kilocalorie

): 1,000 cal, is the quantity of head required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram (kg) of water by 1 °C.

cyclic phototphosphorylation AKA Calvin Cycle AKA C3 photosynthesis AKA light independent reactions

1. Carbon fixation: 6CO2 combine with 6RuBP to produce 12 PGA, enzyme rubisco catalyzes the merging of CO2 and RuBP, first product has 3 carbon atoms 2. Reduction: 12 ATP and 12 NADPH are used to convert 12 PGA to 12 G3P, energy of ATP and NADPH goes into G3P and makes G3P a very energy rich molecule. ADP, Pi and NADP+ are released and reenergized in noncyclic photophosphorylation 3. Regeneration: 6 ATP are used to convert 10 G3P to 6 RuBP, regenerating the 6 RuBP used to combine 6 CO2 lets the cycle repeat 4. Carbohydrate sythesis: 2 remaining G3P (12 used in #2 and 10 used in #3) used to build glucose, other monosaccharides can also be formed and disaccharides *no light is DIRECTLY used dependent on energy from ATP and NADPH - created during photophosphorylation (in light)

chemiosmosis in mitochondria

1. Krebs cycle produces NADH and FADH in the matrix: CO2 is generated too and substrate level phosphorylation occurs to produce ATP 2. Electrons are removed from NADH and FADH: protein complexes in inner membrane remove electrons from these molecules, electrons move along electron transport chain from one protein complex to the next 3. H+ ions (protons) are transported from the matrix to the inter membrane compartment: protein complexes transport H+ ions from the matrix across the inner membrane and to the intermembrane space 4. pH and electrical gradient across inner membrane is create: H+ concentration increases as they are transferred across the matrix to inter membrane space (pH decreases) and decreases in the matrix (pH increases). concentration decreases further as electrons combine with O2 and make water. proton gradient and electric charge gradent results 5. ATP synthase generates ATP: ATP synthase allows protons to flow back into the matrix from intermembrane, generates ATP

noncyclic photophosphorylation AKA light reactions AKA light dependent reactions

1. PS2, electrons trapped by P680 are energized by light 2. Primary electron acceptor, two energized electrons are passed here 3. electron transport chain, electrons pass through the etc. 4. phosphorylation, two electrons move down the ETC and lose energy, energy is used to phosphorylate (1.5 ATP molecules) 5. PS 1, ETC terminates with PS1 aka P700, electrons are energized by light and passed to the primary electron acceptor 6. NADPH, two electrons pass through short ETC, at end of the chain two electrons combine with NADP+ and H+ to form NADPH 7. Splitting of water, two electrons from PS2 are now incorporated into NADPH, loss of electrons from PS2 is replaced when H2O is split into 2 electrons 2 H+ and 1/2 O2 2 electrons from H20 replace the lost electrons from PS2 one of H+ provides the H in NADPH ans 1/2 O2 give oxygen gas that is released

Photosynthesis Process

1. light absorbing pigments in chloroplasts of plant cells 2. pigment molecule is able to absorb the energy from light with narrow range of wavelengths 3. dominant absorbing pigment is chlorophyll a with other accessory pigments which maximizes energy consumption across the sunlight spectrum 4. the energy is made into electrons within the atoms of the molecule, unstable and re-emit absorbed energy 5. energy is reabsorbed by electrons of other pigments - energy bounces from one pigment to another 6. ends as energy is absorbed by chlorophyll a molecules P680 and P700 (numbers represent wavelengths) 7. P680 is PS 2 and P700 is PS1

pyruvate

2 glucose molecules with 3 carbons each the end product of glycolysis

inner membrane

2nd membrane double phospholipid bilayer cristae/crista - convolutions inside this membrane oxidative phosphorylation occurs here the ETC removes electrons from NADH and FADH2 and transports H+ ions from the matrix to the intermembrane space ATP synthase is here

genome

A cell's full set of DNA A prokaryotic genome is usually one single DNA molecule typical human cell has about 2 meters of DNA = the DNA must be tightly packed

S phase

A cells duplicates its DNA during the S phase.

stroma

A chloroplast has two membranes surrounding the dense fluid fluid material that fills the area inside the inner membrane calvin cycle occurs there fixing carbon from CO2 to generate G3P the precursor to glucose

absorbtion spectrum

A graph plotting a pigment's light absorption vs. wavelength

radiation

A localized tumor can be treated with high-energy , which damages their DNA.

Signal transduction.

A membrane protein (receptor) may have a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical messenger, such as a hormone. The external messenger, may cause the protein to change shape, allowing it to relay the message to the inside of the cell, usually by binding to a cytoplasmic protein.

Enzymatic Activity

A protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution. In some cases, several enzymes in a membrane are organized as a team that carries out sequential steps of a metabolic pathway

electrogenic pump

A transport protein that helps to generate the voltage across a cell membrane Sodium potassium pump • The main electrogenic pump of plants, fungi, and bacteria is a proton pump which actively transports protons (H+) out of the cell pumps help store energy that that can be tapped for cellular work. One important use of proton gradients in the cell is for ATP synthesis during cellular respiration

regeneration of ATP

ATP is a renewable resource that can be regenerated by the addition of phosphate to ADP. - Exergonic breakdown reactions (catabolism) in the cell. • ATP cycle—couples the cell's energy yielding (exergonic) process to the energy consuming (endergonic) ones. • Catabolic pathways, especially cellular respiration, provide the energy for the endergonic processes of making ATP.

chloroplasts

ATP is synthesized as protons diffuse from the thylakoid space back to the stroma through ATP synthase enzymes for CO2 processing are in fluids adjacent to membranes

ATP

An important source of energy for cellular processes: o Adenosine Triphosphate is an organic phosphate molecule. o ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a strong of three phosphate groups. o One phosphate may be split off as a result of a reaction with water. This inorganic phosphate ion, HOPO32- is abbreviated as 4i. o ATP becomes adenosine diphosphate ADP. o ATP is said to store energy, it is more accurate to think of it as storing the potential to react with water—this reaction releases the energy used by the cell. o A nitrogenous base adenine. o A ribose o Three phosphate groups. • Bonds between the phosphate groups of ATP can be broken by hydrolysis. • The reaction is exergonic and releases 7.3 kcal/mol of ATP hydrolyzed: o ATP + H2O → ADP + ℗i o ΔG = -7.3 kcal/mol (-30.5 kJ/mol)

stomata

Carbon dioxide enters the leaf and oxygen enters the leaf through pores to prevent water loss, plants will close their stomata ; however, this can lead to low levels of CO2.

cell division

Cell division enables a single, fertilized egg cell to grow into a multicellular eukaryote After an organism is grown, cell division functions in renewal and repair Most cell division involves the distribution of identical DNA to two daughter cells

plasmodesmata plants only

Channels though cell wall that connects the cytoplasms of adjacent cells.

mesophyll

Chloroplasts are found mainly in here, the tissue in the interior of the leaf.

Hormonal Proteins

Coordination of an organism's activities. Insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, causes other tissues to take up glucose, thus regulating blood sugar concentration.

chromosomes

DNA is packed into structures Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus, and this number reflects the species's relative complexity. One of your cells has a total of 46 chromosomes, with one set of 23 from each parent.

lysosome

Digestive organelle where macromolecules are hydrolyzed. • A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that an animal cell uses to hydrolyze macromolecules. • Lysosomal enzymes work best in acidic environments. • Lysosomal enzymes are not very active because the cytosol has a natural pH. • Lysosomes carry out intracellular digestion in a variety of circumstances. Amoebas and many other protists eat by phagocytosis. The food vacuole formed in this way then fuses with a lysosome, whose enzymes digest the food. Digestion produces, including simple sugars, amino acids, and other monomers, pass into the cytosol and become nutrients for the cell.

Thermal Energy

Energy is the kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules. - Depends on the matter's volume.

coenzyme

FADH & NADH accept electrons during a reaction NADH gives electrons that have enough energy to generate 3 ATP while FADH produces 2

light reaction chemical process

H20 + ADP + Pi + NADP+ + LIGHT --> ATP + NADPH + O2 + H+

tumor

If a cell avoids destruction by the immune system, it may proliferate

benign

If a transformed group of cells have too few abnormalities to survive at another site, and thus remain at the original site, they form a benign tumor.

malignant

If a transformed group of cells is capable of surviving beyond its original site and spreads to new tissues, they form a malignant tumor.

bacterial DNA

In bacteria, genes are carried on a single bacterial chromosome that consists of a circular DNA molecule and associated proteins. The bacterial chromosome begins to replicate at the origin of replication. As the bacterial chromosome replicates, the cell grows. When replication is complete, the bacterium has reached about 2x its initial size. Using tags and the the technique of fluorescence microscopy, researchers have directly observed the movement of bacterial chromosomes. Given that prokaryotes preceded eukaryotes on Earth, it is reasonable to assume that mitosis evolved from prokaryotic mechanisms of reproduction. In fact, some proteins involved in binary fission are related to proteins used by eukaryotes in mitosis.

gated channels

Ion channels that open only in response to a stimulus electrical or chemical. open or close when a specific substance other than the one being transported binds to the channel.

Structural Proteins

Keratin is the protein of hair, horns, feathers, and other skin appendages. Insects and spiders use silk fibers to make their cocoons and webs, respectively. Collagen and elastin proteins provide a fibrous framework in animal connective tissues.

photons

Light travels in discrete particles violet light carries nearly twice as much energy as a photon of red light

gonads

Meiosis in humans occurs only in the gonads-ovaries or testes.

Intracellular joining

Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may hook together in various kinds o junctions, such as gap junctions or tight junctions. This type of binding is more long lasting.

ATP Energy

Membrane traffic that requires the cell to expend energy is called active transport. This energy is usually supplied

chemotherapy

Metastatic tumors are treated with this , in which drugs that are toxic to actively dividing cells are administered through the circulatory system. Some of these drugs interfere with the mitotic spindle depolymerization (shortening).

Attachment to the cytoskeleton and ECM

Microfilaments or other elements of cytoskeleton may be noncovalently bound to membrane proteins, a function that helps maintain cell shape, and stabilizes the location of certain membrane proteins. Proteins that can bind to ECM molecules can coordinate extracellular and intracellular changes.

Mitosis

Mitosis is the division of the DNA in the nucleus, while cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm Your 200 trillion somatic cells are produced by mitosis and cytokinesis

flagellum

Motility structure present in some animal cells, composed of a cluster of microtubules within an extension of the plasma membrane.

