AP Euro ALL MODULE IDs
Mysticism
Belief that a lay person could have an unusually extreme spiritual connection with Jesus outside of the influence of a priest; often frowned upon by the Church but rarely persecuted
Scientific Revolution
16th and 17th century movement that replaced religion as the explanation of the educated for the occurrences in the physical world, the universe
Counter Reformation
Catholic Church response to the Protestant Reformation with goals to reform the Church and stop the spread of Protestantism
Roman Inquisition (1542)
A Catholic religious committee/court that tried heretics and punished the guilty by imprisonment and execution
Lorenzo Valla
A humanist who used historical criticism to prove that an eight-century document giving the papacy jurisdiction over more Western lands was a forgery. On the False Donation of Constantine.
Catholic Reformation
A movement to reform the Catholic Church prior to 1517, including reformers such as John Huss and John Wycliffe, as well as Christian humanists like Erasmus and Sir Thomas More
Politique
A small group of moderates of both faiths who believed that the only way to save France was with a strong Monarch, thereby making religious concessions in order to maintain domestic peace
Civic humanism
Admiration for Greek and Roman political institutions, including the ideal of a republic. While most city-states were ruled behind the scenes by wealthy families such as the Medici family in Florence, the classical example led to a more secular model for individual and political behavior.
Sir Thomas More
An Englishman, lawyer, politician, Chancellor for Henry VIII, he wrote Utopia which presented a revolutionary view of absolute social equality believing that the problems of society were caused by greed.
Galen
Ancient Roman anatomist whose humoral (blood, phlegm, bile, black bile) theory of the body was accepted until the Scientific Revolution, and beyond in the case of women's anatomy
Book of Common Prayer
Anglican prayer book used to standardize Anglican doctrine and practices and initiate state control of religion; Several versions, but always approved by the monarch; Monarch had this authority due to the Act of Supremacy
Brunelleschi
Architect from Florence who created the first large domed building since antiquity; illustrates the revival of classical architecture, civic humanism, and individualism.
Raphael
Artist who exemplified the naturalism of the Renaissance, with works based on classical styles, including shadowing figures and the newly invented technique of geometric perspective, including The School of Athens.
Baroque art
Artistic and musical style of the 1600s, characterized by drama and emotion. Used by the Catholic Church in support of the Counter Reformation; Bernini, Rubens, Bach
Niccolo Machiavelli
Author of The Prince, a treatise on political power and how a ruler should gain, maintain and increase his power. Influenced by the political fragmentation in Renaissance Italy that provided a background for the new development of a secular state. "End justifies the means."
Intendants
Bureaucratic officials, chosen by the monarchy from the Nobles of the Robe, who purchased government jobs, replacing the Nobles of the Sword and performed royal administrative duties. Part of Louis XIV's plan to extend administrative control of the central state over the French population
Predestination
Calvin's religious theory that God has already planned out a person's life. God had decided at the beginning of time who would be saved
French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)
Conflict between Huguenots and Catholics in France which also overlapped with political and economic competition, leading to a series of wars, culminating in the ascension of Henry IV to the throne
Asiento
Control of the slave trade (by Spain in the 1500 and 1600s) from West Africa to the Americas, an example of a European rivalry to enhance state power
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Deductive thinker whose famous saying cogito, ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am") challenged the notion of truth as being derived from tradition and Scriptures. Stressed man's ability to think and use experimentation and math to find truth. Advocated Deductive reasoning where thinker moves from theory to facts that will support the theory. Inductive and deductive reasoning create the scientific method
Balance of power
Diplomatic strategy after the Peace of Westphalia that impacted the structure of diplomatic and military objectives, leading to large professional armies in many states
Peace of Augsburg (1555)
Document ending the Hapsburg-Valois Wars in which each state of the HRE could be either Catholic or Lutheran at the option of the prince. Example of state action to control religion.
Desiderius Erasmus
Dutch Christian humanist and friend of Sir Thomas More, who advocated Renaissance learning be used for religious reform. He wrote Praise of Folly as criticism of the Church but believed the problems in the Catholic Church could be fixed.
