ap euro identifications

Laissez-faire

"Let people do as they choose." An economic doctrine that holds that an economy is best served when the government does not interfere but allows the economy to self-regulate according to the forces of supply and demand. French. Best statement of this doctrine was made in 1776. Importance: An economic doctrine that removed the state from interfering in economy, instead preferring it's self-regulation with supply and demand.

"Iron and Blood" Realpolitik

"Politics of reality." Politics based on practical concerns rather than theory or ethics.

Camille Pissarro

"The brushstroke should produce the drawing...Paint what you observe and feel, not according to rules and principles..." Importance: One of Impressionism's founders.

Emperor William (Wilhelm) II

Activist foreign policy dedicated to enhancing German power. Dropped the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia. This Brought France and Russia together. Divided European greats into the Triple Alliance- Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy and the Triple Entente- Great Britain, France, and Russia.

Vincent van Gogh

Famous Post-Impressionalist. A tortured and tragic figure. Art was a spiritual experience. Interested in color and believed it could act as its own form of language. Maintained that artists should paint what they feel. Importance: A famous Post-Impressionalist artist who maintained that artists should paint what they feel and who was very interested in color.

Franz Liszt

Hungarian-born composer. Best exemplifies the achievements of the New German School. Child prodigy. By age 12 he was an outstanding concert artist. His performances and personality made him the most highly esteemed virtuoso of his age. Greatest pianist of all time. Credited with introducing the concept of the modern piano recital. Mainly composed piano pieces, though he did sacred music as well. Invented the term symphonic poem to refer to his orchestral works. Generally based on a literary or pictorial idea. Importance: Romant music reached its peak under him.

Luftwaffe

Subjected London and many other British cities to nightly air raids. The tools used for bombing.

Civil Disobedience

Used by Gandhi. A policy of peaceful protest against laws or government policies in order to achieve political change.

Tariffs

Taxes imposed on imported goods. Used to raise revenue and discourage imports and protect domestic industries. Importance: Meant to discourage imports and encourage exports in order to promote a country's beginning industries.

Jackson Pollock and Abstract Expressionism

"action painting." Energetic and spontaneous. Works such as Lavender Mist where paint seems to explode, enveloping the viewer with emotion and movement. Polluck's swirling forms and seemingly chaotic patterns broke all conventions of form and structure. His drip paintings became very popular. Inspired by Native American sand painters, he painted with the canvas on the floor.

Verdun

1916. In ten months, 700,00 men lost their lives over a few square miles of terrain. German forces advanced quickly in February 1916, claiming Fort Douaumont and Fort Vaux after brutal subterranean melees. Despite coming within two miles of Verdun cathedral, the Germans called off their offensive in mid-July, and Falkenhayn was relieved of his position. The French retook their forts and pushed back the line, and by the time their forces ground to a halt in December, both sides were left with more than 600,000 casualties. By the time their advance ground to a halt in mid-December, they were close to the line where the battle had started ten months earlier. Casualties for both sides totaled between 600,000 and 700,000 and were roughly equal. (The total casualty figure for the entire war in the Verdun sector approaches 1.25 million.)

The Somme

1916. The Battle of the Somme, also known as the Somme Offensive, was one of the largest battles of the First World War. Fought between July 1 and November 1, 1916 near the Somme River in France, it was also one of the bloodiest military battles in history. On the first day alone, the British suffered more than 57,000 casualties, and by the end of the campaign the Allies and Central Powers would lose more than 1.5 million men.

"Roaring Twenties"

1920's got this nickname due to the exuberance of its popular culture.Berlin became the capital of Europe with its theaters, cabarets, cinemas, and jazz clubs. Known for dance crazes. Flappers of the time were very popular and became known as being unconventional and lively women. This time was also known as the Jazz Age due to how immensely popular the jazz music of this time was.

Ayatollah Khomeini and American hostages

53 Americans were taken hostage by the Iranian government of Ayatollah Khomeini. President Carter was unable to gain the release of the hostages and so the Americans now perceived him as a weak president, making his loss in the next election to Ronald Reagan predictable.

Peter the Great

6' 9". Coarse in his tastes and rude in his behavior. Went to the West in 1697-98. Wanted to Europeanize his realm thereafter. Wanted Russia to gain more technical skills to become a great power. One of his first priorities was the organization of the army and the creation of a navy. Created the Senate to supervise the administrative machinery of the state while he was away on military campaigns. Made all members of the landholding class serve in either military or civil offices. Founded the Table of Ranks in 1722 to create opportunities for non nobles to serve their state. Adopted mercantilistic policies. Sought to control the Russian Orthodox Church. Introduced Western ways. Helped women gain more rights. Importance: Wished to westernize Russia, especially in the realm of technical skills. Foremost goal was creating a strong army and navy in order to make Russia a great power.

Tycho Brahe

A Danish nobleman. Lived from 1546 to 1601. Granted possession of an island near Copenhagen by King Frederick II. Built the elaborate Uraniborg Castle, which had a library, observatory, and instruments he designed for precise astronomical observations. For 20 years, he concentrated on compiling a detailed record of his observations of the positions and movements of the stars and planets, a series of observations described as the most accurate up to that time. Didn't accept the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system or the Copernican system. In his last years, he was imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II in Prague and he got an assistant by the name of Johannes Kepler. Importance: His observations were the most accurate up to that time, a mathematician who didn't accept the theories of the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system or the Copernican system.

The Price Revolution

A Europe-wide phenomenon, although different areas were affected at different times. Europe accustomed to stable prices for the inflation rate. Foodstuffs were the most prone to an increase in price, especially for wheat. This upward surge in prices is first seen in the Mediterranean in the 1590's. Wages failed to keep up with price increases due to the price revolution. Contributed to the growth of capitalism. The influx of metals from the New World was probably the main cause or an increase in population. Importance: An inflation in prices, especially food, due to rise in precious metals and population.

The Marquis de Lafayette

A French officer who had served in the American war. Had volunteered for service in America to "strike a blow against England." Closely associated with George Washington. Wanted to introduce individual liberties and notions of republicanism and public sovereignty to France. Became a member of the Society of Thirty, a club composed of people from Paris salons. Very influenced by the American ways. This is evident in The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. Importance: A French officer who brought American ideas of individual liberties and notions of republicanism and public sovereignty to France, joined the Society of Thirty which helped spread these ideas.

Zollverein

A German customs union formed by Prussia in 1834. Stimulated trade and added to the prosperity of its member states by eliminating tolls on rivers and roads among member states. Importance: The customs union of all of the German states except Austria.

Alfred Dreyfus

A Jew and a captain in the French general staff. Was found guilty by a secret military court of selling army secrets and condemned to life imprisonment on Devil's island. Evidence emerged that indicated his innocence. Another officer, a Catholic aristocrat, was obviously guilty, but the army refused a new trial.Public outrage. Anti-Semitism. Government pardoned Dreyfus in 1899 and in 1906 he was finally fully exonerated. Importance: An example of extreme anti-Semitism that was prevalent at this time.

"Germany Awake"

A Nazi slogan that powerfully appealed to people psychologically crushed by their defeat in WWI. To many Germans, the Nazis offered a national awakening.

Black Hand

A Serbian terrorist organization dedicated to the creation of a pan- Slavic kingdom. The assassinators of the Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife Sophia on June 28, 1914. A secret society called Ujedinjenje ili Smrt, ('Union or Death') was founded in Belgrade, an outgrowth of an older Serb nationalist group: Narodna Odbrana . The Black Hand took over the older group's work of anti-Austrian propaganda within Serbia, sabotage, espionage and political murders abroad -- especially in provinces Serbia wished to annex. The group included many government officials, professionals and army officers. When it was learned that the Heir-Apparent to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand, was scheduled to visit Sarajevo in June of 1914, the Black Hand decided to assassinate him. Three young Bosnians were recruited, trained and equipped: Gavrilo Princip, Nedjelko Cabrinovic and Trifko Grabez.

Leonardo Bruni's The New Cicero

A biography of Cicero, written by Leonardo Bruni. About the blending of political action and literary creation in Cicero's life. Set the ideal that it was the duty of an intellect to do what one could for one's own state. Importance: The New Cicero brought a newfound recognition towards Cicero's lifestyle and helped set it as an ideal for others to follow, helped civic humanism take root.

Tabula Rasa

A blank mind. It was the belief of John Locke that every human was born with a tabula rasa. Denied Descartes' belief in innate ideas with this argument. Elaborated on in Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which was written in 1690. This means that our knowledge is derived from our environment, not from hereditary. Knowledge was from reason, not faith. People were molded by their surroundings, by the experiences they received through their senses from the world around them. People could be changed and a new society created by changing the environment and subjecting people to proper influences. A "brave new world" could be built on his philosophies. Importance: A new idea that humans could be influenced by the world around them, instead of being born with a certain amount of knowledge, this principle was based on reason.

David Lloyd George

A brilliant orator from Wales who had been deeply moved by the misery of Welsh coal miners. Served as chancellor of the Exchequer from 1908 to 1915. Advanced the policy of social reform for the laboring class. Made the National Insurance Act of 1911, that gave workers retirement, injury, and unemployment help, through increasing the tax burden on the wealthy classes. First step toward Birtish welfare state. Pushed through a law that restricted the ability of the House of Lords to impede legislation enacted by the House of Commons.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

A charter of basic liberties that reflected the ideas of the major philosophes of the French Enlightenment that also based some of its ideas off of the American Declaration of Independence and Bill of Rights. Adopted by the assembly on August 26 to be used as the basis for its ideological foundation and as an educational device for the nation. Advocated the natural rights of man. It also endorsed the prospect of equality between estates- it affirmed the destruction of certain aristocratic privileges such as exemption from taxation, freedom and equal rights for all men, and access to the public office based off of talent. The monarchy would be restricted and the citizens given more political rights. It is disputed as to whether or not women were intentionally excluded from this document or not. Importance: This charter became the basis for the French Revolution, the prospects the Third Estate wished to gain; this includes the suppression of the monarchy and aristocracy, the obtaining of natural and equal rights for all, and more political freedoms and opportunity for those of the lower classes.

Houston Stewart Chamberlain

A chief propagandist for German volkish thought. Wrote The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century in 1899. Made a special impact on Germany. Modern-day Germans were the only sure successors of the "Aryans," who were portrayed as the true and original creators of Western culture. The Aryan race, under German leadership, must be prepared to fight for Western civilization and save it from the destructive assaults of the lower races. Racists. Importance: The Aryan race, under German leadership, must be prepared to fight for Western civilization and save it from the destructive assaults of the lower races.