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Network of membranous sacs and tubes; active in membrane synthesis and other synthetic and metabolic processes; has rough ribosome studded and smooth regions. • A network of membrane that accounts for more than half of the total membrane. • ER has a network of membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae. • ER membrane separates the internal compartment of the ER, called the ER lumen of cisternal space, from the cytosol. Because the ER is continuous with the nuclear envelope the space between the two membranes of the envelope is continuous with the lumen of the ER.

terminal phosphate group

Often, ATP powers active transport by transferring its terminal phosphate group to the transport protein, causing the protein to change shape.

bundle sheath cells

On a hot and dry day, a C4 plant partially closes its stomata to conserve water, so CO2 levels are low. This isn't a problem, though, because an enzyme in the mesophyll binds to CO2 to produce a 4-carbon compound. That compound then moves to the bundle sheath cells and releases CO2.

mitochondrion

Organelle where cellular respiration occurs and most ATP is generated. are the sites of cellular respiration, the metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP by extracting energy from sugars, fats, and other fuels. • Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins in each of the two layers. • Outer membrane is smooth and inner membrane had infoldings called cristae. • The inner membrane encloses the mitochondrial matrix. The matrix contains many different enzymes as well as the mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes. • Enzymes in the matrix catalyze cellular respiration. Other proteins that function in respiration including the enzyme that makes ATP, are built into the inner mitochondrial membrane a large surface area—enhancing productivity of cellular respiration. • The number correlates with the cell's level of metabolic activity. Cells that move or contract have more mitochondria per volume than less active cells.

peroxisome

Organelle with various specialized metabolic functions; produces hydrogen peroxide as a by-product, then converts it to water. a specialized metabolic compartment bounded by a single membrane. contain enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms from certain molecules and transfer them to oxygen producing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). • Peroxisomes in the liver detoxify alcohol and other harmful compounds by transferring hydrogen form the poisons to oxygen. • Organelle also contains an enzyme that converts H2O2 to water. • Peroxisomes grow larger by incorporating proteins made in cytosol and ER as well as lipids made in the ER and within the peroxisome itself.

plant cell wall

Outer layer that maintains cells shape and protects cell from mechanical damage; made of cellulose, other polysaccharides, and protein. • Protects the plant cell, maintains it shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water. thicker than the plasma membrane • Primary cell wall is the relatively thin and flexible wall • Secondary cell wall between the plasma membrane and the primary wall. Deposited in several laminated layers, has a strong and durable matrix that affords the cell protection and support

facilitated diffusion

Passive Transport Aided by Proteins The diffusion of molecules across the membrane with the help of transport proteins diffusion of solute or water through channel proteins or carrier proteins channel proteins - move ions Na K Ca Cl aquaporins move water carrier proteins move ions and larger organic molecules like aminos and glucose speeds transport of a solute by providing efficient passage through the membrane, does not alter the direction of transport

chloroplasts

Photosynthetic organelle; converts energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored in sugar molecules. are found in plants and algae are the sites of photosynthesis. • Contain chlorophyll, enzymes and other molecules that function in the photosynthetic production of sugar • Membranes of chloroplasts divide the chloroplast space into three compartments: o Intermembrane space. o Stroma. o Thylakoid space. • Chloroplasts are mobile, and move around the cell along tracks of the cytoskeleton.

central vacuole

Prominent organelle in older plant cells; functions include storage, breakdown of waste products, hydrolysis of macromolecules; enlargement of vacuole is a major mechanism of plant growth.

centrosome

Region where the cell's microtubules are initiated; contains a pair of centrioles.

cytoskeleton

Reinforces cell's shape; functions in cell movement; components are made of protein. Includes: Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell throughout the cytoplasm. • Plays a role in organizing the structures and activities of the cell. • Maintaining shape—especially important for cells that lack cell walls. • Stabilized by a balance between opposing forces exerted by its elements. • Provides anchorage for many organelles and even cytosolic enzyme molecules. • Cell motility includes both changes in cell location and more limited movements of parts of the cell. Generally requires the interaction of the cytoskeleton with motor proteins. • Cytoskeletal elements and motor proteins work together with plasma membrane molecules to allow whole cells to move along fibers outside the cell.

gametes

Reproductive cells have half as many cells as somatic cells

Receptor Proteins

Response of cell to chemical stimuli. Receptors built into the membrane of a nerve cell detect signaling molecules released by other nerve cells.

thylakoids

Sacs suspended within the stroma and make up the chloroplast's third membrane system. sites of the light reactions. transform light energy into the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH contain protein complexes PS2 and PS1, cytosomes, and other electron carriers of light dependent reactions

Cell-cell recognition

Some glycoproteins serve as identification tags that are specifically recognized by membrane proteins of other cells. This type of cell-cell binding is short lived. is the basis for rejection of foreign cells

Transport protein

Spans entire membrane, and provides a hydrophilic pathway. Others might change shape; some proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane.

Storage Proteins

Storage of amino acids. Casein, the protein of milk, is the major source of amino acids for baby mammals. Plants have storage proteins in their seeds. Ovalbumin is the protein of egg white used as an amino acids source for the developing embryo.

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

Studies the internal structure of cells. Tem aims an electron beam through a very thin section of a specimen, much as a light microscope aims light through a sample on a slide. Specimen must be stained with atoms of heavy metals. Electrons passing though are scattered more in denser regions. Uses electromagnets as lenses to bend the paths of electrons.

pigment

Substances that absorb visible light

Adehesion

The clinging of one substance to another. • Adhesion also plays a role in the above scenario. • Adhesion of water to cell walls by hydrogen bonds helps counter downward pull of gravity.

Roots

The water necessary for photosynthesis is absorbed by the plant's roots and delivered to leaves in veins.

grana/granum

Thylakoid sacs are stacked in columns

Transport Proteins

Transport of substances. Hemoglobin the iron-containing protein of vertebrate blood, transports oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body. Other proteins transport molecules across cell membranes.

primary electron acceptor

When a photon strikes a pigment molecule in a photosystem, the energy is passed from molecule to molecule until it reaches the reaction-center complex. excited electron is transferred to the primary electron acceptor. P680 transfers electrons to the primary electron acceptor, its electrons are replaced by water

metastasis

When cancer cells separate from the original tumor, they can enter blood and lymph vessels and travel to other parts of the body.

o Triacylglycerol

a bond between hydroxyl group and carboxyl group. Consists of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule. Triglyceride

phagocytosis

a cell engulfs a particle by wrapping pseudopodia around it undissolved material enters the cell plasmam membrane wraps around the solid material and engulfs it, forming a phagocytic vesicle white blood cells engulf bacteria

pinocytosis

a cell takes in dissolved droplets of extracellular fluid dissovled substances enter the cell plasma membrane folds inward to form a channel and allows liquid to enter membrane encloses liquid in a vesicle

NADPH

a coenzyme electron acceptor that forms energy rich molecule (P isn't phosphate, but phosphorus)

spectrophotometer

a device that measures how much a certain pigment absorbs wavelengths of light.

Collagen

a fibrous protein that has three identical helical polypeptides intertwined into a larger *triple helix* giving the long fibers great strength—their function as the girders of connective tissue in skin, bone, tendons, ligaments, and other body parts. (40% of the protein in the body). (quaternary*)

resolution

a measure of the clarity of the image; minimum distance two points can be separated and still be distinguished as separate points.

growth factor

a protein released by certain cells that simulates other cells to divide. (It's a local regulator!

exocytosis

a vesicle budded from the Golgi apparatus fuses with the plasma membrane an expels its contents vesicle fusing with plasma membrane and releasing their contents to the outside of the cell export

tonicity

ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water depends in part on its concentration of solutes that cannot cross the membrane (nonpenetrating solutes)

chlorophyll a

absorbs slightly different wavelengths of light from chlorophyll b, it appears blue green while chlorophyll b appears more olive green.

Interphase

accounts for 90% of the cell cycle. During this time, the cell grows, carries out its routine functions, produces proteins and organelles, and duplicates its chromosomes.

unsaturated fats

acids have one or more double bonds, with one fewer hydrogen atom on each double-bonded carbon.

enzymatic protein

act as catalysts. • Enzymes can preform its function over and over again.

osmoregulation

adaptions for organisms lack cell walls in hypertonic and hypotonic environments control of solute concentrations and water balance

reduction

addition of electrons to another substance reducing agent is the electron donor

mitochondria

aerobic respiration - krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation occurs here outer/inter/inner membrane & matrix

chemical groups

affect molecular function by being directly involve din chemical reactions' these important chemical groups are known as functional groups. o Estradiol and testosterone are steroid sex hormones which differ in attached chemical groups.

selectively permeable membrane

allows one specific substances to pass plasma membrane

ATP synthase

allows the H+ to flow through the thylakoid membrane and out to the stroma. energy generated by passage of H+ provides energy for the ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP to ATP 3 H+ = 1 ATP

ATP synthase

allows the H+ to flow through the thylakoid membrane and out to the stroma. energy generated by passage of H+ provides energy for the ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP to ATP 3 H+ = 1 ATP Drives the phosphorylation of ADP

passive transport

along biological membrane cell does not have to expel energy to make this happen movement of substances from higher to lower concentration gradients do not require energy expenditure rates of passive transport increases with higher concentration gradients, higher temperature, and smaller particle size an ion diffuses not simply down its concentration gradient but, more exactly, down its electrochemical gradient

endosymbiont theory

an early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed an oxygen-using non-photosynthetic prokaryotic cell. Eventually, the engulfed cell formed a relationship with the host cell in which it was enclosed, becoming an Endosymbiont (a cell living within a cell). • Endomembrane system, mitochondria and typical chloroplast have two membranes surrounding them. • Ancestral engulfed prokaryotes had two outer membranes, which became double membranes of mitochondria and chloroplasts. • Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain ribosomes, as well as multiple circular DNA molecules attached to their inner membranes. • Mitochondria and chloroplasts are autonomous organelles that grow and reproduce within the cell.

Joule

an energy unit. One joule equals 0.239 cal; one calorie equals 4.184 J.

cation

an ion is positive

matter

anything that takes up space and has a mass

autotrophs

are "self-feeders," since they do not consume anything derived from other organisms. Producers of the atmosphere Most plants are autotrophs - photoautotrophs because they use sunlight as energy source

disaccharides

are double sugars—two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond. consists of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage, a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction. o Sucrose is the most present disaccharide. o Other disaccharides are lactose, and maltose.

kinases

are enzymes that activate or inactivate other proteins by phosphorylating them

Purine

are larger with six membered ring fused to a five membered ring. o Adenine DNA/RNA o Guanine DNA/RNA

polysaccharides

are macromolecules. Polymers composed of many sugar building blocks joined together by dehydration reactions. o Macromolecules with few to a few thousand monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages. o Protect the cell and the whole organism. o Structure and function are determined by its sugar monomers and the position of its glycosidic linkages.

group proteins

are often associated in long-lasting, specialized patches, as are certain lipids. • Proteins are not randomly distributed

macromolecules

are polymers, built from monomers • Carbohydrates, amino acids, and nucleic acids are polymers because they are long chain like molecules.

protons

are positive are electrically charged.

glycoprotein

are proteins hat have carbohydrates covalently bonded to them. They are attached do to the enzymes built into the ER membrane.

monomer

are the repeating units that serve as the building blocks of the polymer.

moles

are used to measure out small molecules. Moles are 6.022x1023 daltons in one 1g.

carotenoids

are yellow and orange accessory pigments that broaden photosynthesis's action spectrum and help in photoprotection.

quaternary structure

arises when a protein consists of two or more polypeptide chains. o Overall protein structure that results from the aggregation of these polypeptide subunits. o Some proteins consist of two or more polypeptide chains aggregated into one function macromolecule.

anaphase

as kinetochore microtubules shorten, sister chromatids are pulled to opposite ends of the cell

bound ribosomes

attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope. Make proteins that are destined for insertion into membranes, for packing within certain organelles such as lysosomes, or for export from the cell.

