AP Chemistry First Semester

Rules of Octet

1. C, N, O, F always obey Octet; 2. B and Be can disobey Octet with a deficiency; 3. 3rd period elements can disobey Octet with excessive

Rules of Formal Charge

1. F.C.'s should be as close to 0 as possible; 2. Most negative F.C. should be on most electronegative element

Brass

Copper mixed with Zinc

Coulomb's Law

E=(2.31x10-19 Jnm)(q1xq2/r); q1 and q2= charges of ions; r=distance between nuclei

Change in Energy

E=KE+PE=q+w; q=heat; w=work

EPA

Electron Pair Arrangement

Endothermic vs. Exothermic

Endothermic reactions are those that absorb energy; Exothermic reactions release energy

Hess' Law

Energy change is constant in 1 step or many steps

Calorie

Energy to raise 1g of water 1C; 1cal=4.184J

Kinetic Molecular Theory

Gases are dimensionless points with no attraction for each other in constant straight line motion colliding with their container walls with 100% elasticity creating pressure.

Alkanes

General form; *C*n*H*2n+2

Phase Diagram

Graph to summarize conditions where different states of matter are stable

Disproportionation

a substance is reduced and oxidized in the same reaction

ABC...ABC stacking

creates Face Centered Cubic structure, closest packed cubic structure

EPA and Shape of 2 bonds and 2 lone pairs

tetrahedral and bent

EPA and Shape of 4 bonds and 0 lone pairs

tetrahedral and tetrahedral

EPA and Shape of 3 bonds and 1 lone pair

tetrahedral and trig. pyramidal

6 Strong Acids

HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4

Heat vs. Temperature

Heat is flow of energy due to temperature differences; Temperature is average KE of a substance

Change in Heat of Salt reactions

Heat of Sublimation+Ionization Energy+Bond Energy+Electron Affinity+Lattice Energy

Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous

Homo: uniform distribution; Hetero: uneven distribution

Surface Tension

Resistance in liquids to create new surfaces due to an imbalance of forces

Benzene

Ring of carbons with alternating double bonds and hydrogens on the outside

Saturated vs. Unsaturated

Saturated is all carbon atoms bonded to max number of hydrogens; Unsaturated is not

Unit Cell

Simplest repeating pattern in 3-D

Intersticial Space

Space inbetween atoms in a crystal

State of Matter past Critical Point

Supercritical fluid

Formation Reaction

Synthesis reaction with 1mol of product from standard state of elements

EPA and Shape of 3 bonds and 2 lone pairs

trig. bipyramidal and T-shape

EPA and Shape of 2 bonds and 3 lone pairs

trig. bipyramidal and linear

EPA and Shape of 4 bonds and 1 lone pair

trig. bipyramidal and seesaw

EPA and Shape of 5 bonds and 0 lone pairs

trig. bipyramidal and trig. bipyramidal

EPA and Shape of 2 bonds and 1 lone pair

trig. planar and bent

EPA and Shape of 3 bonds and 0 lone pairs

trig. planar and trig. planar

Bond Order

way to tell stability of molecule; should be above 0 is stable; (# of probonding electrons-# of antibonding electrons)/2=Bond Order

Valence Band vs. Conduction Band

Valence Band is probonding, Conduction is antibonding

VSEPR Theory

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory

Bohr's Equation

(-RxZ^2)/n^2; R=Rydberg Constant

Rydberg Constant

-2.178x10^-18 J

Electron Volt

1.6x10^-19 J=1eV

Equivalent amounts of pressure

101.325kPa; 760 torr; 760 mmHg; 1 atm

Orbital Filling Order

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p

Speed of Light

2.998x10^8 m/s

Planck's Constant

6.626x10^-34 Js

"R" value

8.31 J/molxK; .0821 Lxatm/molxK; 8.31 LxkPa/molxK; 62.4 LxmmHg/molxK

Aliphatic vs. Aromatic

Aliphatic do not contain benzene rings; Aromatic do

Cycloalkanes

Alkanes formed in a ring; *C*n*H*2n

Alkenes

Alkanes with a double bond; *C*n*H*2n

Alkynes

Alkanes with a triple bond; *C*n*H*2n-2

Arrhenius vs. Bronsted-Lowry definition of acids/bases

Arrhenius: Acids give H+, Bases give OH-; Bronsted-Lowry: Acids are proton donors, Bases are proton acceptors

Characteristics of Macromolecular Solids

Atoms held by covalent bonds; High melting point; noncondutive when molten; nonconductive when solid; insoluble; strongest

Octet Rule

Atoms must have 8 valence electrons while bonding

Allotropes

Crystalline Unit Cells with similar empirical formulas and different structures

Molar Mass Equation

DRT/P=M; "Throw dirt on a puddle, you get mud"

Svantis Arrhenius

Discovered Electrolytes

Linus Pauling

Discovered Electronegativity and made the table of Electronegativity values

Ionization Energy Equation

IEmol=1310kJ(Zeff^2/n^2)