Napoleon III

A clever politician. Understood the popular forces of his day. Desired personal power. Patient. through three years here preserved in winning the support of the French people, and when the national assembly to revise the constitution and be allowed to stand for reelection, Louis used troops to seize control of the government on December 1, 1851. Restored universal male suffrage. Populous voted him to be president for ten more years. A year later, he asked for the restoration of the empire and 97% of the population voted yes. On December 2, 1852 he assumed the title of Napoleon III. Controlled the armed forces, police, and civil service. Only he could introduce legislation and declare war. Early economic prosperity. Advocates better housing for workers and provided hospitals and free medicine. Reconstruction of Paris. Liberalized his regime. Legalized trade unions and allowing striking. Liberalized the political process. Importance: Initiated the Second Empire in France and developed policies that benefitted the working class.

Cartel of the Left

A coalition of government formed by two French leftist parties, the Radicals and the Socialists. These parties shared a belief of antimilitarism, anti clericalism, and the importance of education.The Radicals were a democratic party of small property owners and the Socialists tended to be Marxist. Failed to lead well as they clashed economically and financially.

Wannsee Conference

A conference held to inform state and party officials of the general procedures for the Final Solution outside of Berlin on January 20, 1942. Outlined the steps that would be taken in their plan to exterminate Jews. This conference worked out all of the bureaucratic details so that the party and state officials would cooperate fully in the final elimination of the Jews.

Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Italy

A dedicated Italian nationalist who founded an organization known as Young Italy in 1831. This group's goal was to create a unified Italian republic. Duties of Man Urged Italians to dedicate their lives to the Italian nation.

Giuseppe Garibaldi and the Red Shirts

A dedicated Italian patriot who had supported Mazzini and the republican cause of Young Italy. Raised an army of a thousand Red Shirts, as his volunteers were called because of their distinctive clothes. On May 11, 1860 they landed in Sicily, where a revolt had broken out against the Bourbon king of the Two Sicilies. Garibaldi's daring tactics won the day, though they were outnumbered. By the end of July, 1860, most of Sicily had been pacified under his control. Began a victorious march down the Italian peninsula. Garibaldi chose to yield to Cavour's fait accompli rather than provoke a civil war and retired to is farm. Importance: Helped Italy gain its independence.

Carl Jung

A disciple of Freud. Came to believe that Freud's theories were too narrow and reflected Freud's own personal biases. Studied his own dreams and the dreams of others and that led him to diverge sharply from Freud. Freud believed the unconscious was the seat of repressed desires but Jung believed that it was an opening to deep spiritual needs and ever-greater vistas for human beings. Viewed the unconscious as twofold-a personal unconscious and at a deeper level a collective unconscious. The collective unconscious was the repository of memories that all human beings share and consisted of archetypes, mental forms or images that appear in dreams. The archetypes are common to all people and have a special energy that creates myths, religions, and philosophies. To Jung, the archetypes proved that mind was only in part personal or individual because their origin was buried so far in the past that they seem to have no human source. Their function was to bring the original mind if humans into a new, higher state of consciousness.

Franco-Prussian War

A dynastic struggle over the Spanish throne. If Leopold were to be placed on the throne of Spain, France would be virtually encircled by members of the Hohenzollern dynasty. The French forced the Prussians to make Leopold withdraw his candidacy. This was not enough for the French and so they requested a formal apology from the French. Bismarck edited his king's response to the letter to make it more offensive so that there would be war. France declared war on Prussia in 1870. The French were no match for the Prussians who allied themselves with the German states. On September 2, 1870 an entire French army and Napoleon III were captured. An official peace treaty was signed in 1871 that forced France to give up one billion dollars as well as the territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Importance: This war enabled the collapse of the Second French Empire as well as the emergence of Germany as the greatest European power.

Renaissance Magic

A factor in the origins of the Scientific Revolution. The preserve of an intellectual elite from all of Europe. Hermeticism was a main belief. The desire to control and dominate the natural world was a crucial motivating force in the Scientific Revolution. Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton all had a serious interest in Hermetic ideas and the fields of astrology and alchemy. Importance: Supposedly contributed to the start of the Scientific Revolution, was the preserve of an intellectual elite from Europe, believed in hermeticism.

Cottage Industry

A family enterprise- women and children spun while men wove on looms. This industry enabled rural people to earn incomes. Importance: A system of textile manufacturing in which spinners and weavers worked at home in their cottages using raw materials supplied to them by capitalist entrepreneurs.

Petrarch

A fourteenth century humanist who described the intellectual life as one of solitude. Rejected family and a life of action in lieu of a quieter lifestyle. Importance: Represents the more traditional humanist that prefers a life of solitude rather than chasing the ideals of a civic humanist that became more popular in the Renaissance.

Maria Montessori

A good example of the "new woman." Attended medical school at the University of Rome. In 1896 she became the first Italian woman to receive a medical degree. Undertook a lecture tour in Italy on the subject of the "new woman" whom she characterized as a woman who followed a rational, scientific perspective. Worked in a school for mentally handicapped children. Devised new teaching materials that enables these children to read and write and become convinced that the same methods applied to normal students would develop their personality. Established a system of childhood education based on natural and spontaneous activities in which students learned at their own pace. Hundreds of her schools were established. Importance: As an unwed and professional mother who was able to achieve professionally and intellectually, she embodies the "new woman."

Piedmont and the House of Savoy

A growing number of advocates for Italian unification focused on the northern Italian state of Piedmont as their best chance. The royal house of Savoy ruled the kingdom of Piedmont, which also included the island of Sardinia. King Charles Albert had previously made a valiant effort in the previous war for independence. It seemed reasonable that Piedmont would now assume the leadership role in the cause of national unity. When the new king, Victor Emmanuel II named Count Camillo de Cavour his prime minister, the state was given the necessary leadership needed for their revolution. Importance: The hopeful spot where revolution for successful Italian independence should begin.

The ego, the id, and the superego

A human being's inner life was a battleground with the contending forces of the id, ego, and superego. The id was the center of unconscious deuces and was ruled by the pleasure principle. As creatures of desire, human beings directed their feelings toward pleasure and away from pain. The id contained all the kinds of lustful drives and desires and crude appetites and impulses. The ego was the seat of reason and the coordinator of inner life. Governed by the reality principle. The reality principle meant that people rejected pleasure so that they might live together in society. Superego was the locus of conscious and represented the inhibitions and moral values that society in general and parents in particular imposed on people. Superego forced ego to curb the drives of the id. Most important of these oppressions was sexual. By making the conscious mind aware of the unconscious and its repressed contents, the patient's psychic conflict was resolved. Importance: The id was the center of unconscious deuces and was ruled by the pleasure principle, the ego was the seat of reason and the coordinator of inner life, superego was the locus of conscious and represented the inhibitions and moral values that society in general and parents in particular imposed on people.

Joint-stock companies

A kind of commercial organization that started in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Aided commercial expansion. Made it easier to gain large amounts of revenue for world trade. Based on individuals who bought shares in the company. Investors received dividends on their investments. A board of directors organized the company and made business decisions. Returns could be extremely profitable. Importance: Aided commercial expansion; investors now invested their money spread out into several places, so they might be more profitable.

Oliver Cromwell

A leader of the Independents. Commander in chief of the army. Led the revolution to overthrow the monarchy. Importance: Oliver Cromwell was a dedicated Puritan who helped form the New Model Army and defeat the forces supporting King Charles I, he was unable to work with Parliament, so he came to rely upon military force to rule England.

Francesco Sforza

A leading condottiere, turned on his Milanese employers and conquered Milan after the death of the last Visconti ruler. He became the new duke. Worked with Visconti rulers to help create a highly centralized terrestrial state. Soon the city had international power from its enormous revenues for the great government. Importance: Was a leading condottiere, became duke of Milan using force but ultimately helped the city become very powerful.

The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling

A lengthy novel about the numerous adventures of a young scoundrel. Written by Henry Fielding. Presents scenes of English life from the hovels of London to the country houses of the aristocracy. Describes characters akin to real types in English society. Emphasized action rather than inner feeling. Moralized by attacking the hypocrisy of his age. Importance: This reaction against the moral seriousness of Richardson attacked the hypocrisy of his age while putting an emphasis on action.

Count Camillo di Cavour

A liberal-minded nobleman who had made a fortune in agriculture, and then in banking, railroads, and shipping. A moderate who favored constitutional government. A consummate politician who was very persuasive. Became prime minister in 1852. Pursued a policy of economic expansion. The growth in economy and increase in government revenues let him pour money into equipping a large army. In 1858, Napoleon III agreed to ally with Piedmont in driving the Austrians out of Italy. Italy would be reorganized. France would receive the provinces of Nice and Savoy an compensation for it's help. The nephew of Napoleon III would be married to the daughter of King Victor Emmanuel. Cavour provoked the Austrians into invading Piedmont in April 1859. The French had two initial victories but feared Austria as an enemy so they made peace with the nation on July 11, 1859 without informing the Italians. Piedmont only received Lombardy. Nationalist forces began to overcome northern Italy. Importance: Greatly helped Italy achieve independence from Austrian domination.

Reparations

A logical consequence of the wartime promises that Allied leaders had made to their people that the Germans would par for the war effort.

Winston Churchill

A long time advocate of a hard-line policy toward Nazi Germany. Became prime minister of England. Proved to be an inspiring leader who rallied the British with stirring speeches.

Vietnam War

A long, costly armed conflict that pitted the communist regime of North Vietnam and its southern allies, known as the Viet Cong, against South Vietnam and its principal ally, the United States. The war began in 1954 (though conflict in the region stretched back to the mid-1940s), after the rise to power of Ho Chi Minh and his communist Viet Minh party in North Vietnam, and continued against the backdrop of an intense Cold War between two global superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union. More than 3 million people (including 58,000 Americans) were killed in the Vietnam War; more than half were Vietnamese civilians. By 1969, at the peak of U.S. involvement in the war, more than 500,000 U.S. military personnel were involved in the Vietnam conflict. Growing opposition to the war in the United States led to bitter divisions among Americans, both before and after President Richard Nixon ordered the withdrawal of U.S. forces in 1973. In 1975, communist forces seized control of Saigon, ending the Vietnam War, and the country was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam the following year.

Conscription

A military draft. Established as a regular practice in most Western country before 1914. Britain and US were exceptions. Russians had 1.3 million men, France and Germany had 900,000 and Britain, Italy, and Austria had between 250,00-500,000. Mostly peasants.

Impressionism

A movement that originated in France in the 1870's when a group of artists rejected the studios and museums and went out into the countryside to paint nature directly. Their subjects were figures from daily life, the street scenes of Paris, and nature. Sought originality and distinction from past artworks. Impressionts did not just paint nature; they painted wherever people congregate for work or pleasure to form their subject matter. Importance: The new art movement of the late nineteenth century where artists sought to put into their paintings their impressions of the changing effects of light on objects in nature.

Wagner's "Gesamtkunstwerk"

A musical composition for the eater in which music, acting, dance, poetry, and scenic design are synthesized into a harmonious whole. Transformed opera into music drama. Used a leitmotiv, a recurring musical theme in which the human voice combined with the line of the orchestra. Operas contained hundreds of these. Looked to myths and epic tales from the past for his themes. Importance: A monumental development in classical music, especially in the opera.