Fimbriae

attachment structures on the surface of some prokaryotes

Prokaryotes

bacteria and Achaea "before nucleus". • Prokaryotic cell: o Fimbriae: attachment structures on the surface of some prokaryotes. o Nucleoid: region where the cell's DNA is located (not enclosed by a membrane). o Ribosomes: complexes that synthesize proteins. o Plasma membrane: membrane enclosing the cytoplasm. o Cell wall: rigid structure outside the plasma membrane. o Capsule: jellylike outer coating of many prokaryotes. o Flagella: locomotion organelles of some bacteria.

saturated fats

bonds between carbon atoms composing a chain, then as many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to the carbon skeleton.

electrochemical gradient

both chem and electric gradient acting on an ion ion diffuses down this o A chemical force—ions concentration gradient. o An electrical force—the effect of the membrane potential on the ion's movement. In cases where electrical forces due to the membrane potential oppose the simple diffusion of an ion down its concentration gradient, active transport may be necessary.

induced fit

brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the chemical reaction.

cytochromes

carrier protein included non protein parts containing iron along the chain the electrons give up energy used to phosphorylate ADP to ATP NADH gives electrons that have enough energy to generate 3 ATP while FADH produces 2

cytochrome c

carrier protein in the etc living among 100 amino acid sequence of the etc protein chain

cytochromes

carrier protein, nonprotein parts containing iron

M checkpoint

cell is stopped if its chromosomes are not attached to spindle fibers

isotonic

cell without a cell wall is immersed in an environment that is isotonic no net movement of water across the plasma membrane water diffuses across the membrane but at the same rate in both directions volume of animal cell is stable cell without rigid walls cant tolerate excessive uptake or loss of water equal concentration of solutes

Somatic cells

cells are all body cells except reproductive cells

secondary structure

coils and folds that are the result of hydrogen bonds between the repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone. o Within the backbone, the oxygen atoms have a partial negative charge, and the hydrogen atoms attached to the nitrogen's have a partial positive charge; hydrogen bonds form between these atoms. o α helix o β-pleated sheet

organic compound

compound containing carbon Further more almost all organic compounds associated with life contain hydrogen atoms in addition to carbon atoms. • Species are distinguished by variations in their large organic compounds • Four classes: o Carbohydrates—macromolecule o Lipids o Proteins--macromolecule o Nucleic Acids—macromolecule

electron transport chain

consists of a number of molecules, mostly proteins built into the inner membrane of the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membrane of aerobically respiring prokaryotes. • Instead of energy being released and wasted in a single explosive step, electrons cascade down the chain from one carrier molecule to the next in a series of redox reactions until they reach oxygen—terminal electron acceptor which has a high affinity for electrons. • Glucose→ NADH→electron transport chain→ oxygen. • At the end of the electron chain, the electrons are combine with molecular oxygen and hydrogen ions forming water • Inner membrane of the mitochondrion • Establishing the H+ gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane energy converter using the exergonic flow of electrons form NADH and FADH2 to pump H+ across the membrane, from the mitochondrial matrix into the Intermembrane space.

thermal energy

constant motion energy that molecules have kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules. Thermal energy in transfer from one object to another is heat. absorption of thermal energy accelerates the reactant molecule, so they collide more often and more forcefully. It also agitates the atoms within the molecules, making the breakage of bonds more likely. bonds break, the reactants are in an unstable condition known as the transition state.

anabolic pathway

consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones; they are sometimes called biosynthetic pathways. - synthesis of protein from amino acids.

ATP

cytoplasm: 1 glucose produces 2 NADH, 2 ATP, and 2 pyruvate during glycolysis 2 pyruvate (from one glucose) are converted to 2 acetyl CoA, 2 more NADH are produced 2 acetyl CoA, the Krebs cycle produces 6 NADH, 2 FADH, and 2 ATP If NADH produces 3 ATP during oxidative phosphorylation, FADH2 produces 2 ATP total from one glucose = 38 ATP ACTUALLY = 36 ATP because 2NADH are produced in the cytoplasm during glycolysis must be transported to the mitochondria for oxidative phosphorylation - this transport across the membrane reduces the yield from each NADH to 2 ATP (regularly 3 ATP) total yield from one glucose is ACTUALLY = 30 ATP because of variations in mitochondria efficiencies and biochem processes

ATP

cytoplasm: 1 glucose produces 2 NADH, 2 ATP, and 2 pyruvate during glycolysis 2 pyruvate (from one glucose) are converted to 2 acetyl CoA, 2 more NADH are produced 2 acetyl CoA, the Krebs cycle produces 6 NADH, 2 FADH, and 2 ATP If NADH produces 3 ATP during oxidative phosphorylation, FADH2 produces 2 ATP total from one glucose = 38 ATP ACTUALLY = 36 ATP because 2NADH are produced in the cytoplasm during glycolysis must be transported to the mitochondria for oxidative phosphorylation - this transport across the membrane reduces the yield from each NADH to 2 ATP (regularly 3 ATP) total yield from one glucose is ACTUALLY = 30 ATP because of variations in mitochondria efficiencies and biochem processes powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions

Distinctive properties of an organic molecule

depend not only on the arrangement of its carbon skeleton but also on the chemical groups attached to that skeleton. o The number and arrangement of chemical groups help give each organic molecule its unique properties.

surface area to volume

determines what goes in and out of the cell per second • As a cell increases in size, its volume grows proportionately more than its surface area. (Area is proportional to a linear dimension squared, where as volume is proportional to the linear dimension cubed).

entropy

disorder of the universe

entropy

disorder of the universe • Much of the increasing entropy of the universe is because it appears as increasing amounts of heat and less ordered forms of matter.

Solutes of water concentration

do not affect water concentration significantly tight clustering of water molecules around the hydrophilic solute make some of the water unavailable to cross the membrane

noncompetitive enzyme inhibitors

do not directly compete with the substrate to bind to the enzyme at the active site. Instead they impede enzymatic reactions by binding to another part of the enzyme.

dynamic equilibrium

each molecule crossing the membrane at one direction as the other

electrons

electrically charged. are negative

essential elements

elements that an organism needs to live a healthy life and reproduce. o Humans need 25 essential elements. o Plants need 17 essential elements. o Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Nitrogen (N) make up 96% of all living matter. o Calcium (Ca), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), and Sulfur (S) make up the remaining 4% of an organisms mass.

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

especially useful for detailed study of the topography of a specimen. Controlled by electromagnetic lenses as in TEM, an electron beam scans the surface of the sample, usually coated with a thin film of goals. Beam excites electrons on the surface. Secondary electrons are detected by device that translates the pattern of electrons into an electronic signal to a video screen.

oxygen

final electron receptor of the ETC 1/2 O2 accepts two electron and together with 2 H+ forms water

photorespiration

fixation of oxygen CO2 fixing efficiency is reduced because instead of fixing only CO2 rubisco fixes some O2 as well products formed when O2 is combined with RuBP do not lead to the production of energy useful molecules liek glucose peroxiomes near the chloroplast break down photorespiration products effort from the plant is made to get rid of the cell of the products of photorespiration *atmosphere made this way*

Matrix

fluid material that fills area inside the inner membrane Krebs cycle and conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA occurs here

electron microscopes

focuses a beam of electrons through a specimen or onto its surface. • Electron beams have shorter wavelengths than visible light. Usually cannot resolve structures smaller than about 2 nm across.

Carbon

four valence electrons. • In organic molecules, carbon usually forms single or double covalent bonds.

(+) _^G

free energy is added to the reaction endergonic (most metabolic reactions) require input of energy non-spontaneous 6CO2 +6H20 --> C6H12O6 + 6O2 (photosynthesis) photosynthesis is the reverse of respiration energy must be at least equal to ^_ G for the reaction to occur (from sunlight)

hydrogen binding

gives water properties that help make life possible on Earth • The unequal sharing of electrons and water's V like shape make it a polar molecule meaning that its overall charge is unevenly distributed: the oxygen region of the molecule has a partial negative charge and the each hydrogen has a partial positive charge.

carrier proteins

hold onto their passengers and change shape in a way that shuttles them across the membrane

chemical gradient

how concentrated the ion is on each side of the membrane

electrical gradient

how the membrane potential affects its movement.

• Amino - functional group

hydrophilic

• Carbonyl- functional group,

hydrophilic

• Carboxyl-functional group

hydrophilic

• Hydroxyl-functional group

hydrophilic

• Methyl

hydrophilic

• Phosphate

hydrophilic

• Sulfhydryl

hydrophilic

glycolysis

in cystol decomposition (lysis) of glucose (glyco) to pyruvate (pyruvic acid) 1. 2 ATP are required: requires input of energy, changes glucose in preparation for subsequent steps 2. 2 NADH are produced: coenzyme NADH is an electron carrier when NAD+ combines with two energy rich electrons and H+ (from intermediate molecule during glucose breakdown) = energy rich NADH 3. 4 ATP are produced by substrate-level phosphorylation 4. 2 pyruvate are formed glycolysis takes 1 glucose and turns it into 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH, and a net of 2 ATP *produces 2 pyruvate* made 4 ATP but used 2 ATP :(

cytoplasm

in eukaryotic cells it is the space between the membrane and the nucleus, that contains cell organelles that are suspended in the cytosol.

microvilli

increase surface area without an appreciable increase in volume

coefficients

indicate the number of molecules involved.

thylakoid lumen

inside of thylakoid H+ protons accumulate here

molarity

is --the number of moles of solute per liter of solution—unit of concentration most often used by biologists for aqueous solutions.

Chitin

is a carbohydrate (polysaccharide) that is used by arthropods to build their exoskeletons. Also found in many fungi—use the polysaccharide as the building material for their cell walls. • Chitin is similar to cellulose except that the glucose monomer of chitin has a nitrogen containing appendage.

fermentation

is a catabolic process that is a partial degradation of sugars or other organic fuel that occur without the use of oxygen

ion

is a charged atom or molecule.

atomic nucleus

is a cluster, or dense core of protons and neutrons- always positive because the protons contribute a positive charge while the neutrons have no charge. o The connection between the opposite charges of the nucleus and the negative electrons is what keeps the electrons in the vicinity of the atom

checkpoint

is a control point where signals can regulate the cycle. Signals from the cell at these points indicate whether the processes that should have occurred by that point have been completed correctly.

photorespiration

is a costly process that occurs in C3 plants during hot, dry days. The shortage of CO2 means that rubisco binds to oxygen instead, meaning no sugars are produced. This process consumes oxygen and ATP, while releasing carbon dioxide To prevent photorespiration, some plants have evolved photosynthetic adaptations , include C4 and CAM photosynthesis.

Surface Tension

is a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. • Hydrogen bonds show really high surface tension.

kinetochore

is a protein structure at the centromere that allows the spindle to bind to the chromosomes.

prophase

is a protein structure at the centromere that allows the spindle to bind to the chromosomes.

aquaporin

is a protein that enables billions of water molecules to pass through the membrane every second, many more than could cross on their own. consist of four identical subunits. The polypeptide that makes up each subunit allows for single file passage of up to 3 billion water molecules per second.

cleavage furrow

is a shallow groove in the cell surface. It is formed by a contracting ring of actin and myosin proteins. It deepens until the parent cell is pinched into two daughter cells. In plant cell cytokinesis, there is no cleavage furrow. Instead, the Golgi apparatus produces vesicles that produce a cell plate

glycerol

is an alcohol; three of its carbons bares a hydroxyl group

• Ubiquinone

is an electron carrier that is a small hydrophobic molecule, and the only member of the electron transport chain that is not a protein.

molecular mass

is calculated by the sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule. Measured in Daltons

mitotic spindles

is composed of the centrosomes and the microtubules that extend from them.

α helix alpha

is delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid. Other globular proteins may have multiple stretches of α helix separated by no helical regions. (secondary)

passive transport

is diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment

radioactive isotopes

is one in which the nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and energy. When it decays to a certain point, it becomes another element. • Radioactive isotopes can allows researchers to use measurements of radioactivity in fossils to date the relics back to past life • Radioactive isotopes are also useful as tracers to follow atoms through metabolism, the chemical processes of an organism. • Cells use the radioactive atoms as they would use non radioactive isotopes of the same element, but the radioactive tracers can be readily detected.

aqueous solution

is one in which water is the solvent.

rRNA

is synthesized from instructions of DNA in the nucleolus. • The nucleolus, proteins imported form the cytoplasm is assembled with rRNA into large and small subunits of ribosomes. These subunits then exit the nucleus through the nuclear pores to the cytoplasm where a large and a small subunit can assemble into a ribosome. • Nucleus directs protein synthesis by synthesizing messenger RNA

cellular respiration

is the ATP generating process that occurs in cells energy from energy rich glucose to form ATP

atom's valence

is the bonding capacity. Usually equals the number of electrons required to complete the atom's outermost (valence) shell

non polar covalent bond

is the covalent bond between two atoms of the same element; the electrons are shared equally because the two atoms have the same electronegativity.

solvent

is the dissolving agent.

