AP English--the Power of Language

ambiguity

1) a statement which has two or more possible meanings; (2) a statement whose meaning is unclear.

credulous

1. tending to believe something on little evidence 2. arising from or characterized by credulity: credulous beliefs.

imagery

A common term of variable meaning, imagery includes the "mental pictures" that readers experience with a passage of literature. It signifies all the sensory perceptions referred to in a poem, whether by literal description, allusion, simile, or metaphor.

eulogy

A formal expression of praise for someone who has recently died. Adjective: eulogistic

Chiasmus

A literary scheme in which the author introduces words or concepts in a particular order, then later repeats those terms or similar ones in reversed or backwards order. It involves taking parallelism and deliberately turning it inside out, creating a "crisscross" pattern. For example, consider the chiasmus that follows: "By day the frolic, and the dance by night." If we draw the words as a chart, the words form an "x" (hence the word's Greek etymology, from chi meaning "x")

period sentence

A periodic sentence is a stylistic device employed at the sentence level, described as one that is not complete grammatically or semantically before the final clause or phrase.

rhetorical question

A rhetorical question is asked just for effect or to lay emphasis on some point discussed when no real answer is expected. A rhetorical question may have an obvious answer but the questioner asks rhetorical questions to lay emphasis to the point. In literature, a rhetorical question is self-evident and used for style as an impressive persuasive device. Broadly speaking, a rhetorical question is asked when the questioner himself knows the answer already or an answer is not actually demanded. So, an answer is not expected from the audience. Such a question is used to emphasize a point or draw the audience's attention.

epistrophe

A rhetorical term for the repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses. Also known as epiphora.

Allusion

Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text. For instance, you make a literary allusion the moment you say, "I do not approve of this quixotic idea," Quixotic means stupid and impractical derived from Cervantes's "Don Quixote", a story of a foolish knight and his misadventures.

understatement

An understatement is a figure of speech employed by writers or speakers to intentionally make a situation seem less important than it really is.

anachronism

Anachronism is derived from a Greek word anachronous which means "against time". Therefore, an anachronism is an error of chronology or timeline in a literary piece. In other words, anything that is out of time and out of place is an anachronism. Anachronisms appear in literature, paintings etc. and it is fascinating to explore them. Generally, they are considered errors that occur due to lack of research. For example, if a painter paints a portrait of Aristotle and shows him wearing a wrist watch, it would be an example of anachronism, as we all are aware that wristwatches did not exist during Aristotle's time. Similarly, the presence of a wall clock in a stage setting that depicts the interior of a Roman fort is an anachronism.

Anastrophe

Anastrophe is a form of literary device wherein the order of the noun and the adjective in the sentence is exchanged. In standard parlance and writing the adjective comes before the noun but when one is employing an anastrophe the noun is followed by the adjective. This reversed order creates a dramatic impact and lends weight to the description offered by the adjective.

Antithesis

Antithesis, literal meaning opposite, is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect. Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel structures of the contrasted phrases or clauses, i.e. the structures of phrases and clauses are similar in order to draw the attention of the listeners or readers. For example: "Setting foot on the moon may be a small step for a man but a giant step for mankind." The use of contrasting ideas, "a small step" and "a giant step", in the sentence above emphasizes the significance of one of the biggest landmarks of human history.

Aphorism

Aphorism is a statement of truth or opinion expressed in a concise and witty manner. The term is often applied to philosophical, moral and literary principles. To qualify as an aphorism, it is necessary for a statement to contain a truth revealed in a terse manner. Aphoristic statements are quoted in writings as well as in our daily speech. The fact that they contain a truth gives them a universal acceptance. Scores of philosophers, politicians, writers, artists and sportsman and other individuals are remembered for their famous aphoristic statements. Aphorisms often come with a pinch of humor, which makes them more appealing to the masses. Proverbs, maxims, adages and clichés are different forms of aphoristic statements that gain prevalence from generation to generation and frequently appear in our day-to-day speech.

Asyndeton

Asyndeton is derived from a Greek word asyndeton which means unconnected. It is a stylistic device used in literature and poetry to intentionally eliminate conjunctions between the phrases and in the sentence, yet maintain the grammatical accuracy. This literary tool helps in reducing the indirect meaning of the phrase and presents it in a concise form. It started to be seen in Greek and Latin literature.

rhetorical triangle

Created by Aristotle 1. Subject-topic,content,subject matter 2. Persona- sender, role, voice, speaker, communicator 3. Audience- receiver of the communication, reader (The triangle shows that components of a rhetorical situation are interdependent on each other; connected) Rhetorical Purpose is in the middle of the the triangle

laudable

Deserving commendation; praiseworthy.