General Zeff Periodic Trends

Increasing across row; Decreasing down column

Types of Solids

Ionic, Molecular, Macromolecular, Metallic

Characteristics of Ionic Solids

Ions held by ionic bonds; High melting point; conductive when molten; nonconductive when solid; often soluble; conductive when aqueous

Steel

Iron mixed with Carbon

Einstein's Photoelectric Effect Equation

KE=hv-w; E(photon)=work to eject proton +KE

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

London Dispersion Forces, Dipole-Dipole Attraction, Hydrogen Bonding; LDF and Dipole-Dipole are Van der Waals forces

Lv=C; E=hv; L=wavelength; v=frequency; C=speed of light; h=Planck's Constant

Lxv=C; H=hv; L=wavelength; v=frequency; C=speed of light; h=Planck's Constant

Reduction vs. Oxidation

Reduction is gaining e-'s; Oxidation is losing e-'s; LEO the lion goes GER; OIL RIG

Characteristics of Metallic Solids

Metallic atoms held by metallic bonds; High melting point; conductive when molten; conductive when solid; insoluble

Organic Compounds Prefixes in Order

Meth, eth, prop, but, pent, hex, hept, oct, non, dec

Characteristics of Molecular Solids

Molecules held by intermolecular forces; Low melting point; nonconductive when molten; nonconductive when solid; solubility depends on solvent "Like dissolves like"; generally nonconductive when aqueous; weakest

Nonpolar covalent vs. Polar covalent vs. Ionic

Nonpolar: 0.0 difference in electronegativity; Polar: 0.1-1.6 difference; Ionic: 1.7 or above difference

Coordination Number

Number of adjacent atoms next to a central atom in crystals

Hydrocarbons

Organic compounds made of only Carbon and Hydrogen

Van der Waal's Law

P(observed)=(nRT/V-nb)-(a(n/V)^2); a=strength of attractive forces; b=L/mol of gas; n=# of particles

Alkyl Radical

Remove one H from an alkane

Can see Waal's Law

P=(nRT)/(V-nb)-a(n/V)^2

Boyle's/Charles'/Gay-Lussac's Laws

PV=K; V/T=K; P/T=K

Ideal Gas Equation

PV=nRT; "Pivnert"

Magnetism

Paramagnetism is unpaired electrons; Diamagnetism is paired electrons; Ferromagnetism is unpaired electrons that line up (Fe, Ni, Co)

Probonding vs. Antibonding

Probonding is lower energy and probability distribution of electrons is inbetween atoms; Antibonding is more energy and probability distribution is either side of atoms

Rate of Diffusion

R1/R2=SQRT(M2/M1)

Aldehydes

Radical attached to a carboxyl (COH)

Phenyl

Radical of benzene

Alcohols

Radical with a hydroxyl (OH) on it

Amines

Radical(s) attached to an ammonia

Ketones

Radicals attached by a C double bonded to an O

Ethers

Radicals attached by an O

Dilution Equation

V1M1=V2M2

Root Mean Square Velocity

U=SQRT(3RT/MM)

Formal Charge

Used for finding most likely non-equivalent resonance structure; FC=# of valence electrons-# of lone pair electrons-.5(# of bonding electrons)

Rigid Structures in Solids

With order (crystalline) and without order (amorphous)

Mole Fractions

X(substance)=n(substance)/n(total)=P(subtance)/P(total)

Zeff vs. Zact

Zeff is how affected an electron is by the nucleus' pull; Zact is the actual pull on an electron by the nucleus

Malleability

ability for metal to be hammered into sheets

Ductility

ability for metal to be wrung into wires

Rectifier

allows current to travel in just one direction

AB...AB stacking

closest packed hexagonal structure

Hybridization

excitation of electrons from s orbitals into p orbitals

Semiconductors

have low conductivity due to gap between valence and conduction bands

Insulators

have too large of a gap between the valence and conduction bands to conduct electricity

EPA and Shape of 2 bonds and 0 lone pairs

linear and linear

Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

ln(vp1/vp2)=(-Hv/R)(1/T2-1/T1); R=8.31J/molxK

DeBroglie Equation

m=h/vL

Volatility

measure of a substance's ability to evaporate

Doped

mixed with

Alloy

mixture of elements with metallic properties

"Sea of Electrons"

molecular orbital in metallic solids, delocalized electrons

Molarity

moles of solute/volume of solution

EPA and Shape of 6 bonds and 0 lone pairs

octahedral and octahedral

EPA and Shape of 4 bonds and 2 lone pairs

octahedral and square planar

EPA and Shape of 5 bonds and 1 lone pair

octahedral and square pyramidal

Vapor Pressure

pressure of liquid vaporated at that temperature

Change in Heat Equation

q=mc(deltaT)

Viscosity

resistance of a liquid to flow

P-Type Semiconductors

semiconductors of a pure substance doped with a substance with fewer valence electrons

N-Type Semiconductors

semiconductors of a pure substance doped with a substance with greater valence electrons

sigma bonds vs. pi bonds

sigma bonds are direct connections between hybridized orbitals; pi bonds are indirect attractions between unhybridized parallel orbitals

Types of Hybridization

sp, sp2, sp3, dsp3, d2sp3