Kinetic Energy

is the energy of motion, not necessarily in any particular direction. The faster molecules and atoms move, the faster the kinetic energy.

Rubisco

is the enzyme that catalyzes the attaching of CO2 to RuBP. Plants that fix carbon using rubisco are called C3 plants. most common protein on earth not efficient fixes CO2 AND OXYGEN

chlorophyll

is the green pigment that resides in thylakoid membranes.

cell cycle

is the life of a cell from the time it is formed to the time when it divides. A breakdown in cell cycle control plays a major role in cancer development.

active site

is the pocket or groove on the surface of the enzyme where catalysis occurs. • As the substrate enters the active site, the enzyme changes shape slightly due to interactions between the substrate's chemical group and chemical groups on the side chains of the amino acids that form the active site. This shape change makes the active site fit even more snugly around the substrate. 1. Substrates enter active site' enzyme changes shape such that its active site enfolds the substrates (induced fit). 2. Substrates are held in active site by weak interactions like hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds. 3. Substrates are converted to products. 4. Products are released. 5. Active site is available for two new substrate molecules.

hydration shell

is the sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion. Working inward from the surface of each salt crystal, water eventually dissolves all the ions.

mass number

is the sum of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom written as a superscript to the left of an element's symbol. numbers of protons + neutrons the mass number is approximately the total mass of the atom, called the atomic mass.

Dalton

is the unit of measurement that is the same as the atomic mass unit or amu. Neutrons and protons have masses close to 1 Dalton. Since the mass of the electron is about 1/2000 that of the neutron or proton we only use the mass of the nucleus. • The protons and neutrons each have mass very close to 1 Dalton

work

is to move matter against opposing forces such as gravity and friction. Work rearranges a collection of matter.

polar covalent bond

is when an atom is bonded to a more electronegative atom; the electrons of the bond are not shared equally. o Polarity is defined by δ+ or δ-.

amphipathic

it has a hydrophobic region and a hydrophilic region. • Phospholipids • Phospholipid bilayers can exist in a stable boundary between two aqueous compartments because they are amphipathic • Most membrane proteins

electrochemical gradient (concentration)

it is necessary for cells to maintain a negative internal charge, and so the cell must PUMP sodium ions against this and move them out of the cell.

capsule

jellylike outer coating of many prokaryotes

phosphodiester linkage

joins adjacent nucleotides. (Phosphate group that links the sugars of the two nucleotides). • The two free ends of the polymer are distinctly different, one end has a phosphate attached to a 5' carbon, and the other end has a hydroxyl group on a 3'end. - opposite bonds • 5'GATTCGATGGTTTA'3 - Specifies an amino acid sequence.

hypotonic

less nonpenetrating solutes water enters cell faster than it leave and cell will swell and lyse (burst) lower concentration of solutes helps maintain the cell's water balance

outer membrane

like the plasma membrane consists of a double layer of phospholipids

flagella

locomotion organelles of some bacteria.

oxidation

loss of electrons from one substance • Because oxygen is so electronegative, its one of the most potent of all oxidizing agents.

Leaves

major sites of photosynthesis. Leaves use veins to export sugar to nonphotosynthetic parts of the plants.

chemiosmosis

mechanism of ATP generation that occurs when energy is stored in form of a proton concentration gradient across a membrane

chemiosmosis

mechanism of ATP generation that occurs when energy is stored in form of a proton concentration gradient across a membrane couples electron transport to ATP synthesis refers to the movement of H+ ions across a membrane energy-coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the form of an H+ gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work. • Chloroplasts use chemiosmosis to generate ATP during photosynthesis; in these organelles, light drives both electron flows down an electron transport chain (ETC). • Prokaryotes generate H+ gradients across their plasma membranes. - They then tap the proton motive force not only to make ATP inside the cell but also to rotate their flagella and to pump nutrients and waste produces across the membrane

mRNA

messenger RNA • mRNA, interacts with cell's protein-synthesizing machinery to direct production of a polypeptide, which folds into all or part of a protein. • mRNA conveys genetic instructions for building proteins form the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Prokaryote cells (lack a nucleus) still us mRNA to do this. → information to other cellular equipment that can translate the coded information into amino acid sequences. transported to the cytoplasm via nuclear pores. Once an mRNA molecule reaches the cytoplasm, ribosomes translate the mRNA's genetic message to the primary structure of a specific polypeptide

substrate molecule

molecule with the phosphate group

hypertonic

more nonpenetrating solutes cell will lose water, shrivel, and die increase in salinity of a lake can kill animals there because it is too hypertonic for the animal cells there a higher concentration of solutes

diffusion

movement of particles of any substance that they spread out into the available space diffusion of a population can be directional simple diffusion is the net movement of substances from higher concentration to lower concentration occurs as a result of random and constant movement of all molecules "net" is the eventual result of the movement equilibrium is attained and molecules are uniformly distributed but continue to move randomly

plasmolysis

movement of water out of the cell by osmosis that results in the collapse of the cell plant cell with central vacuole causes the plant to wilt and can lead to plant death

intermembrane space

narrow area between inner and outer membrane

(-) ^_ G

net release of free energy exergonic *can* (may not) occur spontaneously *break down of glucose C6H12O6 +6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H20 (breakdown of glucose) indicates that the products of the chemical process store less energy than the reactants and that the reaction can happen spontaneously—without energy

peripheral proteins

non embedded in the lipid bilayer at all—appendages loosely bounded to the cytoskeletal fibers, or the ECM. cytoplasmic side of the plasma

cofactor

non-protein helpers for catalytic activity. • If the cofactor is an organic molecule that it is called a coenzyme

nucleolus

nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes; a nucleus has one or more nucleoli.

prometaphase

nuclear envelope fragments; microtubules attach to kinetochores

ammonia

o Ammonia (NH3) is a base when the unshared electron pair in nitrogen's valence shell attracts a hydrogen ion forms the solution, resulting in an ammonium ion (NH4+).

plasmodesmata

o Cells walls are perforated with Plasmodesmata, membrane lined channels filled with cytosol. o Plasma membranes of adjacent cells line the cannel of each Plasmodesmata and thus are continuous. o Water and small solutes can pass freely from cell to cell.

steroids

o Consists of four fused rings. o Cholesterol is crucial steroid in animals . estrogen and testosterone. o Cholesterol is synthesized in the liber and may also be obtained in the diet.

microtubules

o Constructed from the globular protein tubulin. o Tubulin is a dimer, a molecule made up of two subunits. o Tubulin dimer consist of two different polypeptides: • α-tubulin • β-tubulin o Microtubules grow in length by adding tubulin dimers, but can be disassembled and their tubulin used to build microtubules elsewhere. o Aids in the separation of chromosomes during cell division.

electron shell

o Electrons are found at different electron shells. Each with a characteristic average distance and energy level. Shells closer to the nucleus have lower potential energies, so shells furthest away have the highest potential energies. • Electrons can change shells but only by absorbing or loosing an amount of energy equal to the difference in potential energy between its position in the old shell and that in the new shell. (Absorbs energy→ moves to further out shell). When an electron looses energy it is released to the environment at heat.

sugars

o Glucose (C6H12O6) is the most common monosaccharide. o Trademarks of sugar: • Carbonyl group (C==O) • Hydroxyl group (--OH) o Carbonyl group can be in the end of the linear sugar (glucose). o Carbonyl group can be attached to an interior carbon, as in fructose. o Therefore, sugars are aldehydes or ketones o Glucose and sugars are vital for cellular respiration, when cells extract energy form glucose in a series of reactions that break down its molecules. o Carbon skeletons of sugars serve as raw material for the synthesis of other types of small organic molecules like amino acids. o Plants transport carbohydrates from leaves to roots and other nonphotosynthetic organism in the form of sucrose.

the synthesis and breakdown of polymers

o Polymers are broken down by enzymes, which are specialized macromolecules (usually proteins) that speed up chemical reactions. o Monomers are connected by a reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other, with the loss of a water molecule; this is known as dehydration reaction. o One monomer provides hydroxyl group (-OH), the other provides a hydrogen (-H). - Reaction is repeated as monomers are added to the chain one by one to form a polymer. o Bond between monomers is broken-- the addition of water molecules, with hydrogen from the water attaching to one monomer and the hydroxyl group attaching to the adjacent monomer. -Hydrolysis. o Monomers are then absorbed into the blood stream. Monomers form new polymers and perform specific functions in the body.

phospholipids

o Similar to triglycerides but only has two hydrocarbon fatty acid tails. o The third hydroxyl group of glycerol is joined to a phosphate group, which has a negative electrical charge in the cell. o Small molecules which are usually charge or polar can be linked to the phosphate group to form a variety of phospholipids. o When exposed to water, the phospholipids self assemble into a lipid bilayer to protect their fatty acid tails.

evolution of tolerance to toxic elements

o Some elements are lethal to organisms (humans and arsenic). o Some organisms like sunflowers are able to take up several heavy metals (zinc, lead etc) that are otherwise lethal because they have adapted to them through evolution.

electronegativity

o The attraction of a particular atom for the electrons of a covalent bond The more strongly it pulls shared electrons toward itself the more electronegative an atom is. • The more electronegative the atom, the more energy required to take an electron away from it.

electron distribution

o The first shell can only hold two electrons so hydrogen and helium are the only elements that only have one shell. H, He. o The second shell holds up to eight electrons. o The outermost shell contains valence electrons so it is called the valence shell. o Atoms with the same number of electrons in their valence shells exhibit similar chemical reactions. o An atom with a completed valence shell is unreactive. (inert)

covalent bond

o The sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms. • Two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds constitute a molecule.

hydroxide

o The water molecule that lost a proton is now a hydroxide ion (OH-)—this binds to other water molecules to create hydronium ion (H3O+).—Reversible reaction.

floating ice in water

o Water is less dense as a solid than a liquid so ice can float in water. o Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius, but begins to freeze at 4 degrees Celsius.

acids

o When an acid dissolves in water it contributes another H+ to the solution. while solutions with higher levels of hydronium ions are acids.

glycolysis

occurs in the cytosol begins the degradation process by breaking glucose into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate. • Pyruvate enters the mitochondrion and is oxidized to a compound called acetyl CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle or the Krebs cycle. There is a breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide. • Six carbon sugar glucose is split into two, 3 carbon sugars and then are oxidized and their remaining atoms rearranged to form two molecules of pyruvate. o Energy investment: cell spends ATP o Energy payment: repaid with interest during the energy payoff phase, when ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation and NAD+ is reduced to NADH by electrons released from the oxidation of glucose. • Net energy yield from glycolysis, per glucose molecule, is 2 ATP plus 2 NADH. • Bacteria, Achaea, and eukaryotic cells use this. • Occurs whether or not Oxygen is present. However, if oxygen is present, the chemical energy stored in pyruvate and NADH can be extracted by pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation

Cohension

occurs when the hydrogen's bonds hold the substance together. • Cohesion due to hydrogen bonding contributes to the transport of water and dissolved nutrients against gravity in plants. • Water from the roots reaches the leaves through a network of water conducting cells. As water evaporates form the leave, hydrogen bonds cause water molecules leaving the veins to tug on molecules further down, and the upward pull is transmitted through the water conducting cells all the way up.