Facism

A new authoritarian movement. An ideology or movement that exalts the nation above the individual and calls for a centralized government with a dictatorial leader, economic and social regimentation, and forcible suppression of opposition; in particular, the ideology of Mussolini's Fascist regime in Italy.

Romanticism

A new intellectual movement that emerged at the end of the eighteenth century. Tried to balance the use of reason by stressing the importance of intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination as sources of knowing. Romantic writers emphasized emotion, sentiment, and inner feeling in their works. An important aspect of Romanticism was individualism, an interest in the unique traits of each person. The Romantics' desire to follow their inner drives led them to rebel against middle class conventions. Had long beards, hair, and outrageous clothes. Sentiment and individualism came together in the Romantics' stress on the heroic. The Romantic hero was a solitary genius who was ready to defy the world and sacrifice his life for a great cause. Many Romantics held a passionate interest in the past. Revival in medieval Gothic architecture. Importance:A new intellectual movement that emerged at the end of the eighteenth century. Tried to balance the use of reason by stressing the importance of intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination as sources of knowing.

The factory

A new staple of European life. The new dependence on these factories marks the transition to an economy and society based on material production. Peasants that used to work in the shops of artisans now worked in factories. Peasants were now paid to operate the machines. Importance: The factory symbolizes the profound shift in the lifestyle of peasants going from dependency on the cottage system and labor in fields to the new regulations and efficiencies that constituted the working class's new lifestyle.

Chernobyl, 1986

A nuclear power disaster at Chernobyl in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1986 made Europeans even more aware of potential environmental hazards.

Olympe de Gouges

A playwright and pamphleteer. Refused to accept the exclusion of women from political rights. Penned a Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen in which she insisted that women should have all of the same rights as men. The National Assembly ignored her demands. Importance: A female playwright and pamphleteer who advocated more rights for women in her Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen, but was ignored by the National Assembly.

Madrigals

A poem set to music. Originates in fourteenth-century Italian courts. Usually they were twelve line poems written in the vernacular. Theme was usually emotional or erotic love. Written to be spoken by five or six voices and moved to England by the mid sixteenth-century. Text painting was where the music would try to portray the literal meaning of the text. The most popular form was characterized by the fa-la-la refrain, used in "Deck the Halls". Importance: Madrigals were a new type of music that show that the Renaissance made advancements in more than just art and architecture.

Renaissance Hermeticism

A product of the Florentine intellectual environment. Late 15th century. Translated from Greek word Corpus Hermeticim into Latin. Hermetic manuscripts contained two kinds of writing - one stressed the occult sciences, with an emphasis on astrology, alchemy, and magic while the other theological and philosophical beliefs and speculations. Importance: Induced a new view of humankind for Renaissance intellectuals.

Ulrich Zwingli

A product of the Swiss forest cantons. Son of a peasant. Attained a bachelor of the arts degree as well as a master of the arts degree. Ordained a priest in 1506.Became a cathedral priest in the Great Minister of Zurich in 1518. Began the Reformation in Switzerland.Relics and images in the church were abolished along with music, monasticism,pilgrimages, the veneration of saints, clerical celibacy, and the pope's authority. Spread to new cities. Forest cantons remained staunchly Catholic which presented a problem for the movement.Killed by his enemies when he was found wounded on a battlefield in 1531. Importance: Started The Zwinglian Reformation, presented new ideas about how religion and worship should be.

Germaine de Stael

A prominent writer. Refused to accept Napoleon's growing despotism. Educated in Enlightenment ideas.Set up a salon in Paris that was a prominent intellectual center by 1800. Wrote novels and political works that denounced Napoleon's rule as tyrannical. Napoleon banned her books in France and exiled her to the German states. Continued to write there. Returned to France later on when Napoleon was overthrown and died two years later. Importance: A prominent woman of this time period, she argued Napoleon's rule as tyrannical, only to have her books banned by Napoleon and have her exiled to the German states.

Gracchus Babeuf

A radical who said "What is the French Revolution? An open war between patricians and plebeians, between the rich and poor." Appalled at the misery of the common people. Wanted to abolish private property and eliminate private enterprise. His Conspiracy of Equals was crushed in 1796 and he was executed in 1797. Importance: A radical who was appalled at the misery of the common people, he wanted to abolish private property and eliminate private enterprise.

Hermeticism

A religious, philosophical, and esoteric tradition based primarily upon writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus ("Thrice Great"). Hermetic magic became fused with alchemical thought into a single intellectual framework by the end of the sixteenth century. Believed that the world was a living embodiment of divinity. It was believed that humans had a spark of divinity and that they could use magic, especially mathematical magic, to understand and dominate the world of nature or employ the powers of nature for beneficial purposes. Importance: Inaugurated the shift in consciousness that made the Scientific Revolution possible, believed that the world was a living embodiment of divinity.

Abbé Sieyès

A representative of the Third Estate, advocating vote by head. Issued a pamphlet advocating rights for the Third Estate; this argued that the Third Estate was everything and that it demands to become something in the political order. Importance: One of the few individuals who was able to successfully advocate for better treatment of the Third Estate.

Pietism

A response to the desire for a deeper personal devotion to God. Started by German clerics who wished for their religion to be more personal. Spread by Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf. Opposed the orthodox approach to religion who favored rational ideas. Importance: He spread the desire of people wanting a closer connection to God, but opposed to orthodox approaches.

The Bastille

A royal armory filled with arms and ammunition. Also was a state prison. Importance: An armory and prison, it served as the location of the first major battle of the French Revolution.

Maximilien Robespierre

A small town lawyer who had moved to Paris as a member of the Estates General. Politics was his life. Dedicated to using power to benefit the people whom he loved in the abstract though not a one-to-one basis. Importance: An important member of the Committee of Public Safety, a lawyer who was very involved in politics but wanted to use his power for the benefit of the people.

Gustave Flaubert's "Madame Bovary"

A straightforward depiction of barren and sordid small town life in France. Emma Bovary is trapped in a dull marriage to a doctor. Prompted by the romantic love she has read abou, she seeks the same for herself in her affairs. She is unfulfilled and driven to commit suicide. Contempt for bourgeois society is evident. Importance: A literary work that was a prime example or Realism literature.

Antiballistic Missile Treaty, 1972

A symbol of detente. Signed in 1972. The two nations agreed to limit their systems for launching antiballistic missles. The American objective of the treaty was to make it unlikely that either superpower could win a nuclear exchange by launching a preemptice strike against the other. US officials believed that a policy of equivalence, in which there was a roughly equal power balance on either side, was the best way to avoid a nuclear confrontation.

Volkschulen

A system of state supported primary schools. Only in the Habsburg Austrian Empire. One in four children attended. Importance: Furthered the spread of literacy in the lower classes.

Robert Owen

A well-known cotton magnate and social reformer. Came to believe in the creation of voluntary associations that demonstrated the benefits of cooperative rather than competitive living. His ideas appealed to the leaders of trade unions. Under his direction, plans emerged for the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union. Importance: His belief in the creation of voluntary associations that demonstrated the benefits of cooperative rather than competitive living was adopted as the mantra of the trade unions.

Marx's "Das Kapital"

A work on political economy. Only one volume of which he completed. after his death, the remaining volumes were edited by Engels. it was not finished due to Marx's own preoccupation with organizing the working class movement.

Marco Polo

Accompanied his father Niccolò, who was a merchant from Venice, on a lengthy journey to to the court of a Mongol ruler, Khubilai Khan, in 1271. Wrote the Travels as an account of his experiences. Most informative of all of the descriptions of Asia by medieval European travelers. This book helped inspire Christopher Columbus's journey. Importance: Marco Polo provided the most detailed account of Asia of his time for a European traveler, and it benefitted many who wished for an accurate representation of Asian travels.

Elizabeth Blackwell

Admitted to the Geneva College of Medicine in New York by mistake. Won the respect of her male classmates through her perseverance and intelligence. Received her MD degree in 1849. Established a clinic in New York City. Importance: Achieved the first major breakthrough for women on medicine.

Aristotle

Advanced mathematical and physical thinking in many ways, but was constricted by the strict theological framework and unquestioning reliance on a few ancient authorities of his time that were widely accepted. Called a "natural philosopher" as he was a medieval scientist. Preferred refined logical analysis to systematic observations of the natural world. Many used his works to make developments in physics, medicine, and astronomy. Importance: Set the standards of thinking and ideas for the rest of time, influenced the way everyone thought for centuries because of his advancements in mathematics that were ahead of his time.

"Containment"

Advocated by American diplomat, George Kennan in his Foreign Affairs. July 1947. Containment against further aggressive Soviet moves by the Americans.

Levellers

Advocated freedom of speech, religious toleration, annual Parliaments, women's equality with men, government programs to care for the poor, and a democratic republic, specifically the right to vote for all male householders over the age of 21. Importance: They advocated for modern rights but were opposed by Cromwell who shot them down.

Functionalism

Affected the architecture of the 20's and 30's. First conceived near the end of the nineteenth century. Functionalism meant that buildings should be functional or useful, fulfilling the purpose for which they were constructed. Art and engineering were to be unified, and al unnecessary ornamentation was to be stripped away. Based on the architect's' belief that art had a social function and could help create a new civilization. The US was the leader in this movement.

Pragmatic Sanction

.Conceded that European powers had to recognize Charles VI's daughter, Maria Theresa, as the legal heir to Austria's throne. This was pushed aside though after Charles died. Importance: European powers had to agree that Maria Theresa was Austria's legal heir, but this agreement was ignored when her father, Charles VI, died.

Treaty of Tordesillas

1494. Divided up the newly discovered world into separate Portuguese and Spanish spheres of influence. Turned out that most of South America (except for the eastern hump) fell within the Spanish sphere. Importance: Made it so that the route east around the Cape of Good Hope was to be reserved for the Portuguese and the route across the Atlantic was assigned to Spain, divided up New World into either Portuguese or Spanish territories.

The Guillotine

16,000 people were killed under this blade in the Reign of Terror. A revolutionary device for the quick and efficient separation of heads from bodies. Importance: This new invention was the weapon of choice for beheading people in the Terror.

The Great Northern War

1655 to 1660. Denmark against Sweden. Danish wanted Baltic territories. King Charles X was king of Sweden at the time.

The English Bill of Rights

1689. Affirmed Parliament's right to make laws and levy taxes. Made it impossible for the king to oppose or do without Parliament by stipulating that standing armies could be raised only with the consent of Parliament. Both elections and debates of Parliament had to be free , meaning that the king could not interfere. The rights of citizens to petition the sovereign, keep arms, have a jury trial, and not be subject to excessive bail were also confirmed. Helped fashion a system of government based on the rule of law and a freely elected Parliament. Laid the foundation for a constitutional monarchy. Did not settle religious questions. Importance: Passed by Parliament, it specified the rights of Parliament and laid the foundation for a constitutional monarchy.