didactic

Didactic works often have morals to impart or are written to teach us something about religion, philosophy, history, or politics. Examples of didactic literature include Aesop's Fables. Didacticism is a term that refers to a particular philosophy in art and literature that emphasizes the idea that different forms of art and literature ought to convey information and instructions along with pleasure and entertainment. The word didactic is frequently used for those literary texts which are overloaded with informative or realistic matter and are marked by the omission of graceful and pleasing details. Didactic, therefore, becomes a derogatory term referring to the forms of literature that are ostentatiously dull and erudite. However, some literary texts are entertaining as well as didactic.

ellipsis

Ellipsis is a literary device that is used in narratives to omit some parts of a sentence or event, which gives the reader a chance to fill the gaps while acting or reading it out. It is usually written between the sentences as "...". Most films have ellipses to omit the sections of a story or event that are not of any significance within the narrative. Apart from being convenient, ellipsis also helps in advancing the story.

hyperbole

Hyperboles are exaggerations to create emphasis or effect. As a literary device, hyperbole is often used in poetry, and is frequently encountered in casual speech. An example of hyperbole is: "The bag weighed a ton."

Anaphora

In writing or speech, the deliberate repetition of the first part of the sentence in order to achieve an artistic effect is known as Anaphora.

metonymy

It is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely associated. We can come across examples of metonymy both from literature and in everyday life. England decides to keep check on immigration. (England refers to the government.) The suits were at meeting. (The suits stand for business people.) The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen refers to written words and sword to military force.) The Oval Office was busy in work. ("The Oval Office" is a metonymy as it stands for people at work in the office.) Let me give you a hand. (Hand means help.)

juxtaposition

Juxtaposition is a literary technique in which two or more ideas, places, characters and their actions are placed side by side in a narrative or a poem for the purpose of developing comparisons and contrasts.

litote

Litotes, derived from a Greek word meaning "simple", is a figure of speech which employs an understatement by using double negatives or, in other words, positive statement is expressed by negating its opposite expressions.

logos

Logos is a Greek word meaning logic. Logos is a literary device that can be defined as a statement, sentence or argument used to convince or persuade the targeted audience by employing reason or logic. In everyday life, arguments depend upon pathos and ethos besides logos. Logos mostly employs the utilization of inductive and deductive reasoning methods to be effective. There are many examples of logos in literature and in debates.

malapropism

Malapropism, from French mal a propos (inappropriate), is a use of an incorrect word in place of a similar sounding word that results in a nonsensical and humorous expression. The word malapropism comes from "Mrs. Malaprop", a character in Sheridan's comedy "The Rivals", who has a habit of replacing words with incorrect and absurd utterances producing a humorous effect. A miss-speech is considered malapropism when it sounds similar to the word it replaces but has an entirely different meaning.

contrived

Obviously planned or calculated; not spontaneous or natural; labored: a novel with a contrived ending.

parallel structure

Parallel structure is repetition of the same pattern of words or phrases within a sentence or passage to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance.

pathos

Pathos is a quality of an experience in life or a work of art that stirs up emotions of pity, sympathy and sorrow. Pathos can be expressed through words, pictures or even with gestures of the body. Pathos is an important tool of persuasion in arguments. Pathos is a method of convincing people with an argument drawn out through an emotional response. Analyzing examples of pathos, one would come to the conclusion that it differs from other "ingredients of persuasion" namely "Ethos" and "logos". Ethos means convincing others through the credibility of a persuader, while Logos is a method to convince others by employing logic and reason.

discernible

Perceptible, as by the faculty of vision or the intellect.

polysyndeton

Polysyndeton is a stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in order to achieve an artistic effect. Polysyndeton examples are found in literature and in day-to-day conversations. The term polysyndeton comes from a Greek word meaning "bound together". It makes use of coordinating conjunctions like "and", "or", "but" and "nor" (mostly and and or) which are used to join successive words, phrases or clauses in such a way that these conjunctions are even used where they might have been omitted. For example, in the sentence "We have ships and men and money and stores," the coordinating conjunction "and" is used in quick succession to join words occurring together. In a normal situation, the coordinating conjunction "and" is used to join the last two words of the list and the rest of the words in the list are separated or joined by a comma.

rhetoric

Rhetoric is a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in spoken or written form. It is an art of discourse, which studies and employs various methods to convince, influence or please an audience.