R groups

of a few of the amino acids that make up the active site catalyze the conversion of substrate to produce, and the product departs form the active site.

Specific Heat

of a substance is defined as the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of the substance to change its temperature by 1 °C. Specific heat of water is 1 cal/g. °C can be thought of as a measure of how well a substance resists changing its temperature when it absorbs or releases heat. Water resists changing its temperature when it does change its temperature it absorbs or looses a relatively large quantity of heat for each degree of change

hydrocarbons

organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen. o Hydrocarbons are not prevalent in most living organisms, many of a cell's organic molecules have regions consisting of only carbon and hydrogen. o Fats have long hydrocarbon tails attached to a non hydrocarbon component. o Fat and petroleum are hydrophobic because their bonds are relatively nonpolar.

tugor pressure

osmotic pressure that develops when water enters the cells of plants and microorganisms is the healthy state for most plant cells o Turgid by a surrounding hypotonic solution. If plant's cells and their surroundings are isotonic, there is no net tendency for water to enter and the cells become flaccid

starch

other carbs like starch and glucose can be hydrolyzed to glucose sucrose can by hydrolyzed to glucose and fructose all end up being glucose or fructose and enter glycolytic cycle

Hemoglobin

oxygen binding protein of red blood cells. Consists of four polypeptide subunits. Two of one kind α and the other two kind β, both α and β consist mainly of an α-helical secondary structure. Each has a nonpolypeptide component; called heme, with an iron atom that binds oxygen.

anaerobic respiration

oxygen not present no electron acceptor exists to accept the electrons at the end of the electron transport chain = the NADH accumulates all the NAD+ has been converted to NADH, the Krebs Cycle and glycolysis both stop bc they need NAD+ to accept electrons = no new ATP is produced and the cell may die

integral protein

penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer. Majority are transmembrane proteins that span the entire membrane while other integral proteins may only extend part of the way into the hydrophobic interior. The hydrophobic regions of an integral protein consist of one or more stretches of nonpolar amino acids, usually coiled into an α-chain. extracellular side framework of animal cells stronger.

ATP synthase

phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP a channel protein in the inner membrane allows protons in the intermembrane space to flow back into the matrix to generate ATP

ATP synthase

phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP a channel protein in the inner membrane allows protons in the intermembrane space to flow back into the matrix to generate ATP ion pump running in reverse uses the energy of an existing ion gradient to power ATP synthesis. The power source for the ATP synthase is a difference in the concentration of H+ on opposite sides of the inner mitochondrial membrane.

phosphorylation

process of adding energy and inorganic phosphate to ADP to make ATP energy + P + ADP = ATP

respiration

process of extracting energy from those cars provide the free energy that allow cells to maintain order, minimize entropy, and remain alive

photosynthesis

process of incorporating energy from sunlight into carbs

oxidative phosphorylation process

process of producing ATP from NADH and FADH2 electrons from NAGH and FADH2 pass along an electron transport chain (etc)

photophosphorylation

process of using energy from light to generate ATP from ADP and P

photosynthesis

processThe process of photosynthesis nourishes almost of capturing free energy in sunlight and storing that energy in chemical bonds, especially glucose 6CO2 + 6H2O + light --> C6H12O6 + 6O2 the entire living world by converting light energy into chemical energy stored mostly in sugars. alga, unicellular organisms, eukaryotes & prokaryotes The oxygen given off by plants is derived from water carbon dioxide is reduced, water is oxidized electrons increase in potential energy as they move from water to sugar. the process is endergonic, and the energy boost is provided by light. reverse cellular respiration energy stored in chemical bonds by photosynthesis is extracted from those bonds by respiration to make ATP

Order of M Phase

prophase prometaphase metaphase anaphase telophase *Prior to prophase, chromosomes are so loosely organized in the nucleus that they cannot be seen individually

fluid mosaic model

protein molecules bobbing in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.

polypeptides

proteins are made up of polymers of amino acids. • Proteins are biologically functional molecules consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three-dimensional structure. Selective acceleration of chemical reactions. Digestive enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of bonds in food molecules. • Polypeptides are branched polymers. - use the same set of 20 amino acids. • Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence of amino acids. The end of the polypeptide has a free amino group, and a free carboxyl group so the polypeptide chain has an N terminus, and a C terminus. • Arrangement of polymer linking causes diverse sequences. • Polypeptide is not a protein • When a cell synthesizes a polypeptide, the chain generally folds spontaneously, assuming the functional structure for that protein.

channel proteins

proteins function by having a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel through the membrane.

Electron transport chain

proteins in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast that pass electrons from one carrier protein to the next same as the one in the mitochondrial matrix in oxidative phophorylation

Electron transport chain

proteins in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast that pass electrons from one carrier protein to the next same as the one in the mitochondrial matrix in oxidative phophorylation • Bound to the multiprotein complexes are prosthetic groups, non-protein components essential for the catalytic functions of certain enzymes • During electron transport along the chain, electron carriers alternate between reduced and oxidized states as they accept and donate electrons. Each component of the chain becomes reduced when it accepts electrons form its "uphill" neighbor—lower affinity for electrons. • The last cytochrome of the chain, cyt a3 passes its electrons to oxygen, which is very electronegative. Each oxygen atom picks up a pair of hydrogen ions from the aqueous solution thus forming water

Electron transport chain

proteins that pass electrons from one carrier protein to another

channel proteins

provide corridors that allow specific molecules or ions to cross the membrane. • They hydrophilic passageways provided by these proteins can allow water molecules or small ions to diffuse very quickly from one side of the membrane to the other.

cristae

provide space for thousands of copies of the chain in each mitochondrion

DNA

provides directions for its own replication, directs RNA synthesis, and controls protein synthesis through RNA. • DNA has the information that programs all cell activities, however it is not directly involved in running the operations of the cell. - Proteins are required to implement genetic programs. • Each gene along DNA molecule directs synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA). • DNA→RNA→protein • DNA resides in the nucleus o Deoxyribose (DNA)—Lacks an oxygen atom on the second carbon in the ring. Proteins can shorten the length of DNA by causing it to coil

pyrimidine

pyrimidine—one six membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms. o Cytosine DNA/RNA o Thymine DNA o Uracil RNA

lactic acid fermentation

pyruvate is converted into lactate (lactic acid) and NADH gives up its electrons to form NAD+ NAD+ now used for glycolysis mammals- most lactate is transported to the liver and coverted back to glucose when surplus ATP is available

magnification

ratio of an objects image size to its real size. Effectively magnify to about 1000 times the actual size.

receptor mediated endocytosis

receptor proteins bind to specific solutes, which triggers the formation of a vesicle; a type of pinocytosis specific molecules in the fluid surrounding the cell bind to a specialized receptor that concentrate in coated pits in the plasma membrane - receptors ligands fold inwars and the formation of the vesicle happens proteins transport cholesterol in blood (low density lipoproteins) and hormones target specific cells

competitive enzyme inhibitors

reduce the productivity of enzymes by blocking substrates form entering active sites. Can be overcome by increasing the concentration of substrate so that as active sites become available, more substrate molecules than inhibitor molecules are around to gain entry to sites.

Voltage

refers to a separation of opposite charges. The typical cell membrane carries a voltage because cells are usually negative with respect to their surroundings. (They have more negative ions inside than outside.) • All cells have voltages across their plasma membranes electrical potential energy membrane potential favors the passive transport of Cations into the cell and anions out of the cell.

chemical energy

refers to the potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction. • Biochemical pathways carried out in the context of cellular structures enable cells to release chemical energy from food molecules and use the energy to power life processes.

endomembrane system

regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell. includes the nuclear envelope, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, various kinds of vesicles and vacuoles, and the plasma membrane. • System carries out synthesis of proteins, transport of proteins into membranes and organelles or out of the cell, metabolism and movement of lipids, and detoxification of poisons. • Vesicles are sacs of membrane.

Temperature

represents the average kinetic energy of the molecules, regardless of volume.

trace elements

required by an organism in small ways. • Iron (Fe) is needed by all forms of life. • 0.15 milligrams are all that is needed for normal activity of the human thyroid. • Iodine deficiency causes goiters- abnormal growth of the thyroid.

energy

required to do work

active transport

requires energy and occurs UP the gradient movement of solutes against gradient requires energy (ATP) transport proteins in plasma membrane transfer solutes like small ions, aminos, monosaccharides across the membrane dos not result from random movement moves specific solutes across a membrane from lower to higher concentration • One way ATP can power active transport is by transferring its terminal phosphate group directly to the transport protein. • Can cause proteins to change shapes in a manner that translocate a solute bound to the protein across the membrane. - Sodium potassium pump that exchanges Na+ ions for K+ ions.

cell wall

s created by materials carried in the vesicles.

visible spectrum

segment of the electromagnetic spectrum from 380 nm to 750 nm

lipid bilayer

selectively permeable meaning that is allows some substances to cross but not others.

carbohydrates

serve as fuel and building material include sugars and polymers of sugars.

cell cycle control system

set of molecules that trigger and coordinate events in the cell cycle

chloroplast

sites where both the light- dependent and light-independent reactions of photosynthesis occur

Na+ and a cell

sodium's (Na+) electrical gradient & sodium's (Na+) chemical gradient go into the cell because cell is negative inside

fats

storage molecules for energy so they can be sources of free energy too glycerol and fatty acids are obtained from fats by hydrolysis or the digestion of fats that are eaten enzymatic conversions - glycerol enters glycolysis and fatty acids enter the Krebs cycle (as acetyl CoA)

nucleic Acids

store, transmit, and help express hereditary information • A discrete unit of inheritance known as a gene programs the sequence of a polypeptide. • Genes consist of DNA, part of the nucleic acid family • Two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid, and ribonucleic acid (DNA and RNA). • DNA and RNA are macromolecules that exist as polymers called polynucleotides. • Each polynucleotide consists of monomers called nucleotides.

potential energy

stored energy, such as that in the chemical bond or in something elevated in a gravitational field

potential energy

stored energy, such as that in the chemical bond or in something elevated in a gravitational field not kinetic - matter possesses this energy because of its location or structure.

rough ER

studded with ribosomes on the outer surface of the membrane and thus appears rough through the electron microscope o As a polypeptide chain grows from a bound ribosome, the gain is threaded into the ER lumen through a pore formed by a protein complex in the ER membrane. o ER lumen folds the protein into its functional shape. o Glycoproteins are proteins hat have carbohydrates covalently bonded to them. They are attached do to the enzymes built into the ER membrane. o Secretory proteins depart from the ER wrapped in membranes of vesicles that bud like bubbles from the transitional ER. Vesicles in transit form one part of the cell to another are called transport vesicles. o Make membrane phospholipids, enzymes built into the ER membrane assemble phospholipids.

compound

substance consisting of two of more different elements combined in a fixed ratio H2O 2:1

weak interactions

such as hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds hold substrate in place.