The European Community/EC

After 1970, Western European states continues to pursue the goal of integrating their economies. Began with six states in 1957. Expanded in 1973 when Great Britain, Ireland, and Denmark joined. Greece joined in 1981. Spain and Portugal jointly in 1986. The economic integration of the members of the EC led to cooperative efforts in international and political affairs. The foreign ministers of these twelve members consulted frequently and provided a common front in negotiations on important issues.

Berlin blockade

After the Soviet blockade of Berlin in 1948, containment of the Soviet Union became formal American policy.

"New monarchies"

Aka "Renaissance states". Made to try to reestablish the centralized power of the monarchical government. Primarily in France, England, and Spain by the end of the fifteenth century. Monarchs tried to extend their political power to these states but often weren't able to succeed. Importance: Italy made an attempt to recover by forming these states, though monarchy wasn't able to settle in them.

The Encyclopedia (Diderot)

Aka Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades. Composed of 28 volumes. This was the "great work of his life." Its purpose was the to "change the general way of thinking." Became a major wea[on of the philosophes' crusade against the old French society. Many philosophes expressed their major concerns in this. Attacked religious superstition and advocated toleration as well as a program for social, legal, and political improvements that would lead to a more cosmopolitan, tolerant, humane, and reasonable society. The later editions were sold for a drastically smaller amount, making it available to a broader spectrum of people, furthering the spread of the Enlightenment. Importance: This attacked religious superstition and advocated religious toleration, furthered the spread of the Enlightenment.

The Puritans

Aka English Calvinists. Attempted to ban drinking in taverns, dramatic performances, and dancing. Importance: English Protestants inspired by Calvinist theology who wished to remove all traces of Catholicism from the Church of England.

Huguenots and Saint Bartholomew's Day

Aka French Calvinists. Came from all levels of society- artisans and shopkeepers hurt by rising prices and a rigid guild system, merchants and lawyers in provincial towns whose local privileges were tenuous, and members of the nobility. 40-50% of the nobility were huguenots. Conversion of nobility made the Huguenots a potentially political threat to monarchical power. Their armies were so good at defense campaigns and usually couldn't have been defeated, expect for the Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre. Occurred in 1572 when the Catholic and Calvinist parties had apparently been reconciled through the marriage of the sister of the reigning Valois king, Charles IX, and Henry of Navarre. Importance: massacre was the reason behind the French civil wars, Huguenots were apart of the Reformation.

Henry IV and the Edict of Nantes

Aka Henry of Navarre. Was next in line of throne, to crush the Catholic Holy League and retake the city of Paris. Took the throne after Henry III died and realized that he wouldn't be well liked so he converted to Catholicism. Edict issued in 1598. Acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion of France but guaranteed the Huguenots the right to worship in selected places on every district and allowed them to retain a number of fortified towns for their protection. Also allowed them to enjoy all political privileges, including the holding of public offices. Importance: The French Wars of Religion finally came to an end with the coronation of Henry IV in 1594. Edict of Nantes recognized the rights of the Protestant minority and ostensibly the principle of religious tolerance, only because of political necessity.

Louis XI the Spider

Aka King Louis XI. Lived from 1461 to 1483. Greatly helped move the process along of developing a French territorial state. Was given the nickname "Spider" because of his wily and devious ways. Used royal authority to enforce taille as a permanent tax so that he could secure a sound source of income. Failed to get backed up by French nobility, posed a threat. Also challenged by his supposed vassal Charles the Bold. Louis opposed his efforts to take control of the lands between France and Germany. When Charles was killed in 1477, Louis gained possession of the lands he had conquered. Gained control of Anjou, Maine, Bar, and Provence in 1450. Importance: Set a basis for future rulers for a strong French monarchy,helped France's territories grow.

Geocentric Conception

Aka Ptolemaic. The universe was seen as a series of concentric with a fixed or motionless earth at its center. Composed of the material substances of earth, air, fire, and water, the earth was imperfect and constantly changing. The spheres that surrounded the earth were made of a crystalline, transparent substance and it moved in circular orbits around the earth. According to Aristotle, circular movement was the most "perfect" kind of motion and hence appropriate for the "perfect" heavenly bodies thought to consist of a nonmaterial, incorruptible "quintessence." These heavenly bodies, pure orbs of light, were embedded in the moving, concentric spheres, which in 1500 were believed to number ten. Working outward from the earth, eight spheres contained the moon, near Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars. The ninth sphere imported to the eighth sphere of the fixed stars in its motion, and the 10th spheres frequently described as the prime movers that moved itself and imparted motion to the other spheres. Beyond the tenth sphere was the Empyrean Heaven- the location of God and all the saved souls. It was a finite universe- it had a fixed outer boundary in harmony with Christian thought and expectations. God she the saved souls were at one end of the universe and the humans were at the center. They were given power over the earth but their real purpose was to achieve salvation. Importance: The universe was seen as a series of concentric with a fixed or motionless earth at its center, combined Christian beliefs with the way the universe worked.

Absolutism

Aka absolute monarchy. Meant that the sovereign power or ultimate authority in the state rested in the hands of a king who claimed to rule by divine right. Sovereign power consisted of the authority to make laws, tax, administer justice, control the state's administrative system, and determine foreign policy. These powers made a ruler sovereign. Importance: This gave the king all of the sovereign power of the state, justified because of the king's divine right.

The Civil Code

Also known as the Code Napoleon. This preserved most of the revolutionary gains by the principle of the equality of all citizens before the law, the right of individuals to choose their professions, religious toleration, and the abolition of serfdom and feudalism. Property rights were protected and the interests of employers safeguarded by outlawing trade unions and strikes. Importance: The Civil Code reflected revolutionary aspirations for a uniform legal system, legal equality, and protection of property and individuals.

Emile

Also written in 1762 was Emile, which is one of the Enlightenment's most important works on education. Education should foster rather than restrict children's natural instincts. Sought a balance between heart and mind, between sentiment and reason. This made him a persecutor of the Romanticism movement. Did not practice what he preached. Sent his children to foundling homes, where many children died young. Importance: Set new standards for education for his time with the new belief of a balance between reason and sentiment.

W.E.B. Du Bois

American writers. Being an African American is a good thing. We are part of America, let's enhance that. Equal education should be available.

Cuban Missile Crisis

Americans had to stop the Soviet Union from putting more missiles into Cuba. Peace settlement.

The American System

Americans were independent in their industry and trade. Produced guns with interchangeable parts to make the production of these weapons more efficient, easier to assemble and easier to repair. They successfully produced textiles and other weaponry as well. Importance: Then tactics of the British Industrial Revolution spread to America and they soon revelled and even surpassed Britain.

Jan van Eyck

Among the first to use oil paint. Lived from 1390 to 1441. The famous painting Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride has a striking attention to detail. Comprehension of perspective in the painting is still uncertain. Importance: A prime example of how while Northern artists were very good, they missed a certain element in painting that made the Italian works surpass those of the Northerners.

Ptolemy

An astronomer of the second century. The maps that he made became one the most important world maps available to the Europeans at the end of the fifteenth century. One of his works, the Geography, was known to Arabs in as early as the eighth century, but was not translated into Latin until the fifteenth century.Printed editions became available in 1477. His amp showed the world as spherical with three major land masses- Europe, Asia and Africa- and only two oceans. Depicted the oceans as smaller than the landmasses and underestimated the circumference of the earth, leading to Christopher Columbus's misconception of the distance from Europe to Asia by sea. Importance: Ptolemy delivered a depiction of the world that was very sophisticated for his time and it made an impact on the journeys of many European explorers.

Roosevelt's New Deal

An attempt by Roosevelt to stop the effects of the depression to keep the people from rising up. Established a bunch of commissions to solve these problems. Helped with homeless and more. Creates jobs that put people back into work to help stimulate the economy.

James II

An outward Catholic. The brother of Charles. Parliament was very against him. When he came to throne, his religion clashed directly with Parliament. Went against the test act. Importance: He was a Catholic trying to rule while Parliament was very against him because he tried to give Catholics more power.

Betty Friedan's Feminine Mystique

Analyzed the problems of middle-class American women that were being denied equality with men. Became a best-seller and propelled Friedan into a newfound celebrity. Founded the National Organization for Women in 1966 and advocated an amendment made to the US Constitution for the equal rights of women.

Virginia Woolf

Another famous writer of the stream-of-consciousness technique. Belonged to a group of intellectuals and artists, known as the Bloomsbury Circle, who sought to create new artistic and literary forms. Wrote Mrs. Dalloway and Jacob's Room. Used the inner monologues of her main characters to reveal their world of existence. Came to believe that for a woman to be a writer, she would need to have her own income to free herself from the expected roles of wives and mothers.

"Divine Right"

Argued by the French theologian Bishop Jacques Bossuet in Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture that government was divinely ordained so that humans could live in an organized society. God established kings and through them reigned over all peoples of the world. The power of kings was absolute because they received their power from God. They were only responsible to God. Importance: Kings were thought to be established by God to rule the people, they only had responsibilities to God.

Querelles des Femmes

Arguments about women. The nature and value of women was this centuries-long debate. Male opinions in the debate were largely a carryover from medieval times and were not favorable. Women were portrayed as inherently base, prone to vice, easily swayed, and "sexually insatiable." Men needed to control them for these reasons. Educated women were seen as having overcome female liabilities to become like men. Women only recently joined this debate by arguing against these male images of women. Importance: Basically, men were above women and thought lowly of them. In the Scientific Revolution, instead of women being more respected, men found ways to prove old ideas about women with science.

Carbonari

Arose in the Italian states in reaction to Austrian domination. Importance: Secret societies motivated by nationalistic dreams that continued to conspire and plan for revolution.

Baroque

Art movement that replaced mannerism. Began in Italy in the last quarter of the sixteenth century and spread to the rest of Europe. Embraced by Catholic reform movement, evident in Catholic courts, especially the Habsburgs. Resisted in France, England, and the Netherlands. Artists sought to bring together the Classical ideals of Renaissance art with the spiritual feelings of the sixteenth-century religious revival. Known for its use of dramatic effects to arouse the emotions. Reflected the search of power. Importance: Replaced mannerism and it merged Renaissance style of classic ideals with spiritual feelings of the sixteenth-century, and it used dramatic effects to arouse the emotions, Catholic reform embraced it.

Madagascar Plan

Aspired to the mass shipment of Jews to the island of Madagascar. When war contingencies made this plan impractical, an even more drastic policy was conceived.

Elizabeth I

Asserted throne after death of Queen Mary in 1558. Daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Her religious policy was based on moderation and compromise, she wished to prevent England from being torn apart over matters of religion. The new act of Supremacy designated Elizabeth as "the only supreme governor of those realm, as well in all spiritual or ecclesiastical things or causes, as temporal". Elizabeth's religion was basically protestant but it was moderate so it could avoid extremes. Mary, Queen of Scots, also had tried to get her killed many times. She was well served administratively by the principal of state and also handled Parliament with skill. Importance: ruled england with great skill, put her country before her religion, helped her country prosper.