occasion

SOAPSTone the time and place of the piece; the context that promoted the writing

SOPSTone

SOAPSTone (Speaker, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Subject, Tone) is an acronym for a series of questions that students must first ask themselves, and then answer, as they begin to plan their compositions. Who is the Speaker? The voice that tells the story. Before students begin to write, they must decide whose voice is going to be heard. Whether this voice belongs to a fictional character or to the writers themselves, students should determine how to insert and develop those attributes of the speaker that will influence the perceived meaning of the piece. What is the Occasion? The time and the place of the piece; the context that prompted the writing. Writing does not occur in a vacuum. All writers are influenced by the larger occasion: an environment of ideas, attitudes, and emotions that swirl around a broad issue. Then there is the immediate occasion: an event or situation that catches the writer's attention and triggers a response. Who is the Audience? The group of readers to whom this piece is directed. As they begin to write, students must determine who the audience is that they intend to address. It may be one person or a specific group. This choice of audience will affect how and why students write a particular text. What is the Purpose? The reason behind the text. Students need to consider the purpose of the text in order to develop the thesis or the argument and its logic. They should ask themselves, "What do I want my audience to think or do as a result of reading my text?" What is the Subject? Students should be able to state the subject in a few words or phrases. This step helps them to focus on the intended task throughout the writing process. What is the Tone? The attitude of the author. The spoken word can convey the speaker's attitude and thus help to impart meaning through tone of voice. With the written word, it is tone that extends meaning beyond the literal, and students must learn to convey this tone in their diction (choice of words), syntax (sentence construction), and imagery (metaphors, similes, and other types of figurative language). The ability to manage tone is one of the best indicators of a sophisticated writer.

satire

Satire is a technique employed by writers to expose and criticize foolishness and corruption of an individual or a society by using humor, irony, exaggeration or ridicule. It intends to improve humanity by criticizing its follies and foibles. A writer in a satire uses fictional characters, which stand for real people, to expose and condemn their corruption. A writer may point a satire toward a person, a country or even the entire world. Usually, a satire is a comical piece of writing which makes fun of an individual or a society to expose its stupidity and shortcomings. In addition, he hopes that those he criticizes will improve their characters by overcoming their weaknesses.

subject

Students should be able to state the subject in a few words or phrases. This step helps them to focus on the intended task throughout the writing process.

syllogism

Syllogism is a rhetorical device that starts an argument with a reference to something general and from this it draws conclusion about something more specific. Let us try to understand the concept with the help of an example. We start with a general argument "All men are mortal," we know that "John is a man" so "John is mortal." It is a deductive approach to reason and is based on deducing specific conclusions from general facts. We notice in the above example that Syllogism is a three-part set of statements; a major statement or premise, a minor statement or premise and a conclusion that is deduced. Therefore, "All men are mortal" is a major statement or premise which stands as a general fact. "John is a man" is minor statement or premise that is specific and "John is mortal" is the logical conclusion deduced from the two prior statements.

synecdoche

Synecdoche is a literary device in which a part of something represents the whole or it may use a whole to represent a part. Synecdoche may also use larger groups to refer to smaller groups or vice versa. It may also call a thing by the name of the material it is made of or it may refer to a thing in a container or packing by the name of that container or packing.

syntax

Syntax is a set of rules in a language. It dictates how words from different parts of speech are put together in order to convey a complete thought.

Connotation

The extra tinge or taint of meaning each word carries beyond the minimal, strict definition found in a dictionary. For instance, the terms civil war, revolution and rebellion have the same denotation; they all refer to an attempt at social or political change. However, civil war carries historical connotations for Americans beyond that of revolution or rebellion. Likewise, revolution is often applied more generally to scientific or theoretical changes, and it does not necessarily connote violence. Rebellion, for many English speakers connotes an improper uprising against a legitimate authority (thus we speak about "rebellious teenagers" rather than "revolutionary teenagers"). In the same way, the words house and home both refer to a domicile, but home connotes certain singular emotional qualities and personal possession in a way that house doesn't. I might own four houses I rent to others, but I might call none of these my home, for example. Much of poetry involves the poet using connotative diction that suggests meanings beyond "what the words simply say." Contrast with denotation.

dialect

The language used by the people of a specific area, class, district or any other group of people. The term dialect involves the spelling, sounds, grammar and pronunciation used by a particular group of people and it distinguishes them from other people around them. Dialect is a very powerful and common way of characterization, which elaborates the geographic and social background of any character.

Alliteration

The occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words

Audience

The person(s) reading a text, listening to a speaker, or observing a performance.

euphemism

The term 'euphemism' is used to refer to the literary practice of using a comparatively milder or less abrasive form of a negative description instead of its original, unsympathetic form. This device is used when writing about matters such as sex, violence, death, crimes and things "embarrassing". The purpose of euphemisms is to substitute unpleasant and severe words with more genteel ones in order to mask the harshness.. The use of euphemisms is sometimes manipulated to lend a touch of exaggeration or irony in satirical writing.

paradox

The term Paradox is from the Greek word "paradoxon" that means contrary to expectations, existing belief or perceived opinion. It is a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or silly but may include a latent truth. It is also used to illustrate an opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas. A paradox is often used to make a reader think over an idea in innovative way.