Smooth ER

surface lacks ribosomes o Diverse metabolic processes vary with cell type. Include synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of drugs and poisons, and storage of calcium ions. o Enzymes are important to the synthesis of lipids, including oils, phospholipids, and steroids. o Help detoxify drugs and poisons especially in liver cells. o Detoxification includes adding hydroxyl groups to drug molecules, making them more soluble and easier to flush form the body. o Barbiturates, alcohol, and many other drugs induce the proliferation of smooth ER and its associated detoxification enzymes, thus increasing the detoxification. Increases tolerance to drugs. o Smooth ER stores calcium ions. Pumps calcium ions from the cytosol into the ER lumen.

heterotrophs

survive by consuming compounds produced by other organisms. They are nature's consumers. Decomposers are heterotrophs and feed on the remains of dead organisms and organic wastes.

free ribosomes

suspended in the cytosol. Most proteins made by free ribosomes function within the cytosol. Enzymes that catalyze the first steps of sugar break down.

cell lysis

swelling causes the cell to burst animal cells and cells without a cell wall when water moves into the cell, the volume increases and the cell expands

calvin cycle summary

takes CO2 from atmosphere and energy in ATP and NADPH to create glucose. energy in ATP and NADPH represents energy from sun captured during photophosphorylation 6CO2 +18ATP +12 NADPH --> 18 ADP + 12 NADP+ + 1 GLUCOSE

Energy

the capacity to cause change—for instance, by doing work.

endocytosis

the cell takes in molecules by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane capture the substance outside the cell and plasma membrane merges to engulf it enters cytoplasm

chromatin

the complex of DNA and proteins that are packed together into chromosomes

potential energy

the energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure. • An electron looses potential energy when it shifts form a less electronegative atom toward a more electronegative one, just as a ball loses potential energy when it rolls downhill.

organelles

the membrane-enclosed structures within eukaryotic cells absent in prokaryotic cells

diffusion

the movement of particles of any substance so that they tend to spread out into the available space • Diffusion of a population of molecules may be directional • In the absence of other forces, a substance will diffuse from where it is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated spontaneous • No input of energy required.

solvent

the movement that is being described water

endosymbiont theory

the original chloroplasts was a photosynthetic prokaryote that lived inside an ancestor of eukaryotic cells.

tertiary structure

the overall shape of a polypeptide resulting from interactions between the side chains (R Groups) of the various amino acids. o Hydrophobic interaction—as a polypeptide folds into functional shape, amino acids with hydrophobic (nonpolar) side chains usually end up in clusters at the core of the protein. o Hydrophobic interaction caused by the exclusion of nonpolar substances. o Van der Waals interactions hold them together while hydrogen bonds between polar side chins and ionic bonds between positively and negatively charged side chains also help stabilize tertiary structure. o Disulfide bridges

chemical equilibrium

the point at which the reactions offset one another exactly.

transport work

the pumping of substances across membranes against the direction of spontaneous movement

primary structure

the sequence of amino acids. o Made up of four identical polypeptide chains each composed of 127 amino acids. o If left to chance there would be 20127 different ways of making a polypeptide chain that is 127 amino acids long. o Primary structure of the protein is determined by inherited genetic information. o The primary structure dictate's secondary and tertiary structure, due to the chemical nature of the backbone and the R groups of the amino acids along the polypeptide. o Dictates secondary and tertiary structure, due to the chemical nature of the backbone and the R groups of the amino acids along the polypeptide.

solute

the substance dissovled in water

Heat

the transfer of thermal energy from one body of matter to another. • Heat speeds up a reaction by allowing reactants to attain the transition state more often, but this wouldn't work because heat causes proteins to denature, and heat would speed up all reactions rather than just the ones that are needed.

energy coupling

the use of exergonic process to drive an endergonic one. ATP mediates most energy coupling.

junctions

tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions

first law of thermodynamics

total amount of energy in the universe remains contant energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be converted from one form to another *kinetic and potential energy

van Niel's hypothesis

tracing oxygen through photosynthesis. In order to follow oxygen atoms, they used oxygen-18, a heavy isotope , as a tracer.

telophase

two daughter nuclei form; chromosomes decondense

autophagy

using hydrolytic enzymes to recycle cells own organic material. • In Tay-Sachs disease, a lipid digesting enzyme is missing or inactive and the brain becomes impaired by an accumulation of lipids in the cells. lysosome

frequency of cell division

varies with the type of cell. For example, human skin cells divide frequently, while liver cells divide very rarely. Nerve and muscle cells do not divide at all.

Light Microscope

visible light passed though the specimen and then though glass lenses. Lenses refract the light in such a way that the image of the specimen is magnified as it is projected into the eye of into a camera.

free water concentration

water diffuses across membrane from region of lower solute concentration: (higher free water concentration) to that of the higher solute concentration: (lower free water concentration) until solute concentrations of both sides are equal

light reaction

water is split • solar energy is converted to chemical energy • O2 is released as a byproduct • NADP+ is reduced to NADPH • ATP is generated by chemiosmosis during photophorphorylation noncyclic/cyclic photophosphorylation - use H20 and sunlight energy to generate ATP, NADPH and O2

Krebs Cycle/ citric acid cycle

what happens to pyruvate multiply products of Krebs by 2 to account for the products of a single glucose 1. Pyruvate to acetyl CoA: step leading up to Krebs, pyruvate combines with CoA to produce acetyl CoA, 1 NADH and 1 CO2 produced 2. Krebs Cycle: 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP are made 2 CO2 are released (exhale) acetyl CoA combines with OAA (oxaloacetate) to form citrate, 7 intermediate products

substrate level phosphorylation

when a phosphate group and its associated energy are transferred to ADP to form ATP the substrate molecule donates the high energy phosphate group *glycolysis

substrate level phosphorylation

when a phosphate group and its associated energy are transferred to ADP to form ATP the substrate molecule donates the high energy phosphate group *glycolysis this method of ATP synthesis occurs when an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ADP 2 net ATP from glycolysis and 2 ATP from the citric acid cycle.

oxidative phosphorylation

when a phosphate group is adde to ADP to form ATP but the energy for the bond does not accompany the phosphate group electrons give up energy for generating ATP during each step of a process - electrons are transferred from one molecule (electron carrier) to another in a chain in reactions

oxidative phosphorylation

when a phosphate group is adde to ADP to form ATP but the energy for the bond does not accompany the phosphate group electrons give up energy for generating ATP during each step of a process - electrons are transferred from one molecule (electron carrier) to another in a chain in reactions uses energy released by the electron transport chain to power ATP synthesis.

second law of thermodynamics

when energy is converted from one form to another, some energy is "lost" - means that not all the energy gets passed from one usable form to another, some of the energy becomes unusable or unable to do work energy is in the form of HEAT as additional energy conservations occur, more energy becomes unusable, things become unorganized, and disorder increases = ENTROPY increases in the universe

chemiosmosis in chloroplasts

when energy is stored in form of a proton concentration gradient across the membrane (like ATP generation in mitochondria) 1. H+ protons accumulate inside thylakoids: H+ are released into the inside space aka lumen of thylakoids when water is split by PS2, H+ are carried from stroma into lumen by cytochrome in ETC between PS2 and PS1 2. pH and electrical gradient across the thylakoid membrane is created: as H+ accumulate inside thylakoid, pH decreases, H+ come from outside the thylakoids (stroma) and the H+ concentration decreases in the stroma and its pH increases. = pH gradient with differences in concentration of H+ from a stroma pH 8 to thylakoid pH5, inside the thylakoid makes electric gradient (positive) 3. ATP synthase generates ATP: pH and electrical gradient represent potential energy 4. Calvin cycle produces G3P using NADPH, CO2 and ATP: at end of ETC after PS1 electrons combine with NADP+ and H+ to make NADPH. 2 G3P are made to make glucose or other carbs

aerobic respiration

when oxygen is available to generate ATP glycolysis krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) oxidative phosphorylation

aerobic respiration

when oxygen is available to generate ATP glycolysis krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) oxidative phosphorylation in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel.

anaerobic respiration

when oxygen is not available alcohol fermentation lactic acid fermentation

anaerobic respiration

when oxygen is not available alcohol fermentation lactic acid fermentation • Some prokaryotes use substances instead of oxygen other than oxygen as reactants in a similar process that harvests chemical energy without oxygen

osmotic pressure

when water moves into a body by osmosis this builds up in the body

meiosis

which produces sperm and egg cells Gametes are produced by meiosis , which produces nonidentical chromosomes with just one set of chromosomes.

spontaneous reaction

without input of energy energetically favored. • A process is spontaneous and can preform work only when it is moving toward equilibrium.

cholesterol in membrane

• 37° C, body temperatures, cholesterol makes the membrane less fluid by restraining phospholipid movement. Cholesterol also hinders close packing of phospholipids, and lowers the temperature required for membrane to solidify. Cholesterol helps membranes resist changes in fluidity when the temperature change

protein process

• A cell synthesizes a polypeptide→a chain folding spontaneously→functional structure.

fluidity of membranes

• A membrane is held together primarily by hydrophobic interactions, much weaker than covalent bonds. Proteins and lipids can move laterally. Proteins move more slowly, but phospholipid movement is rapid movement of membrane proteins seems to be directed—they seem to move along cytoskeletal fibers by motor proteins, or held in place by attachment to the cytoskeletal fibers and or the ECM

peptide backbone

• A repeating sequence of atoms

Cell Fractionation

• A technique for studying cell structure and function • Broken up cells are placed in a tube that is spun in a centrifuge. Resulting force causes the largest cell components to settle to the bottom of the tube, forming a pellet. • Liquid above the pellet is poured into a new tube an centrifuged at a higher speed for a longer time. • Series of pellets consists of nuclei, mitochondria, pieces of membrane and ribosomes. • Enables researchers to prepare specific cell components in bulk and identify their functions.

amino acids

• All amino acids share a common structure. an organic molecule with an amino group and a carboxyl group. o Center has an alpha carbon. o A carboxyl group. o Hydrogen atom. o Variable group (R). o Amino Acid group.

pyruvate

• All of the carbon originally present in glucose is accounted for in the two molecules of pyruvate; no carbon is released as CO2 during glycolysis. • Six carbon sugar glucose is split into two, 3 carbon sugars • Most of the energy • If molecular oxygen is present, the pyruvate enters a mitochondrion where the oxidation of glucose is completed. • Once inside the mitochondrion, pyruvate undergoes a series of enzymatic reactions that remove CO2 and oxidizes the remaining fragment, forming NADH from NAD+. • Product is a highly reactive compound called acetyl coenzyme A, or acytl CoA.

Sickle-Cell Disease

• An inherited blood disorder, caused by the substitution of one amino acid (valine) for the normal one (glutamic acid) at a particular position in the polypeptide chain. • Sickle cell crisis—when the sickle cells block a small blood vessel. • Beta sub unit changes. In normal hemoglobin the molecules do not associate with one another and each carries oxygen, but in sickle cell hemoglobin, molecules interact with one another and crystallize into a fiber; capacity to carry oxygen is greatly reduced.

saturated

• At some point, the concentration of the substrate will be high enough that all enzyme molecules have their active sites engaged. As soon as the product exists an active site, another substrate molecule enters. —rate of reaction is determined by the speed at which the active site converts substrate to product

Denature of protein

• Can become denatured if proteins are transferred form an aqueous environment to a nonpolar solvent like chloroform; polypeptide chain refolds so that its hydrophobic regions face outward toward the solvent. • Can become denatured due to chemicals that disrupt hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and disulfide bridges. • Can become denatured form excessive heat that agitates the polypeptide chain enough to over power the weak interactions that stabilize the structure.

Radioactive tracers

• Certain kidney disorders can be diagnosed by injecting small doses of substances containing radioactive isotopes into the blood and then measuring the amount of tracer excreted in the urine. • PET Scans- Positron Emission Tomography scan - detects elevated level of radioactively labeled glucose, which in turn indicates the presence of cancerous tissue. • They can also be damaging to cellular molecules.

carrier protein

• Changes in shape may be triggered by the binding and release of the transported molecule carrier proteins involved in facilitated diffusion result in the net movement of a substance down its concentration gradient. No energy input is required: passive transport.

extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells

• Composed of glycoproteins and other carbohydrate containing molecules secreted by cells. • Some cells are attached to the ECM-by-ECM glycoproteins • Thus ECM can regulate cell behavior. ECM proteins bind to cell surface receptor proteins called integrins built into the plasma membrane.

methane

• Covalent electrons in CH4 are shared equally between the bonded atoms because carbon and hydrogen have about the same affinity for valence electrons; they are about equally electronegative. But when methane reacts with oxygen, forming carbon dioxide, electrons end up shared less equally between the carbon atom and its new covalent partners, the oxygen atoms, which are very electronegative.