Potsdam

At Potsdam, Truman demanded free elections throughout eastern Europe. Stalin was opposed to this.

Latin American Revolts

At this time Latin America was still controlled by the Spanish and the Portuguese. Influenced by the principles of the American Revolution, Latin America now wanted equality of all people in the eyes of the law free trade and a free press in their own country. Latin Americans resented the domination of their trade by Spain and Portugal. At the beginning of the 19th century, Napoleon's continental wars provided the creoles with an opportunity for change. Once Bonaparte toppled the monarchies of Spain and Portugal, the authority of the Spaniards and Portuguese and the colonial empires was weakened, and between 1807 and 1824, a series of revolts enabled most of Latin America to become independent. Simón Bolívar has long been considered the George Washington of Latin America. He liberated Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. José de San Martín Believe that if any nation was to remain free but all the Spaniards must be removed from all of South America. San Martín traveled over the Andes mountains and concord Chile, Lima, and the center of Spanish authority, Peru. Bolívar supported him with troops. Bolívar crushed the last significant Spanish army at Ayacucho on December 9, 1824. By then, Perú, Uruguay, Paraguay, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile had all become free. In 1823, the Central American states became independent and in 1838-1839 divided into five republics.Importance: The Latin American revolts were fighting for their freedom against the Spanish and Portuguese and lasted into the 19th century.

The Wealth of Nations

Attacked mercantilism in the process of enunciating three basic principles of economics. Condemned the use of tariffs to protect home industries. Free trade was a fundamental principle to him. Second principle was his labor theory of value. Third principle was that he believed the state should not interfere in economic functions- there should only be an army, police, and people to maintain streets and such. The state should stay out of the lives of individuals. Emphasized the economic liberty of the individual. Importance: Attacked mercantilism, developed three major principles of economics.

Dadaism

Attempted to enshrine the purposelessness of life. Revolted by the insanity of life, the Dadaists tried to give it expression by creating anti-art. The great rebellion of artistic movements. Dada was aso able to become an instrument to comment on women's roles of the the mass culture. Hannah Hoch.

"Blank check"

Austria sought the backing of Germany. Emperor William II and his chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg responded with a blank check. This was their assurance that Austria had their full support even against war with the Serbs and the Russians.

Partition of Poland

Austria, Prussia, and Russia took advantage of Poland's weak monarchy and invaded, dividing up parts of its land to go to each of the countries. Poland lost 30% of its total land and 50% of its population. Austria gained the agriculturally rich region of Galicia , Russia took the largest chunk of land in the east, and Prussia acquired West Prussia. Importance: Crowded by greater powers, Poland lay primarily on a plane with few easily defensible borders. This, combined with a weak and ineffectual monarchy, set the stage for Poland's destruction.

Aztecs

Aztecs began a long migration into the Valley of Mexico sometime during the early twelfth century. Established their capital at Tenochtitlán, on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco. For the next hundred years, they built their city, constructed temples and public buildings, and causeways of stone across the lake, linking the many islands to the mainland. They built an aqueduct to bring fresh water from a spring four miles away at the beginning of the fifteenth century. They were outstanding warriors, brought the entire area around the city under their control. Became the leading city-state in their region in the early fifteenth century. Consolidated their rule over much of modern Mexico. The kingdom was a collection of semi-independent territories governed by local lords. These rulers were confirmed in their authority by the Aztec ruler in return for payment of tribute. This system lead to the downfall of Aztec civilization. Importance: Another very powerful civilization of their time, they excelled in warfare and engineering, but their downfall was ultimately due to the weakness in their government.

Squadristi

Bands of armed Fascists. Formed between 1920 and 1921 and turned loose in attacks on Socialist offices and newspapers.Broke up the strikes of the trade unionists and Socialist workers and peasant leagues by force. Numbered 200,000 in 1921 and had become a regular feature in Italian life. World War I veterans and students were especially drawn to their ranks. Administered large amounts of castor oil to unwilling victims. Practiced unrestrained violence.

Georges Clemenceau

Became a strong French leader. Established clear civilian control of a total war campaign

Neville Chamberlain

Became prime minister of Britain in May 1937. A strong advocate of appeasement and believed that the survival of the British Empire depended on an accommodation with Germany. Made it known to Hitler in November 1937 that he would not oppose changes in central Europe, provided that they were executed peacefully.

Count Otto von Bismarck

Became prime minister of Prussia in 1862. An extreme conservative. Came to determine the course of modern German history. Dominated German and European politics until 1890. Born an aristocrat. Built a base of diplomatic experience as the Prussian delegate to the parliament of the Germanic Confederation. This, combined with his experience as Prussian ambassador to Russia and later to France, gave him opportunities to acquire a wide knowledge of European affairs and to learn how to assess the character of rulers. He was a consummate politician and opportunist.The ultimate realist. Governed Prussia largely by ignoring parliament. Importance: Played a major role in leading Prussia to achieve the unification of the German states into a new German empire. Became chancellor of the new Germany.

Ramsay MacDonald

Became the first Labour prime minister of Britain in 1923. Dependent on Liberal support. Rejected any extreme social or economic experimentation. Government lasted ten months.

Ludwig von Beethoven and Hector Berlioz

Beethoven: Beethoven is one of the few composers of singlehandedly transformed the art of music.Yearned to communicate his cherished beliefs. Music had to reflect his deepest inner feelings. Born in Bonn. Came from family of musicians who worked for the electors of Cologne. Became an assistant organist at the court when he was 13. Moved to Vienna and briefly studied under Haydn there. Became his permanent residence. First major period of composing (1792-1800) he was largely within the classical framework of the eighteenth century, influence by Haydn and Mozart is apparent. But the composition of the Third Symphony, 1804, also called Eroica, was originally intended for Napoleon, he broke free of the old style to used elements of Romanticism in hos use of uncontrolled rhythms to create a dramatic struggle and uplifted resolution. Wrote a vast quantity of works. Began to grow deaf. The chorale final of his Ninth Symphony was composed when Beethoven was totally deaf. Berlioz: One of the most outstanding Romantic composers. His father, a doctor, insisted he study medicine. Achieved fame in Germany, Russia, and Britain, though not his native France because of the individuality of his own work. One of the founders of program music, which attempted to use moods and sound effects of instruments to reflect those of a story, event or experience. This was evident in his most famous piece, Symphonie Fantastique. Used music to evoke the passionate emotions of a tortured love affair, including a fifth movement where he musically creates an opium-included nightmare of a witches' gathering. Importance: Beethoven and Berlioz were two extremely talented Romantic composers who changed the face of music entirely.

Thermidorean Reaction

Began after the execution of Robespierre. Named after the month of Thermidor. The Terror began to abate. The Committee of Public Safety now had less power and the Jacobin club was shut down. Churches were allowed to reopen for public worship. On February 21, 1795, the freedom of worship was given to all cults. Laissez-faire policies were now being used for economics. A new constitution was written in August 1795 that reflected a more conservative republicanism with more stability that did not sacrifice the ideals of 1789. There was the the Council of 500 and the Council of Elders. Importance: This period succeeded the execution of Robespierre, it was a time where new changes were being made in religion, economics, and politics.

National Convention

Began its sessions in September 1792, with its newly elected members. It was called to draft a new constitution. Acted as the sovereign ruling body of France. Dominated by lawyers, professionals, landowners, but also some artisans.Two thirds of the deputies were less than 45 years of age and had military experience from the Revolution. The convention's first major step was made on September 21 when it called to abolish the monarchy in France and instead be replaced by a republic. The National Convention soon became divided over what to do with the king.

The House of Orange

Began with William of Orange and his heirs. The house of Orange occupied the stadholderate in most of the seven provinces and favored the development of a centralized government with themselves as hereditary monarchs. Opposed by the States General who wanted a decentralized form of government. Republican forces were in control until William III was called upon by the United Provinces in 1672 to establish a monarchical regime. He died in 1702 without a direct heir, enabling republican forces to take over. Importance: The House of Orange tried to maintain a centralized government with themselves as hereditary monarchs, opposing republican rule, in the new Dutch state.

English Royal Society

Began with informal gatherings of scientists at London and Oxford in the 1640s and then gained support and a formal charter from King Charles II in 1662. Since the members of this weren't funded by the government, they were able to research wider topics. They also published the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Importance: The society in England for scientists, not sponsored by the state so they were less practical, promoted scientific research and literacy.

Great Britain's welfare state

Began with the nationalization of the Bank of England, the coal and steel industries, public transportation, and public utilities. For social welfare, the government enacted the National Insurance Act and the National Health Services Act in 1946. The insurance act established a comprehensive social security program and nationalized medical insurance, thereby enabling the state to subsidize the unemployed, the sick, and the aged. The health act created a system of socialized medicine that required doctors and dentists to work with state hospitals, although private practices could be maintained. Became the model for other European states after the war. Forced the British to reduce expenses abroad.

Mayans

Beginning around 300 C.E., on the Yuticán peninsula mayans had built one of the most sophisticated civilizations in the Americas. Built temples and pyramids, they were accomplished artists, and they developed a sophisticated calendar, as accurate as any in existence in the world at that time. They were an agrarian people; they cleared rainforests, developed farming, and built a patchwork of city-states. Included much of Central America and southern Mexico. Began to decline for unknown reasons around 800 and collapsed less than 100 years later. Importance: An early civilization in Mesoamerica that prospered due to their sophistication and intelligence, shows a civilization that flourishes and makes advancements outside of Europe.

Aryans

Believed by Hitler that this race could create a great civilization. Felt they were threatened by the Slavs (inferior people). The Slavic population could be used as slave labor to build the Aryan racial state that would dominate Europe for the next thousand years. The strong, healthy blond and blue eyed race.

Claus Von Stauffenberg

Believed that only the elimination of Hitler would bring the overthrow of the Nazi regime. On July 20, 1944, he planted a bomb to try to kill Hitler, but the assassination attempt was unsuccessful. The plot was quickly uncovered and crushed. Five thousand people were executed.

Ingmar Bergman, Francois Truffaut, and Federico Fellini

Bergman- Swedish director. The Seventh Seal. A good example of the successful European art film. "An artist of comparable stature to a novelist or playwright." Truffaut and Fellini- French and Italian. These directors gloried in experimenting with subject matter and technique to produce films dealing with more complex and daring themes than Hollywood would accept.

Max Planck and quanta

Berlin physicist. Rejected the belief that a heated body radiates energy in a steady stream but maintained instead that energy is radiated discontinuously, in irregular packets he called quanta. The quantum theory raise fundamental questions about the subatomic realm of the atom. Challenged the idea that atoms were the building blocks of the world aka Newtonian physics. Importance: Rejected the belief that a heated body radiates energy in a steady stream but maintained instead that energy is radiated discontinuously, in irregular packets he called quanta.