Vesalius (1514-1564)
Dutch anatomist who broke with Church tradition and studied anatomy through dissection
Mercantilism
Economic system developed with colonization where the government controls the economy/colonies, with an emphasis on bullion as a measure of wealth, therefore leading to encouraging exports while preventing imports
Laura Cereta
Educated, upper class Renaissance woman that faced the common choice of an early marriage to an older man, based on her family's political or economic ambition, or of striving to achieve her scholarly potential.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
English inductive thinker who stressed experimentation and math in arriving at truth. Inductive learning uses set of facts and induces a hypothesis or theory. Inductive and deductive reasoning create the scientific method
William Harvey (1578-1657)
English physician who discovered the workings of the circulatory system and developed the idea of integrated systems in the body, challenging Galen's ideas of human anatomy
Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
English scientist who formulated the law of gravitation that posited a universe operating in accord with natural law. Did not see science and religion in conflict, and practiced alchemy. Principia Mathematica 1687
Jan Van Eyck
Flemish painter who incorporated naturalism and religious symbolism in his works, including the Arnolfini Wedding Portrait.
Henry IV (r. 1589-1610)
Formerly Henry of Navarre; ascended the French throne as a convert to Catholicism. Survived St. Bartholomew Day, signed Edict of Nantes, quoted as saying "Paris is worth a mass"
Jesuit Order
Founded by Ignatius Loyola, one of the new religious orders (groups of monks or nuns) of the Counter Reformation. Focused on education of clergy and conversions to Catholicism, especially overseas
Huguenots/Protestants
French Calvinists/English Calvinists who used religious conflicts as a basis for challenging the monarchs' control of religious institutions
Martin Luther
German theologian who challenged the church's ecclesiastical abuses and the doctrines that led to them, ultimately leading to the fragmentation of western Christianity. Wrote the 95 Theses in 1517 which advocated for the priesthood of all believers, primacy of scripture, and salvation by faith alone
Dutch Republic
Government established by a Protestant revolt against the Hapsburgs, also based on language and culture separate from their Spanish rulers, consisting of an oligarchy of urban gentry and rural landowners
Dutch East India Company
Government-chartered joint-stock company based out of Amsterdam that controlled the spice trade in the East Indies due to the Dutch dominance in world trade, illustrating the rise of Atlantic economies over Mediterranean ones
Anabaptists
Group formed in 1525 that believed that true Christians should not be baptized until adults. For Religious toleration, separation of church and state, and pacifism, because they refused to recognize the subordination of the church to the secular state. Allowed women to preach.
Brethren of the Common Life
Group of pious laypeople in fifteenth-century Holland and the northern HRE who initiated a religious revival in their model of Christian living. Example of lay piety before the Reformation.
John Calvin
He was a French theologian whose writings profoundly influenced religious thoughts of Europeans. Developed Calvinism at Geneva. Wrote Institutes of Christian Religion. Established a theocracy and refused to recognize the authority of the secular state. Best known for his theory of predestination.
Charles V (r. 1519-1556)
He was the Hapsburg dynastic ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and of extensive territories in Spain and the Netherlands. He demanded that Luther recant, as he strongly supported the Catholic Church. He also confronted an expanded Ottoman Empire while attempting unsuccessfully to restore Catholic unity across Europe
Henry VIII
He was the founder of Anglican Church through the Act of Supremacy in England 1534 when not granted a divorce from Catherine of Aragon. Example of "top-down" religious reform in order to exercise greater control over religious life and morality
Michelangelo
He worked in Rome and painted the Sistine Chapel for Pope Julius II, and he also sculpted the statue of David for the city of Florence, illustrating how rulers and popes commissioned artworks to enhance their prestige. His works used classical styles and geometric perspective.
Edict of Nantes (1598)
Henry IV's unusual solution in France allowing religious pluralism in order to maintain domestic peace. This granted Huguenots the rights of public worship and Calvinists had limited toleration and the ability to fortify their own cities (revoked in 1685)
Petrarch
Humanist of the late 1300s who promoted the revival in classical literature and created new philological (study of languages) approaches to ancient texts.
Printing press
Invented in Europe in the 1450s, it aided the spread of the Renaissance beyond Italy and encouraged the growth of vernacular literature, which helped develop national cultures.
Concordat of Bologna (1516)
Instituted by Francis I, this gave the King of France power to appoint bishops in France, a typical pattern of magisterial (top-down) reform in an effort to gain more control of religious life.
New Christians
It is a term applied to Jews who accepted Christianity in Spain but since many had become Christian centuries earlier, the word "new" is not accurate; Spanish nationalism stressed purity of blood and held fast to the ideal of religious uniformity.
Baldessare Castiglione
Italian humanist author of The Courtier on the education of the young man into the courtly ideal of a gentleman, focusing on skills, abilities, education, physical beauty, and being a well-rounded "Renaissance man."
Leonardo Da Vinci
Italian artist who made religious paintings like the Last Supper and secular paintings such Mona Lisa that emphasized human-centered naturalism and geometric perspective.