Complex I ETC

• During electron transport along the chain, electron carriers alternate between reduced and oxidized states as they accept and donate electrons. Each component of the chain becomes reduced when it accepts electrons form its "uphill" neighbor—lower affinity for electrons.

dyneins

• Dynein protein has two feet that walk along the microtubule of the adjacent doublet using ATP for energy.

nitrogenous bases

• Each nitrogenous base has one or two rings that include nitrogen atoms—they are called nitrogenous bases because the nitrogen atoms tend to take up H+ from solution, thus acting as bases). • Sugar connects to the nitrogenous base

enzymes in cellulose

• Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing its alpha linkages are unable to hydrolyze the beta linkages of cellulose because of the distinctly different shapes of these two molecules.

chemical reaction

• Every chemical reaction between molecules involves both bond breaking and bond forming. • Changing one molecule into another generally involves contorting the starting molecule into a highly unstable state before the reaction can proceed. To reach the contorted state where bonds can change, reactant molecules must absorb energy from their surroundings.

Complex 2 ETC

• FADH2 adds its electrons to the electron transport chain from within complex II, at lower energy than NADH does. • Although NADH and FADH2 each donate an equivalent number of electrons (2) for oxygen reduction, the electron transport chain provides about one third less energy for ATP synthesis when the electron donor is FADH2 rather than NADH. • Electron transport chain makes no ATP directly.

evaporative cooling

• Heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g of it to become converted from the liquid to the gaseous state. • Evaporative cooling occurs because the hottest molecules, those with the greatest kinetic energy, are the ones most likely to leave as gas.

Valence electrons of organic compounds

• Hydrogen has one valence electrons • Oxygen has two valence electrons • Nitrogen has three valence electrons • Carbon has four valence electrons

alpha and beta

• Hydroxyl group attached to the number 1 carbon is positioned either below or above the plane of the ring. These two ring forms for glucose are called alpha (α) and beta (β). • All glucose monomers are in the alpha configuration, while all glucose monomers of cellulose are all in the beta configuration, making every glucose monomer "upside down" with respect to its neighbors.

centrosomes and centrioles

• In animal cells, microtubules grow out form a centrosome, a region that is often located near the nucleus and is considered a microtubule-organizing center. • Centrioles are within the centrosome. Each composed of nine sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring.

nucleus

• In eukaryotic cells DNA and genetic material are found within a double membrane organelle • Contains most of the genes in the eukaryotic cell. It is generally the most conspicuous organelle in a eukaryotic cell, averaging about 5 micrometers in diameter. typical human cell has 46 chromosomes in the nucleus • Eggs and sperm only have 23 chromosomes—sex cells

Fundamental Unit of Life

• In the hierarchy of biological organization, the cell is the simplest collection of matter that can be alive. • The cell remains the organism's basic unit of structure and function.

cytosol

• Inside all cells in a semifluid jelly like substance which subcellular components are suspended.

protein structure

• Many proteins are roughly spherical (globular proteins), while others are shaped like long fibers (fibrous proteins). • Protein structure depends on the ability to recognize and bind to some other molecule. o Shape between an antibody and the particular foreign substance on a flu virus that the antibody binds to and marks for destruction. o Endorphin molecules or morphine molecules fit into receptor molecules on the surface of neurons. • Function of a protein is an emergent property resulting from exquisite molecular order. • Spontaneously arranges itself into a three-dimensional shape determined and maintained by the interactions responsible for secondary and tertiary structure. • Protein structure depends on physical and chemical conditions of the proteins environment. • If pH, salt concentration, temperature, or other aspects of environment are altered- weak chemical bonds and interactions may be destroyed causing the protein to unravel and lose its shape—denaturation. → Biologically inactive protein. • Can become denatured

glycolipids

• Membrane carbohydrates are usually short and branched. Some are covalently bonded to lipids

Temperature on membranes

• Membrane remains fluid as temperature decreases until finally the phospholipids settle into a closely packed arrangement and the membrane solidifies. • The temperature at which a membrane solidifies depends on what kind of lipid it is composed of. • Membrane remains fluid to a lower temperature if it is rich in phospholipids with unsaturated hydrocarbon tails. • Kinks in the tails where double bonds are located, unsaturated hydrocarbon tails cannot pack together as closely as saturated hydrocarbon tails—makes the membrane more fluid

microfilaments/actin filaments

• Microfilaments are thin solid rods built from molecules of actin, which is a globular protein. • Actin subunits, alpha and beta polypeptide chains. • Structural role of microfilaments in the cytoskeleton is to bear tension. • Helps support the cells shape. • Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of microvilli. • Actin and myosin work together to cause contraction of muscle cells.

carbon skeletons

• Molecular diversity arising from variation in carbon skeletons o Carbon changes form the skeletons of most organic molecules. o Some carbon skeletons have double bonds. o Variation in carbon skeletons is one important source of the molecular complexity and diversity that characterize living matter.

hydrogen molecule

• Molecular formula: H2 • Structural formula: H—H (line represents a single bond) participating in a hydrogen bond between two water molecules shifts from one molecule to the other. When this happens the hydrogen atom leaves the electron behind, and what is actually transferred is a hydrogen ion (H+).

protein folding in a cell

• Most proteins go through several intermediate structure son their way to a stable shape, and looking at the mature structure does not reveal the stages of folding required to achieve that form. • X-ray crystallography is the most commonly used method to determine the 3-D shape of a protein. It depends on the diffraction of an x-ray beam by the atoms of a crystallized molecule. • Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy and bioinformatics are complementary approaches to understanding protein structure and function.

intermediate filaments

• Named for their diameter which is larger than that of microfilaments but smaller than that of microtubules. • Bears tension. • Reinforces the shape of a cell and fixing the position of certain organelles.

permeability

• Nonpolar molecules like hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, and oxygen, are hydrophobic and can therefore dissolve in the lipid bilayer of the membrane and cross it easily without the aid of membrane proteins • Hydrophobic interior of the membrane impedes direct passage of ions and polar molecules, which are hydrophilic through the membrane. Glucose and other sugars pass only slowly through a lipid bilayer

Lipids

• Not big enough to be considered macromolecules. • Lipids are grouped together because they share one important trait—poorly mixing with water. • Hydrophobic behavior due to their molecular structure. • Lipids mostly have hydrocarbon regions. • Fats, phospholipids and steroids.

nucleotides

• Nucleic acids are polymers made of monomers • Nucleotides have three parts:] o Nitrogen containing (nitrogenous) base. o Five carbon sugar (pentose) o One or more phosphate groups • Each monomer has only one phosphate group. • The nucleotide is completed with a phosphate group is attached to the 5' carbon of the sugar.

storage polysaccharides

• Plants store starch, a polymer of glucose monomers, as granules within cells. • Through synthesizing starch, plants can store extra glucose. • Sugar can later be withdrawn through hydrolysis. • Most animals including humans have enzymes that can hydrolyze plant starch, making glucose available as nutrient for cells. • 1-4 linkages (number 1 carbon to number 4 carbon). Simplest form of starch amylose. • 1-6 linkages (number 1 carbon to number 6 carbon), branched polymer. Amylopectin. • Animals store glycogen—like amylopectin but more branched. • Hydrolysis of glycogen releases glucose when the demand for sugars increase.

nucleoside

• Portion of a nucleotide without any phosphate groups

exergonic

• Proceeds with a net release of free energy. • Chemical mixture loses free energy (G decreases). • G is negative. • Spontaneous reactions. • Magnitude of G for an exergonic reaction represents the maximum amount of work that the reaction can preform. The greater the decrease in free energy, the grater the amount of work that can be done. • Breakdown of glucose

cilia

• Specialized arrangement of microtubules is responsible for the beating of flagella and cilia. locomotors appendages or can move fluid over the surfaces of tissues. • Ciliated lining of the trachea sweeps mucus-containing debris out of the lungs. • Motile cilia occur in large numbers on the cell surface. Flagella are limited to one or few per cell and are longer than cilia. • Cilium also acts as a signal-receiving antenna for the cell. motile cilium or flagellum has a group of microtubules sheathed in an extension of the plasma membrane. • Cilium and flagellum are anchored in the cell by a basal body

hydrolysis on work

• Specific enzymes can help the cell use the energy released by ATP hydrolysis • If ΔG of an endergonic reaction is less than the amount of energy released by ATP hydrolysis, then the two reactions can be coupled so that, overall, the coupled reactions are exergonic. can lead to the change in a protein's shape, and its ability to bind another molecule.

hydrophobic

• Substances that are nonionic and nonpolar actually seem to repel water

oxidative phosphorylation

• The energy released at each step of the chain is stored in a form of the mitochondrion can use to make ATP from ADP chemiosmosis and the ETC 90% of the ATP generated by respiration.

pH of cells

• The internal pH of most living cells is close to 7. • pH of human blood is close to 7.4, and is slightly basic. • When pH in the blood drops reaction proceeds to the left, with the bicarbonate (the base), removing the hydrogen ions from the solution and forming H2CO3.

temperature on enzymes

• The rate of an enzymatic reaction increase with increasing temperature, partly because substrates move rapidly. • Thermal agitation of the enzyme molecule disrupts the hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and other weak interactions that stabilize the active shape of the enzyme→denatures protein. • Each enzyme has its own optimal temperature and optimal pH

phosphorylated intermediate

• The recipient with the phosphate group covalently bonded to ATP More reactive (less stable) than the original phosphorylated molecule.

redox or oxidation reduction reactions

• The relocation of electrons releases energy stored in organic molecules, and this energy ultimately is used to synthesize ATP. • In many chemical reactions, there is a transfer of one or more electrons (e-) from one reactant to another. change the degree of electron sharing in covalent bonds

viscosity

• When saturated carbon tails pack together closely they increase the membranes viscosity.

Peptide Bond

• When two amino acids are positioned such that the carboxyl group is adjacent to the amino group of another amino acid, they can be joined through the dehydration reaction to form a covalent bond between amino acids

calvin cycle/ dark cycle

• carbon is fixed into organic compounds • fixed carbon is reduced • NADPH is oxidized to NADP+ • ATP is used an an energy source in the stroma of the chloroplast. anabolic building carbohydrates from smaller molecules and consuming energy. For the net synthesis of one G3P molecule, the Calvin cycle must take place 3 times. To generate a net gain of one G3P molecule, the Calvin cycle uses 9 ATPs and 6 NADPHs. In CAM plants, carbon fixation hands at night, while the Calvin cycle occurs during the day uses CO2 and energy from ATP and NADPH to make glucose electrons from PS1 are recycled and join with protein carriers and generate ATP as they pass along the electron transport chain, electrons are energized again, occurs simultaneously with light reactions to generate extra ATP. Two electrons = 1 ATP biosynthetic pathway produces a single glucose Calvin cycle must repeat 6 times and use 6 CO2 molecules

NAD+

•coenzyme Hydrogen atoms are not transferred directly to oxygen, but instead are usually passed first to an electron carrier, a coenzyme called NAD+ • NAD+ is well suited as an electron carrier because it can cycle easily between oxidized (NAD+) and reduced (NADH) states is most versatile electron acceptor in cellular respiration and functions in several of the redox steps during the breakdown of glucose.

Defensive Proteins

Protection against disease Antibodies inactivate and help destroy viruses and bacteria.

M phase

The cell divides during the M phase.