Bernini & Gentileschi

Bernini: Lived from 1598 to 1680. Perhaps the greatest figure of the Baroque. Italian architect and sculptor. Completed Saint peter's Basilica at the Vatican and designed the vast colonnade enclosing the piazza in front of it. Action, exuberance, profusion, and dramatic effects mark the work of Bernini in the interior of Saint Peter's, where his Throne of Saint Peter hovers in midair, held by the hands of the four great doctors of the Catholic Church. Above the chair, rays of golden light drive a mass of clouds and angels toward the spectator. Most striking work was the Ecstasy of Saint Theresa. In this work, he depicts a moment of mystical experience in the life of the sixteenth-century Spanish saint.Draperies and facial expression create a sensuously real portrayal of physical ecstasy. Gentileschi: Born in Rome. Studied painting under her father's direction. Moved to Florence in 1616. Became first woman to be elected to the Florentine Academy of Design at 23. In her tie she was most well known for her portraits, but now she is best known for a series of paintings of scenes from the Old Testament. Most famous of these paintings is Judith Beheading Holofernes. Importance: Both of these artists revolutionized their time period.

Diplomatic Revolution

Between 1933 and 1936 Hitler and Nazi Germans achieved a diplomatic revolution in Europe. Hitler believed that if he could keep the French from acting against Germany in his first years he could remove the restrictions imposed on Germany by Versailles and restore its strength. Posed as a man of peace in his speeches to achieve his goals. In october 1933, when he withdrew Germany from the Geneva Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations, he gave the Germans the feeling that their country was no longer dominated by other European states.

Bismarckian System

Bismarck exercised a restraining influence on the Europeans. To make up for the upsetting the balance of power with the creation of a unified Germany, Bismarck made an alliance in 1873 and again in 1881 with the traditionally conservative powers Austria-Hungary and Russia.

"The Decline of the West"

Book by the German writer Oswald Spengler. Reflected the disillusionment when he emphasized the decadence of Western civilization and posited its collapse.

Albert Einstein's E=mc2

Born a German. Matter and energy reflected the relativity of space and time. Relativity theory. E=mc2 was a formula that meant that each particle of matter is equivalent to its mass times the square of the velocity of light. Importance: This was key to explaining the vast energies contained within the atom, led to the atomic age.

Isaac Newton

Born in 1642 in the English village of Woolsthorpe. Attended Cambridge University. Invented the calculus, began his investigations into the composition of light, and inaugurated his work on the law of universal gravitation. Accepted a chair in mathematics at the university in 1669. Wrote Principia between 1684 and 1686. Had a nervous breakdown in 1693. Advanced to master of the mint by 1699. Held this post until his death in 1727. Became president of the Royal Society in 1703. Knighted in 1705. The only English scientist to be buried in Westminster Abbey. Importance: With a single law, that of universal gravitation, Newton was able to explain all motion in the universe, his great synthesis of the work of his predecessors created a new picture of the universe, one in which the universe was viewed as a great machine operating according to natural laws.

Martin Luther

Born in Germany on November 10, 1483. Pushed to be a lawyer. Received a bachelor's degree from the University of Erfurt in 1502. Started to study law three years later. A thunderstorm put him on the brink of death, vowed to be a monk if he survived. Entered the monastic order of the Augustinian Hermits in Erfurt. Struggle with confession. Received a doctorate in 1512, became a professor in the theological department at the University of Wittenberg. Luther helped set justification by faith and the Bible the twin pillars of the Protestant Reformation. Importance: Key figure in the Protestant Reformation from nailing his 95 thesis to the wall.

Sarajevo

Bosnian city. The site of the assassination of the Austrian heir.

Boxer Rebellion

Boxers were the Chinese who belonged to the secret organization called the Society of Harmonious Fists, whose aim was to ush foreigners out of China. Murdered foreign missionaries, the converted Chinese, railroad workers, foreign businessmen, and the German envoy to Beijing.

Grand Alliance

Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. At the beginning of 1943, the Allies agreed to fight until the Axis powers surrendered unconditionally.

First Battle of the Marne

British and France presented a counterattack against the unprepared Germans at the First Battle of the Marne. Germans fell back, French were too exhausted and could not push their advantage. Soon became a stalemate as neither could dislodge the other from the trenches they had built for shelter.

Fraternite

Brotherhood. Went hand in hand with nationalism in the defeat of Napoleon. The French people were a brotherhood. Importance: Brotherhood, a motto of the French that led them to overthrow Napoleon.

Railroads

Built and modernized in order to accommodate the newly advanced locomotives. In 1830, the public railway extended 32 miles from Liverpool to Manchester. By 1840, there were almost 2,000 miles of railroad in Britain. By 1850 there were 6,000 miles. The time it took to travel places was greatly decreased. Importance: Travel was revolutionized through the new developments made in transportation and the construction of railroads.

Bushido and Kamikazee

Bushido- The way of the warrior. The old code of morality of the samurai, who had played an important role in medieval and early modern Japanese history. This code was revived during the nationalistic fervor of the 1930s.Based on an ideal of loyalty and service, the code emphasized the obligation to honor and defend emperor, country, and family to sacrifice one's life if one failed in this sacred mission. Especially evident in the end of the war. Kamikazee- Meaning divine wind. Young Japanese pilot were encouraged to volunteer en masse to serve as pilots in suicide missions against US warships.

Toleration Patent of 1781

Called for by Joseph II of Austria. Recognized Catholicism public practice. Granted Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox the right to worship privately. Subjects were equal in all other ways except for this. Importance: Granted all religions the right to practice, but had a bias towards Catholics who were allowed to practice publicly.

Geneva

Calvin took up a ministry in Geneva 1536. His success here enabled the city to become a vibrant center of Protestantism. John Knox said "the most perfect school of Christ on earth". Missionaries trained in Geneva, which were then sent to all parts of Europe. Importance: Stood as fortress of Reformation.

John Maynard Keynes

Cambridge economist. Published General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money in 1936. Condemned the traditional view that in a free economy, depressions should be left to work themselves out. Argued that unemployment stemmed from a decline in demand and that demand could be increased by public works and financed through deficit spending to stimulate production.

The Peace of Utrecht

Came in 1713. Confirmed Philip V as the Spanish ruler, initiating a Spanish Bourbon dynasty that would last into the twentieth century. Affirmed that the thrones of Spain and France were to remain separated. The Spanish Netherlands, Milan, and Naples were given to Austria. Brandenburg-Prussia gained additional territories. Most triumphant in this treaty was England- it received Gibraltar and the former French territories of Newfoundland, Hudson Bay Territory, and Nova Scotia. Importance: Made England a force to reckon with by its gain of many French territories, but it also made Philip V the ruler of Spain while keeping the Spanish government separated from that of France.

"Dig for Victory"

Campaign encouraged by the government to increase food production. Field normally reserved for athletic events were turned over to citizens so that they could grow their own food. These measures needed to be taken because the Germans kept sinking British merchant vessels.

The Industrial Revolution

Caused a quantum leap in industrial production. New sources of energy and power, especially coal and steam, replaced wind and water to build and run machines that dramatically decreased the use of human and animal labor and increased productivity. Human labor was now organized in a way that maximized and benefitted from the new machines. Factories now replaced workshops and home workrooms. They would now make reforms that would make working conditions better from people, especially married women. The development of large factories led to the mass migration of people from rural to urban areas. Higher levels of productivity led to a search for new sources of raw materials, new consumption patterns, and finished products to move quickly around the world. Traditional social relationships between classes were transformed with the now wealthy middle class and even larger numbers of the working class. Importance: During the Industrial Revolution, Europe experienced a shift from a traditional, labor-intensive economy based on farming and handicrafts to a more capital-intensive economy based on manufacturing by machines, specialized labor, and industrial factories. Though it took decades to spread, it was revolutionary in the way it fundamentally changed Europeans, their society, and their relationship to the rest of the world.

The Great Depression

Caused largely by a downturn in domestic economies and an international financial crisis caused by the collapse of the American stock market in 1929. Lower food prices. In the peak of the depression, 1932, one in four Brits were out of work and 40% of the German labor force could not find jobs. In the US and Germany, industrial production went down 50%.

Natural Rights

Certain inalienable rights rights to which all people are entitled. Includes equality before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech and press, and the right to assemble, hold property, and seek happiness (life, liberty, and property). This idea is enforced by the Enlightenment ideal of natural laws. Importance: Certain inalienable rights rights to which all people are entitled, includes life, liberty, and property; equality before the law; and the freedom of speech.

Natural rights

Certain inalienable rights rights to which all people are entitled. Includes equality before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech and press, and the right to assemble, hold property, and seek happiness (life, liberty, and property). This idea is enforced by the Enlightenment ideal of natural laws. Importance: Certain inalienable rights rights to which all people are entitled, includes life, liberty, and property; equality before the law; and the freedom of speech.

Cultural Relativism

Certainties about European practices gave way to this. As the Europeans compared their ways of life to those of other civilizations to notice that their practices that had seemed to be grounded in reason now appeared to be matters of custom. As Europeans interacted with other cultures, they began to think that there were different species of humans or that there were racial variations between races, but either way, the Europeans were on the top. Importance: Europeans began to doubt certain ideas after comparing their principles to those of other civilizations.

Machine guns

Changed the face of warfare. Made killing much more efficient/ easier. Machine guns inflicted appalling casualties on both war fronts in World War One. Men who went over-the-top in trenches stood little chance when the enemy opened up with their machine guns. Machine guns were one of the main killers in the war and accounted for many thousands of deaths. Crude machine guns had first been used in the American Civil War (1861 to 1865). However, tactics from this war to 1914 had not changed to fit in with this new weapon. Machine guns could shoot hundreds of rounds of ammunition a minute and the standard military tactic of World War One was the infantry charge. Casualties were huge. Many soldiers barely got out of their trench before they were cut down.

The Restoration

Charles II returned to England after eleven years of exile. The monarchy was restored but that did not change the work of the English Revolution. Parliament kept most of the power it had won. Charles continued to push his own ideas. A new Parliament met in 1661 and restored the Anglican Church as the official church of England. People were forced to convert but Charles was sympathetic. James, the brother of Charles tried to give them more power but then Parliament passed the Test Act of 1673, making sure only Anglicans could have important positions. Charles dismissed Parliament in 1687. Importance: There was struggle between Parliament and the upcoming religions.

War of Austrian Succession

Charles VI was unable to produce a male heir, so he spent much of his reign negotiating the Pragmatic Sanction, which forced the great European powers to recognize Maria Theresa as his legal heir to the throne, so that his daughter could become the next ruler. After the death of Charles VI, everyone ignored the Pragmatic Sanction. Austria was now vulnerable and Prussia took advantage of this by seizing Silesia and France engaged in war against Austria for the succession of Austria's throne. Austria allied with Great Britain. This war was fought in Europe, India, and North America. The war ended in 1748 with the peace treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which promised the return of all occupied territories except Silesia to their original owners. Importance: A war surrounding the succession to the Austrian throne, though Charles VI ensured Maria Theresa's rightful claim to the Austrian throne through the Pragmatic Sanction, the rest of Europe ignored it when he died and they took advantage of vulnerable Austria.