Galileo (1564-1642)
Italian astronomer who created modern experimental method. Discovered Jupiter's 4 moons using the telescope. Tried for heresy and forced to recant
Middle Passage
Journey of enslaved Africans to the New World to work on plantations; part of the plantation economy and the Triangular Trade system combining Europe Africa, and the Americas in items such as slaves, sugar, and rum
Frederick William I (r. 1713-1740)
King of Prussia who used the decreased power of the Hapsburgs in the Holy Roman Empire to strengthen his own sovereignty, establishing a military society in collaboration with the Junkers
Boyars
Land owning aristocracy in early Russia who maintained privileges only by supporting the monarchy under Peter the Great
Plantation system
Large farms in colonial-held Americas given as rewards to Spanish conquerors, which produced cash crops using forced labor, and slave labor after the Native Americans died of diseases like smallpox and measles
War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713)
Last of Louis XIV's nearly continuous wars, provoking a coalition of European powers opposing him, illustrating the dominance of the French army and the need for a balance of power
Battle of Vienna (1683)
Last unsuccessful Ottoman attempt to take central Europe in 1683, cementing Hapsburg control in southeastern Europe and ending Ottoman westward expansion
Little Ice Age
Late 16th century climate trend which led to lower crop yields, which led to delayed marriages and childbearing. A key feature in retsrained population growth during the 1600s
Prince William of Orange
Leader of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands during Dutch Revolt from Spain; example of a state that exploited religious conflicts to promote political and economic interests (1572-1584)
Index of Prohibited Books
List of books created during the Counter Reformation that were banned from Catholic possession because of their heretical nature. The printing press helped Protestant reformers disseminate ideas, so book burning eas no longer effective
La Querelle des Femmes
Literally, "the question of women," a literary debate which began amongst intellectual elites and religious leaders around 1500 about the nature and status of women.
Council of Trent (1545-63)
Meeting called by Pope Paul III to reform the church and secure reconciliation with the Protestants. Reaffirmation of Catholic doctrine ruled out reconciliation with Protestants; led to a resurgence of Catholicism in the 17th century
Pico della Mirandola
Member of the Platonic Academy in Florence wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man, the manifesto of humanism, describing how man was created by God and therefore had tremendous potential for greatness.
Junkers
Members of the Prussian landed aristocracy, who were expected to be army officers and support the king in return for having free reign over their serfs
Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642)
Minister to Louis XIII whose goals were to humble the Hapsburgs (30 Years' War), break the power of the nobility who wanted regional autonomy (through the nobles of the robe), and control the Protestants (ending walled cities) - helped to send France on the road to absolute monarchy
Indulgence
Name for a Papal pardon for remission of sins. These pardons were sold by the Catholic Church, the most notable salesman being Johann Tetzel. It was common practice when the church needed to raise money. The practice led to the Reformation
Humanism
Name for the new methods of textual criticism based on the classics (Greek and Roman in Italy, early Church in North) to learn what they reveal about human nature. It emphasized human beings as the measure of all things, their achievements, interests, and capabilities.
Renaissance
Name for the period 1350 to 1600 that witnessed a transformation of cultural and intellectual values from primarily Christian to classical or secular ones.
Jean-Baptiste Colbert
Name of the financial minister under the French king Louis XIV who promoted mercantilist policies like subsidizing industries for luxury goods and building a merchant marine, which extended the financial control of the French state over regional interests
Military revolution
New tactics, strategies, and technology (ie muskets) that reduced the role of mounted knights and castles, raised the cost of maintaining military power beyond the means of individual lords, and led to professionalization of the military
Protestant Work Ethic
Notion that wealth accumulation was a sign of God's favor and a reward for hard work
Royal Society
Organization of English scientists patronized by the government, chartered by Charles II in 1660. Purpose was to conduct experiments and discuss scientific advancements. Similar societies in Denmark, Prussia, Russia, France, Netherlands
Versailles
Palace of Louis XIV, used to demonstrate majesty of the Sun King and keep nobles in check; symbol of French absolutism
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Polish clergyman who wrote On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres, published in 1543. Questioned Aristotle's view of the universe of the cosmos with the heliocentric theory
liberum veto
Polish policy allowing any noble to veto the king's decision, leading to a weak monarchy unable to consolidate its authority over the nobility and eventual partition of Poland by Austria, Prussia, and Russia in the late 1700s
Peasants Revolt (1524-25)
Political revolt by German peasants against their lords, using religious teachings of Luther to justify radical actions; Luther disavowed the peasants and over 100,000 were killed
Vasco da Gama
Portuguese - first European to reach India by sea; established control over trade ports in order to obtain gold, spices, and luxury goods like silk, 1499
Prince Henry the Navigator
Portuguese prince that sponsored voyages along West African coasts in order to enhance state power by obtaining gold, ivory, and slaves. Established a school for navigation incorporating technology from China (the compass) and the Muslim world (the astrolabe). 1418
Absolutism
Process of gaining human, fiscal, and material resources to serve the state, leading to absolute authority, bolstered by the idea of divine right
Gentry
Professional groups, such as merchants, lawyers, and other educated and talented persons who increased their power in the state, often in alliance with monarchs trying to decrease the power of the nobility.
Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603)
Protestant ruler of England who helped stabilize religious tensions by subordinating theological issues to political considerations through magisterial policies; also defeated Philip II's Spanish Armada 1588
Northern Renaissance
Revival of classical culture in Northwest Europe, retaining a more religious focus, also known as Christian humanism, which resulted in more human-centered naturalism in art and considered everyday life and individuals appropriate subjects of artistic and literary representation.
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Reworked Copernicus's Heliocentric theory and Brache's observations to include elliptical orbits of planets using mathematical theories as well as observations from his practice of astrology
Court of the Star Chamber
Secret court used by Henry VII of England to try nobles without allowing them to know the charges against them.
Philip II (r. 1556-1598)
Son and successor to Charles V, ruling Spain and the Low Countries. Palace was "Escorial"; successfully prevented the spread of the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571; sent the failed Spanish Armada to England; exploited religious conflicts to promote political and economic interests
Fernando Cortez
Spanish conqueror of the Aztecs, 1519-1521, who was successful in part because of European access to military resources such as horses and gunpowder
Teresa of Avila
Spanish mystic and reformer of Carmelite nuns who focused on poverty and prayer; fused mysticism and devotion to the Church
Charles I (r. 1625-1649)
Stuart monarch who clashed with Parliament over sovereignty; leader of the Cavaliers during the English Civil war, fighting against the Puritan Roundheads, and executed following the War
Mannerist art
Style of the late 1500s in which artists employed distortion, drama, and illusion in their art, illustrating the technical excellence of the Renaissance and attempt to create new styles rather than mimic Renaissance styles Madonna of the Long Neck.
Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715)
The "Sun King", absolute monarch of France, who tightened control of the nobles and religious dissenters, engaged in expansionary wars, and established a professional army to extend monarchial control of the central state over the French population
Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725)
The Romanov czar who initiated the westernization of Russian society by traveling to the West and incorporating techniques of manufacturing as well as fashion and education. He limited the nobility's participation in governance but preserved the aristocracy's social position and legal priveleges
Individualism
The emphasis on the unique and creative personality. Another basic feature of the Italian renaissance stressing personality, uniqueness, genius, self-consciousness, and the fullest development of capabilities and talents.
Columbian Exchange
The exchange of new flora and fauna (plants, animals) and diseases that created economic opportunities for Europeans and facilitated European subjugation and destruction of indigenous peoples, particularly in the Americas
Aristotelian-Ptolemaic theory of the universe
The geocentric view of the universe that prevailed from the fourth century B.C. to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and supported with church teachings and Scriptures
Secularism
The name for the emphasis on the here-and-now rather than on the spiritual and otherworldly. Belief that the ultimate explanation of everything is found in reason and in what the senses can discover, rather than in any spiritual belief.
New Monarchs
The term applied to Louis XI of France, Henry VII of England, and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, who laid the foundation for the centralized modern state by establishing monopolies on tax collection, military force, dispensing justice and gaining control of the religion of their subjects.
Constitutionalism
The theory that power should be shared between rulers and their subjects and the state governed according to laws, contrasting with the concurrent theory of absolutism
Peace of Utrecht (1713)
The treaty concluding the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713), forbidding the union of France with Spain, and conferring control of Gibraltar on England; focused on European balance of power, signaled the end of French expansion
Peace of Westphalia (1648)
The treaty ending the Thirty Years' War in Germany; it allowed each prince - whether Lutheran, Catholic, or Calvinist - to choose the established creed of his territory - end of the era of religious wars as well as the ending the ideal of a universal Christian empire - and beginning of a new state system based on sovereign nation-states and the balance of power
Catherine de Medici (r. 1547-1589)
The wife of Henry II (1547-1559) of France, who exercised political influence after the death of her husband and during the rule of her weak sons. A staunch Catholic who eventually agreed to a political union with a Huguenot in order to gain more power.
Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)
What began as a religious war between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire (phase 1) became a political war, in which the Hapsburgs, Denmark, Sweden, and France exploited religious conflict for political interests; led to massive population loss and economic devastation of the German states and a loss of power for the Hapsburg family in the Holy Roman Empire