HeLa cells

The tumor cells collected from Henrietta Lacks in 1951 are still actively dividing

zygote

When a sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell, the result is a fertilized egg

element

a substance that cannot be further broken down to other substances by chemical reactions. • Currently 92 elements.

plastids

amyloplast, a colorless organelle that stores starch (amylose). Chromoplasts, pigments that give fruits and flowers their orange and yellow hues.

centrosomes

are regions in animal cells that organize the microtubules of the spindle.

chemical reactions

are reversible, with the products of the forward reaction being the reactants of the reverse reaction. • Reactants and Products.

endophins

are signaling molecules made by the pituitary that bind to receptors, relieving pain and producing euphoria during times of stress like during exercise.

monosaccharides

are simile sugars—composed of one monomer form which more complex carbohydrates can be constructed. generally have molecular formulas like CH2O.

mechanical work

beating of cilia, contraction of muscle cells, and the movement of chromosomes during cellular respiration.

activation energy

before most reactions required to contort or destabilize the reactants activation energy can be lowered by the presence of a catalyst (metal ion or enzyme)

activation energy

before most reactions required to contort or destabilize the reactants activation energy can be lowered by the presence of a catalyst (metal ion or enzyme) • Initial investment of energy supplied by heat in the form of thermal energy that the reactant molecules absorb form the surroundings. , activation energy is so high and the transition state is reached so rarely that the reaction will hardly proceed at all. In these cases, the reaction will occur at a noticeable rate only if the reactants are heated • Body temperature is not high enough to initiate burning of course. Instead if you swallow some glucose, enzymes in your cells will lower the barrier of activation energy, allowing the sugar to be oxidized.

catabolic pathways

break down complex molecules into simpler ones—cellular respiration. • Energy released from the downhill reactions of catabolic pathways can be stored and then used to drive the uphill reactions of anabolic pathways

proteins

can also be a source of free energy proteins eaten and converted into amino acids before they are absorbed into the bloodstream body proteins can by hydrolyzed to amino acids amino groups are stripped by animo acids then excreted as waste remainders are converted to various substances that enter intermediate steps of glycolysis or Krebs cycle • Proteins determine the cell's function

glycoprotein

carb covalently bonded to proteins and are called

cytochromes

carrier protein, nonprotein parts containing iron are proteins that carry electrons between ubiquinone and oxygen

chromosomes

carry genes in the form of DNA.

system

chemical reaction, cell, multicellular organism where energy conversions happen

system

chemical reaction, cell, multicellular organism where energy conversions happen is used to define the matter under study

metaphase

chromosomes align at the metaphase plate; centrosomes are at opposite poles of the cell

transformation

converts a normal cell to a cancer cell.

Disulfide bridge

covalent bonds that aid in the determination of the shape of a protein. They form where two cysteine monomers, which have sulfhydryl groups (--SH) on their side chains are brought closer together by the folding of the protein. Sulfur of one cysteine bonds to the sulfur of the second and the disulfide bridge (--S—S--) rivets parts of the protein together. (tertiary)

cleavage

cytokinesis occurs by this

elements

depend on the structure of its atoms

osmosis

diffusion of free water across selectively permeable membranes, whether artificial or cellular

cancer cells

do not show density-dependent inhibition or anchorage dependence. This reflects a derangement of the cell cycle no density-dependent inhibition no anchorage dependence stop dividing at random points in the cycle can divide indefinitely with a continual supply of nutrients avoid cues for apoptosis

outer membrane

double layer of phospholipids

nuclear envelope

double membrane enclosing the nucleus; perforated by pores; continuous with ER. encloses the nucleus separating its contents form the cytoplasm. a double membrane. Each lipid bilayer with associated proteins is separated by a space of 20-40 nanometers. Have pore structures. pore complex lines each pore and plays an important role in the cell by regulating the entry and exit of proteins and RNAs, as well as large complexes of macromolecules.

inner membrane

double phospholipid bilayer

Linear electron flow

electrons travel from PS II, down an ETC, to PS I, then reduce NAD+ to NADPH

gibbs free energy

energy in a system that is available for conversions the change in free energy that occurs as a result of a conversion = ^_G not all energy is available for chemical reaction because some of the energy will be lost as heat (entropy increases) ^_G can be negative or positive free energy is not changed by presence of catalyst for life to exist - need constant input of energy the energy is used to maintain order in opposition to the entropy that increases as a result of chem reactions without input of free energy, entropy increases, cells deteriorate, and die

gibbs free energy

energy in a system that is available for conversions the change in free energy that occurs as a result of a conversion = ^_G not all energy is available for chemical reaction because some of the energy will be lost as heat (entropy increases) ^_G can be negative or positive free energy is not changed by presence of catalyst for life to exist - need constant input of energy the energy is used to maintain order in opposition to the entropy that increases as a result of chem reactions without input of free energy, entropy increases, cells deteriorate, and die the portion of a system's energy that can preform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell. can be used to predict if particular process is energetically favorable. • At equilibrium, G is at its lowest possible value. • At equilibrium no work can be done. • Proteins, DNA, and other complex molecules of the cell are rich in free energy and have the potential to decompose spontaneously.

kinetic energy

energy of motion

closed system

energy transfers among specific items

dynamic equilibrium

equal concentration of molecules on each side

open system

exchanges of energy with the surroundings *living things and the earth, because they receive energy from sunlight

acetyl CoA

feed its acetyl group into the citric acid cycle for further oxidation

oxygen

has six electrons in its second electron shell and therefore needs 2 more electrons to complete its valence shell. Two oxygen atoms from a molecule by sharing two pairs of valence electrons. The atoms are thus joined by a double bond

Eukaryotic cells

have internal membranes that compartmentalize their function protists, fungi, animals, and plants , "true nucleus". larger = determines function • Logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism sets limits on cell size. • Extensive and elaborately arranged internal membranes dividing cell into compartments allowing for different local environments that facilitate specific metabolic functions, so incompatible processes can go on simultaneously in a single cell.

proteins

include a diversity of structures resulting in a wide range of functions. • Some proteins speed up chemical reactions while other play a role in defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, or structural support. • Tens of thousands of different proteins with specific structures and functions—proteins are the most structurally sophisticated molecules. They have a unique structure and function. A protein is a group of polypeptides grouped together.

anion

ion is negative (has more electrons

polymer

is a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds.

enzyme

is a macromolecule that acts as a catalyst, a chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction. • While enzyme and substrate are joined, the catalytic action of the enzyme converts the substrate to the product of the reaction • Enzymes can either catalyze forward or reverse reaction, depending on which direction has a negative ΔG. • Net effect is always in the direction of equilibrium

cellulose

is a major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells. • Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on Earth. Polymer of glucose with 1-4 glycosidic. Two slightly different ring structures for glucose. structural polysaccharide cellulose are all in the beta configuration, • Starch and glycogen molecules are largely helical, a cellulose molecule is straight. • Cellulose is never branched and some hydroxyl groups on its glucose monomers are free to hydrogen bond with the hydroxyls of other cellulose molecules lying parallel to it. • Microfibrils—parallel cellulose molecules are grouped. • Strong building material for plants. • Cellulose stimulates the lining of the digestive tract to promote mucus growth and aids in the smooth passage of food through the tract. • Some microorganisms can digest cellulose and break it down into glucose monomers. • Some fungi can digest cellulose and thereby help recycle chemical elements within earth's ecosystems.

atomic number

is the number of protons unique to that element. number of protons.

solute

is the substance dissolved.

intermembrane space

narrow area between the inner and outer membranes H+ ions (protons) are mostly here

(-) ^_ G

net release of free energy exergonic *can* (may not) occur spontaneously *break down of glucose C6H12O6 +6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H20 (breakdown of glucose)

Fats

o A fat is a constructed form two smaller molecule—glycerol and fatty acids.

fatty acid

o A fatty acid has a long carbon skeleton, usually 16-18 carbon atoms in length.—the last carbon at the end of the chain is a carboxyl group. o The chain itself is a hydrocarbon chain. Nonpolar C---H bonds. o Saturated and unsaturated fats depend on the structure of the hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids. o The hydrocarbon chains of their fatty acids lack double bonds, and their flexibility allows fat molecules to pack together tightly. o A gram of fat stores more than twice as much energy as a gram of polysaccharides.

acids and bases

o A hydrogen atom participating in a hydrogen bond between two water molecules shifts from one molecule to the other. When this happens the hydrogen atom leaves the electron behind, and what is actually transferred is a hydrogen ion (H+).

solution

o A liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of two substances

base

o A substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentrations of a solution is called a base. Some reduce the H+ concentrations o Solutions with higher levels of hydroxide ions are bases

moderation of temperature by water

o Absorbs heat for the air and then releasing stored heat to air that is cooler.

molecular shape and function

o Crucial in biology because it determines how biological molecules recognize and respond tot one another with specific. Biological molecules bind temporarily to each other by forming weak bonds, but this can happen only if their shapes are complementary.

diversity of polymers

o Differences between DNA and proteins. o Molecular differences between unrelated individuals are more extensive and those between species greater still. o Molecules are constructed from only 40-50 common monomers and some others that occur rarely. Building a huge variety of polymers from such a limited number of monomers is analogous to constructing hundreds of thousands of words from only 26 letters. o The key is arrangement—the particular linear sequence that the unites follow.

weak chemical bonds

o Hydrogen Bonds: • Non-covalent interaction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom.

Isotopes

o Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have more neutrons than other atoms of the same element. o Example- carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14, all have the same number of protons, but varying neutrons. However they will behave the same, or similarly in chemical reactions.

• Three parameters in microscopy

o Magnification Resolution Contrast

dehydration reaction.

o Monomers are connected by a reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other, with the loss of a water molecule

subatomic particles

o Neutrons, protons and electrons are o All atoms of a particular element have the same number of subatomic particles.

ionic bond

o Occurs when two atoms are so unequal in their attraction for valence electrons that the more electronegative atom strips an electron completely away from its partner. o Cations and anions attract each other to create ionic bonds. o Compounds formed by ionic bonds are called ionic compounds.

RNA

o Ribose (RNA)

hexoses

o Sugars with six carbons Glucose, fructose, and other sugars. o Sugars with pentoses have five carbons. o Sugars with three carbons it is a trioses. o CnH2nO o Trioses and pentoses are common as well.

change in free energy

o ΔG=ΔH-TΔS o ΔH is the change in enthalpy. o ΔS is the change is the system's entropy. o T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin (K).

alcohol fermentation

occurs in plants, fungi, yeast, and bacteria 1. pyruvate to acetaldehyde: 1 CO2 and 1 acetaldehyde are produced, CO2 formed is the course of carbonation in fermented drinks 2. Acetaldehyde to ethanol: energy in NADH is used to drive this reaction, releasing NAD+, each acetaldehyde = 1 ethanol is made and 1 NAD+ is produced goal of this pathway: freeing NAD+ to allow glycolysis to continue absence of O2 = all the NAD+ is bottled up in NADH because oxidative phosphorylation cannot accept the electrons of NADH without oxygen fermentation pathway = release some NAD+ for use by glycolysis = 2 ATP from glycolysis for each 2 converted pyruvate (better than 0 ATP)

binary fission

occurs in prokaryotes and unicellular eukaryotes. It is how these organisms reproduce

protein synthesis

occurs in ribosomes (eukaryotic cell ribosomes are in the cytoplasm).

proton pump

plants, fungi and bacteria use this more often

chemical bonds

result in atoms staying close together due to strong attractions. • The strongest chemical bonds are covalent bonds and ionic bonds.

thylakoids

stacked. Each stack is called a granum (plural grana). Fluid outside the thylakoids is the stroma, contains chloroplast DNA, and ribosomes as well as enzymes.