Portolani

Charts made medieval navigators and mathematicians in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. More useful than medieval maps for navigation. They had details on coastal contours, distances between ports, and compass readings. Proved to be of great value for voyages in European waters. Little use for oversea voyages as they had no curvature. Importance: Proved to be very advantageous towards exploration and trade.

Infanticide

Children proved to be such a burden on some people that they would kill their children. Doing this was punishable by death, but continued anyways. To avoid this punishment, people "accidentally" suffocated children in their beds. Thus occurred in times of economic crisis. Importance: The practice of killing infants, occurred during times of economic distress.

House of Commons

Composed of landed gentry who served as justices of the peace in England and Scotland. Deputies of this house were chosen from the boroughs and counties, not through popular vote. Similar to the House of Lords because both were landowners with similar economic interests, and they frequently intermarried. Importance: The House of Commons was the lower house of Parliament, composing mostly of landed gentry who justified peace in England and Scotland.

The Grand Army

Composed of more than 600,000 men. Entered Russia in June 1812. In a battle against Russia, the French lost 30,000 of these men. Food, supplies, and disease ended up killing all but 40,000 by the time they had retreated from Russia into Poland. Importance: A huge army controlled by Napoleon, but its numbers dropped severely in war against Russia.

Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

Composed of six volumes. Written by Edward Gibbon. Portrayed the growth of Christianity as a major reason for Rome's eventual collapse. Expresses optimism about the future of European civilization and the ability of Europeans to avoid the fate of the Romans. Importance: One of the great masterpieces of eighteenth-century historiography & expresses the belief that it was the growth of Christianity that was the bane of the downfall of the Roman Empire.

"Reagan revolution" and "supply-side economics"

Consisted of a number of new policies. Cut back on the welfare state by reducing spending on food stamps, school lunch programs, and job programs. His administration fostered the largest peacetime military buildup in American history. Total federal spending rose from $631 billion to $1 trillion in five years. Reagan convinced Congress to rely on "supply-side economics." Massive tax cuts were supposed to stimulate rapid economic growth and produce new revenues. Much of the tax cut went to the wealthy. These policies worked but not for long term. In 1980, the total government debt was $930 billion but by 1988 the total debt tripled, reaching $2.6 trillion.

The Netherlands

Consisted of seventeen provinces. Seven northern provinces were largely Germanic in culture and Dutch speaking, while the French- and Flemish- speaking southern provinces were closely tied to France. Became prosperous through commerce and a flourishing textile industry. Because of its location, it was open to the religious influences of the age. Importance: Was able to unite all seventeen provinces when Philip brought an end to the revolt in 1573.

Third Estate

Consisted of the commoners, the overwhelming majority of France's population. Divided by occupation, level of education, and wealth. Peasants constituted 75-80% of the population. Owned 30-40% of the land. Peasants still had obligations to their landowners that they resented. Had to pay to use village facilities. Nobility could hunt on the land of the peasants. Third Estate also consisted of the artisans, shopkeepers and other wage earners in the cities. The Third Estate played an important role in the French Revolution as it was often a struggle to survive during times of economic discontent. Insubordination was evident in their lives. Ordinary people spent 30-50% of their income on bread, which was 75% of their diet. 2.3 million people or 8% was the middle class, the bourgeoisie. This group included the merchants, industrialists, and bankers, they controlled trade manufacturing, and finance. The middle class also consisted of the lawyers, holders of public offices, doctors, and writers. Sought security and status through the purchase of land. Wished for the social and political privileges of the nobility, this resentment was a large contributor toward the French Revolution. Importance: Consisted of the peasants and the bourgeoisie, large division between these two groups but both resented the huge separation of their place in society from the nobility.

Masaccio

Continued Giotto's work with the imitation of nature. Cycle of frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel has long been regarded as the first masterpiece of Early Renaissance art. A new realistic style of painting was born when he used monumental figures, a more realistic relationship between figures and landscape, and visual representation of the laws of perspective. Inspired later artists. Importance: His art style became the new style of the Renaissance art.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Controller general of finances for Louis XIV. Sought to increase the wealth and power of France through general adherence to mercantilism, stressed government regulation of economic activities to benefit the state. To increase exportation, he attempted to expand the quantity and improve the quality of French manufactured goods. Founded new luxury industries. Improved the communications and transportation of goods internally by building roads. Raised tariffs on foreign manufactured goods and created a merchant marine to decrease imports directly and to facilitate the conveyance of French goods. Importance: Fostered the development of manufacturing in France, but his economic policies were self-defeating

Pluralism and Absenteeism

Corruption in the Catholic Church lead people to want a reformation. The Renaissance popes' inability to provide spiritual leadership as well as the papal court's trouble with finances and the economic change. Highest positions of the clergy were nobles or wealthy members of the bourgeoisie. High church officials took over more than one church office. This pluralism to turn into absenteeism. Church officeholders ignored their duties and hired underlings who sometimes lacked the proper qualifications. Importance: Church became weak due to unqualified people running it over the actual church officials who ignored their own duties.

Cartesian Dualism

Created by Rene Descartes. Principle of an absolute duality between mind and body."The mind cannot be doubted but the body and material world can, the two must be radically different." Importance: His separation of mind and matter allowed scientists to view matter as dead or inert, as something totally separate from themselves and could be investigated independently by reason, this split between mind and body led Westerners to equate their identity with mind and reason rather than with the whole organism.

Mercator Projection

Created by the Flemish cartographer, Gerardus Mercator. Called a conformal projection also. It attempts to show the true shape of landmasses , but only in a limited area. The shapes of lands near the equator are quite accurate, but the farther away from the equator they lie, the more exaggerated their size becomes. Every straight line on them is a line of true direction, whether north, south, east, or west. Importance: Maps that were of great value to ship captains for four centuries, they were a very large advancement, even with their flaws.

Britain's Ministry of Munitions

Created in July 1915. Took numerous steps to insure that private industry would produce war materiel at limited profits. Developed a vast bureaucracy of 65,000 clerks to oversee munitions plants. Given the power in 1915 to take over plants manufacturing war goods that did not cooperate with the government. Rationed food supplies and imposed rent controls.

Salons

Crucial to the spread of the Enlightenment's ideas to the literate elite of European society. Came into being in the seventeenth century but rose to new heights in the eighteenth. These were the elegant drawing rooms in the urban houses of the wealthy where invited philosophes and guests gathered to engage in witty, sparkling conversations that often centered on the ideas of the philosophes. Salons brought together writers and artists with aristocrats, government officials, and wealthy bourgeoisie in France's rigid hierarchical society. Salons gave power to women in the sense that they now had the ability to affect the decisions of kings, sway political opinion, and influence literary and artistic taste. Salons also allowed to express their views that the royal court may have disapproved of. Importance: Crucial to the spread of the Enlightenment's ideas to the literate elite of European society.

Sistine Chapel's David

David was started in 1501 and was completed in 1504. At 14 feet high, it was the tallest statue carved in Italy since the time of Rome. He was commissioned to construct David by the Florentine government. David sends the message of the beauty of the human body and the glory of human beings. Carved from an 18 foot high piece of marble. Importance: Emanated human ideals, a symbol of the High Renaissance's affirmation of human power.

Elba and Saint Helena

Defeated in the war against Russia, Napoleon was sent to rule the island of Elba while the Bourbon dynasty was returned to France. Napoleon was bored on Elba so he returned to France, challenging the soldiers to shoot their emperor. Instead, they embraced him and he triumphantly marched into Paris on March 20, 1815. Napoleon decided to strike first at his enemies but was met at Waterloo on June 18 with a combined British and Prussian army under the duke of Wellington and suffered a bloody defeat. This time, he was exiled to the forsaken island of Saint Helena. Importance: These are the two islands that Napoleon was sent to rule instead of France when he was overthrown (twice.)

The Enlightenment

Defined by Immanuel Kant as "man's leaving his self-caused immaturity." Motto of the Enlightenment, "Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence!" A movement of intellectuals who "dared to know." Used reason to advocate the application of the scientific method to the understanding of all life. All thought was now scientific and rational, rendering old, especially religious, traditions as worthless. Believed that, by using reason, they could find the laws that governed all human society. Believed they could better society using this logic. Reason, natural law, hope and progress are the five words that sum up these ideas. Importance: Time period following the Scientific Revolution, a movement of intellectuals, more about reason and intellectual advancement that was built upon the newfound scientific ideas to create ideas about society.

Mannerism

Deliberately attempted to break down the High Renaissance principles of balance, harmony, and moderation. This term derives from critics who considered their contemporary artists to be second-rate imitators, painting "in the manner of" Michelangelo's late style. Painters deliberately distorted the rules of proportion by portraying elongated figures that conveyed a sense of suffering and a strong emotional atmosphere filled with anxiety and confusion. Spread from Italy to other parts of Europe. Reached its apogee in the work of El Greco. Importance: New style of art than that in the Renaissance, mainly in Italy, mannerism can be identified by proportion being distorted through elongated figures illustrating suffering.

Erwin Rommel and the Afrika Korps

Described by Hitler as "the most daring general of the armed forces of the German army." Sent to Libya in February 1941 with the German Afrika Korps after Italian defeat by the British. Leading a combined force of Italians and Germans, Rommel attacked on March 30 and by the end of May had reached the Egyptian frontier, where he was finally forced to halt. Reinforcements in North Africa in 1942 allowed the Afrika Korps to break through the British defenses in Egypt, capture Tobruk in June, and begin an advance toward Alexandra.

Henry Cort

Developed a new method called puddling which yielded wrought iron. Made the production of wrought iron possible. Wrought iron was more malleable and able to withstand more strain. Importance: Cort's advancements with puddling and wrought iron were able to modernize the iron industry because of the higher quality iron.

Concert of Europe

Developed as a means to maintain the new status quo the European powers powers had constructed. This accord grew out of the reaffirmation of the Quadruple Alliance made in November 1815. Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria renewed their commitment against any attempted restoration of Bonapartist power and agreed to meet periodically in conferences to discuss their common interests and examine measures. Four congresses warehouse between 1818 and 1822. The first of these meetings is held in 1818 at Aix-la-Chapelle and was by far the most congenial. Here, the four great powers agreed to withdraw their army of occupation from France and to add France to the Concert of Europe. The next meeting at was called at Troppau in the autumn of 1828 to deal with the outbreak of revolution in Spain and Italy. Importance: Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and eventually France were brought together by their fear of revolution or war so they developed this alliance to maintain the new status quo that they had created.