Anadiplosis

The term anadiplosis is a Greek word which means "to reduplicate". It refers to the repetition of a word or words in successive clauses in such a way that the second clause starts with the same word which marks the end of the previous clause. Anadiplosis exhibits a typical pattern of repeating a word. For example, the repetition of the word "give" in the sentence "When I give, I give myself." is termed anadiplosis as it occurs at the end of the first clause and marks the beginning of the following clause. Similarly, notice how the use of anadiplosis repeats in its typical fashion the word "reliability" to highlight the main point of the sentence "This public school has a record of extraordinary reliability, a reliability that every other school is jealous of in the city."

persona

The term persona has been derived from a Latin word "persona" that means the mask of an actor, and is therefore etymologically linked to the dramatis personae which refers to the list of characters and cast in a play or a drama. It is also known as a theatrical mask. It can be defined in a literary work as a voice or an assumed role of a character that represents the thoughts of a writer or a specific person the writer wants to present as his mouthpiece. Most of the time, the dramatis personae are identified with the writers though sometimes a persona can be a character or an unknown narrator. Examples of persona are found not only in dramas but in poems and novels, too

speaker

The voice that tells the story. Before students begin to write, they must decide whose voice is going to be heard. Whether this voice belongs to a fictional character or to the writers themselves, students should determine how to insert and develop those attributes of the speaker that will influence the perceived meaning of the piece.

tone

Tone, in written composition, is an attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience. Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of words or the viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject. Every written piece comprises a central theme or subject matter. The manner in which a writer approaches this theme and subject is the tone. The tone can be formal, informal, serious, comic, sarcastic, sad, and cheerful or it may be any other existing attitudes.

zeugma

Zeugma, from Greek "yoking" or "bonding", is a figure of speech in which a word, usually a verb or an adjective, applies to more than one noun, blending together grammatically and logically different ideas. For instance, in a sentence "John lost his coat and his temper", the verb "lost" applies to both noun "coat" and "temper". Losing a coat and losing temper are logically and grammatically different ideas that are brought together in the above-mentioned sentence. Zeugma, when used skillfully, produces a unique artistic effect making the literary works more interesting and effective as it serves to adorn expressions, and to add emphasis to ideas in impressive style.

ethos

a Greek word meaning "character" that is used to describe the guiding beliefs or ideals that characterize a community, nation, or ideology. The Greeks also used this word to refer to the power of music to influence its hearer's emotions, behaviours, and even morals.

fallacy

a deceptive, misleading, or false notion, belief, etc.: That the world is flat was at one time a popular fallacy. Logic. any of various types of erroneous reasoning that render arguments logically unsound

simple sentence

a sentence having only one clause, as I saw her the day before yesterday.

speculative

engaged in, expressing, or based on conjecture rather than knowledge. "discussion of the question is largely speculative" synonyms: conjectural, suppositional, theoretical, hypothetical, putative, academic, notional, abstract; More

extended metaphor

extended metaphor is a comparison that is continued in a piece of literature for more than a single reference. It might be contained in a few sentences, a paragraph, stanza, or an entire literary piece. An author uses an extended metaphor to build a larger comparison between two things.

ambivalent

having mixed feelings or contradictory ideas about something or someone. "some loved her, some hated her, few were ambivalent about her" synonyms: equivocal, uncertain, unsure, doubtful, indecisive, inconclusive, irresolute, of two minds, undecided, torn, in a quandary, on the fence, hesitating, wavering, vacillating, equivocating, blowing/running hot and cold; informaliffy "the need to relocate has made her ambivalent about the promotion"

pedantic

of or like a pedant. "many of the essays are long, dense, and too pedantic to hold great appeal" synonyms: overscrupulous, scrupulous, precise, exact, perfectionist, punctilious, meticulous, fussy, fastidious, finicky; More

jargon

the language, especially the vocabulary, peculiar to a particular trade, profession, or group: medical jargon. any talk or writing that one does not understand. language that is characterized by uncommon or pretentious vocabulary and convoluted syntax and is often vague in meaning.

text

the main body of matter in a manuscript, book, newspaper, etc., as distinguished from notes, appendixes, headings, illustrations, etc. the original words of an author or speaker, as opposed to a translation, paraphrase, commentary, or the like: The newspaper published the whole text of the speech.

Colloquial

word or phrase used everyday in plain and relaxed speech, but rarely found in formal writing.