The Scientific Method

Developed by Francis Bacon. A system of experimentation and observation. He believed that, only by doing these two things carefully, could real generalizations and conclusions be drawn. Importance: A staple for all science today, it determines whether or not a conclusion is false or accurate through observations and experimentation.

uncertainty principle

Developed by the German physicist, Werner Heisenberg in 1927. Argued that no one could determine the path of an electron because the very act of observing the electron with light affected the electron's location. The uncertainty principle provided a new worldview. Shattered confidence in predictability and dared to propose that uncertainty was at the root of all physical laws.

Puddling:

Developed in the 1780's. Made other metals cheaper. Created a better material to be used for products. Importance: A new method called puddling where coke was used to burn away impurities in pig iron to produce an iron of high quality called wrought iron.

Joseph Lister

Developed the antiseptic principle. One of the first people to deal with them. Perceived that bacteria might enter a wound and cause infection. Used carbolic acid to eliminate infection during surgery. Patients now didn't have to go through hospital gangrene. Sulfuric ether used to lessen pain of patients. Chloroform. Importance: Developed new surgical practices that helped benefit patients.

Ricardo's "Law of Iron Wages"

Developed this in his 1817 work, Principles of Political Economy. Argued that an increase in population means ore workers; more workers in turn causes wages to fall below the subsistence level. Thus results in misery and starvation which will reduce the population. This shall make the number of workers decline and for the wages to rise, encouraging workers to have larger families, and so this cycle will keep repeating itself. Rising wages arbitrarily would be pointless. Importance: Developed the theory that with an increased population comes lower wages; with the decrease of workers will come an increase in wages and the cycle will keep repeating.

The Schlieffen Plan

Devised a military plan based on the assumption of a two-front war with France and Russia, since the two powers had formed an alliance in 1894. Called for a minimal troop deployment against Russia while most the the German army would make a rapid invasion of western by way of neutral Belgium. After the planned quick defeat of the French, the German army expected to deploy to the east against Russia. Under this plan, Germany could not mobilize its troops solely against Russia and therefore declared war on France on August 3 after issuing an ultimatum to Belgium on August 2 demanding the right of british troops to pass through Belgian territory. On August 4, Britain declared war on Germany.

Heinrich Himmler

Directed the SS. Led with a basis of terror and ideology. Believed the SS was a crusading order whose primary goal was to further the Aryan master race.

Jethro Tull

Discovered that using a hoe to keep the soil loose allowed air and moisture to reach plants and enabled them to grow better. He also used a drill to plant seeds in rows instead of scattering them by hand, a method that had lost much seed to the birds. Importance: Came up with new techniques that helped contribute to the agricultural revolution.

Vote by Order or by Head?

Discussed at the Estates-General on May 5, 1789. Vote by head- Vote by order was opposed by the patriots, or "lovers of liberty." Claimed to represent the nation. Some of this group had been influenced by the American Revolution, but all were swayed by the ideas of the Enlightenment. Vote by order- Each order would vote separately; each would have veto power over the other two, thus guaranteeing aristocratic control over reforms. Pursued by the Parlement of Paris, consisting of nobles of the robe. Importance: Vote by head was pursued by the patriots while vote by order was pursued by the Parlement of Paris.

Committee of Public Safety

Dominated initially by Danton. Purpose was to administer the government. For the next twelve months, the same twelve members kept getting re elected and serving in this committee, giving the country leadership in these times of crisis. Importance: The committee that gave France leadership for twelve months.

Bramante and Saint Peter's

Donato Bramante was able to highlight the High Renaissance's ideals into his work in architecture as well. From Urbino. Moved to Rome. Bramante's Tempietto was the paragon example of a perfect building with it's dome, columns, and sanctuary. Pope Julius ll commissioned him to design a new basilica for Rome. Called Saint Peter's. Importance: Captured the ideals of the High Renaissance in his architecture, especially Tempietto and Saint Peter's.

Skepticism

Doubt as to the truth of something. Refers to the church in this sense. The scientists of the seventeenth century held God in very high regard, not trying to undermine Christianity. Skepticism was a result of educated men and women beginning to question religious truths and values due to the spread of scientific knowledge. Importance: The beginning of a loss of faith in God in society, this initiated the fall of the church in terms of faith and power, inaugurated by the spread of scientific knowledge to educated individuals.

Panzer Divisions

Each consisted of about three hundred tanks with accompanying forces and supplies.

Civic Humanism

Early in the fifteenth century, the combination of Florentine civic spirit and pride and the humanism movement gave birth to a new concept- civic humanism. Cicero served as the ideal that it was the duty of an intellectual to live an active life for one's state. Reflects the urban values of the Renaissance. Importance: Civic humanism fused together the values of humanism with the satisfaction of serving one's own state in the process of it all, set a new ideal in the Renaissance.

The Noble Savage

Educated men who were exploring wrote books on their observations of the terrains and people they encountered. Some people interpreted these accounts as these "natural men" living happier lives than the Europeans. Europeans are held back by metaphorical shackles. The simple life of the natives look like bliss. Importance: The idea of the "noble savage" would play an important role in the political work of some philosophers.

Edward Vl and "Bloody Mary"

Edward VI was the son of Jane Seymour and Henry VIII who took the throne at age of 9 when Henry VIII died. Since he was too young to rule, the actual control of England passed to a council of regency. Mary intended to restore England to the Roman Catholic fold but didn't achieve her goal because of of the monarch and Parliament. Her marriage to Philip II, son of Charles V and future king of Spain, and the policies of alliance with France caused hostility, especially when her forces lost Calais, the last English possession from the Hundred Years' War. The burning of more than three hundred Protestant heretics resulted in the name "bloody Mary". Mary's death in 1558 ended the restoration of Catholicism in England. Importance: During Edward's reign Archbishop Cranmer and others inclined toward Protestant doctrines were able to move the Church of England in a more protestant direction. Mary achieved the opposite of what she wanted and England was more protestant by the end of her reign than it has been at the beginning.

Post-Impressionism

Emerged in France in the 1880's. Retained the Impressionist emphasis on light and color but revolutionized it even further by paying attention to structure and form. Sought to use both color and line to produce a personal statement of reality rather than an imitation of objects. Shifted from objective reality to subjective reality. The real beginning of modern art. Importance: This art movement was a fusion of the concepts and ideals of realism and impressionism; it retained the Impressionist emphasis on light and color but revolutionized it even further by paying attention to structure and form.

Andy Warhol and Pop Art

Emerged in the 1950's and 1960's. Took images of popular culture and transformed them into works of fine art. Andy Warhol began as an advertising illustrator. One of the most famous American Pop artists. Adapted images from commercial art. Derived from mass culture, these works were mass-produced and deliberately of the moment, expressing the fleeting whims of the popular culture. Detached style.

The Pankhurst and "Suffragettes"

Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia founded the Women's Social and Political Union in 1903, which enrolled mostly middle and upper class women. The members of this organization used unusual publicity stunts to call attention to their demands. Labeled "suffragettes" by male politicians, they pelted government officials with eggs, chained themselves to lamp posts, smashed store windows, burned railroad cars, and went on hunger strikes in jail. In 1903, she accepted martyrdom for the cause when she threw herself in front of the king's horse at a derby. Suffragists had the aim of the right of women to full citizenship in the nation-state. Importance: A radical group of women committed to gaining more women's rights, specifically suffrage.

Meiji Restoration

Emperor Mutsuhito Meiji was restored to the throne of Japan. The new leaders who controlled the emperor now inaugurated a remarkable transformation of Japan that is known as the Meiji Restoration. New leaders modernized and westernized Japan. Developed German-style army and a British-style navy. Mimicked the financial methods of the US and developed a modern commercial and industrial system. Copied a highly centralized administrative system from the French. Created a political system that was democratic in form but authoritarian in practice. Developed a powerful military state. Universal military conscription and a modern peacetime army. Pursued thee Western imperialistic model. Proved that an Asian country could contend against European powers.

Manhattan Project

Employed 130,000 people and sed $2 billion. Involved the cooperation of scientists, defense contractors, and the federal government for the development of the atomic bomb.

Child labor

Employed in large numbers in factories and mines. In the Industrial Revolution, child labor was exploited more than ever before and in a systematically more systematic fashion. Children worked as spinners in cotton factories because of their delicate touch. Their smaller size made it easier for them to crawl under machines to gather loose cotton. They were easily broken to this kind of work. Most importantly they acted as a cheap source of power. Children made up about 50% of Britain's population, so their work was quite abundant. Worked twelve to fifteen hours per day. Pauper apprentices were orphaned children who had wound up in the care of local parishes. To save on their upkeep, many parish officials apprenticed these children to factory owners. Many became deformed due to staying in the same contorted position for much too long. In the 30's and 40's, legislation made some laws for child labor in cotton mills and factories. Factory Act of 1833. Importance: The extent of child labor during the Industrial Revolution and the conditions and abuse they faced is truly tragic.

Claude Monet

Enchanted with water and painted many pictures in which he attempted to capture the interplay of light, water, and atmosphere. This is particularly evident in Impression, Sunrise. Importance: One of the most famous the the Impressionist painters, whose works reflect their ideals.

Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

Encompassed the entire region under Japanese tutelage.

Social Democrats

Encouraged the development of rural and industrial cooperative enterprises. Greatly expanded social services. Scandinavian governments increased old age pensions and unemployment insurance. Provided forms of assistance such as housing, free prenatal care, maternity allowances, and annual paid vacations for workers. Required high taxes and large bureaucracies to achieve their social welfare state.

Peace of Lodi

Ended almost a half century of war between the Italian states. Initiated 50 years of peace. Created an alliance between Milan, Florence, and Naples. Importance: Was able to create peace, though it did not last too long, in the Italian states

The Peace of Augsburg

Ended religious warfare in Germany in 1555, marked an important turning point in the history of the Reformation. The division of Christianity was formally acknowledged, with Lutheranism granted equal legal standing with Catholicism. Accepted the right of each German ruler to determine the religion of his subjects. Importance: Marks the division of Christianity into groups made equal by law, stopped the warfare that had been going on.

British East India Company

English presence in India steadily increased by the first half of the seventeenth century. By 1650, English trading posts had been established. From Madras, English ships carried Indian-made cotton goods to the East Indies, where they bartered for spices, which were shipped back to England. Received from the Mughal court the authority to collect taxes from lands in the area surrounding Calcutta. British forced out French power. Major step in the gradual transfer of all of the Indian subcontinent to British East India Company Importance: Originally a private company granted a trade monopoly with the East Indies by Queen Elizabeth I. Its success in extracting concessions from native rulers eventually led to its de facto control over much of modern India between 1757 and 1858.

Peace of Westphalia

Ensured that all German states, including the Calvinist ones, were free to determine their own religion. France gained parts of western Germany, part of Alsace, and the three cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which gave the French control of the Franco-German border area. Brandenburg and Bavaria gained some German territory, the Habsburgs did not lose any territories, but their authority over Germany was diminished. The states making up the Holy Roman Empire were now independent as they received the power to conduct their own foreign policies. Habsburg emperor became a figurehead of the Holy Roman Empire. This also made religion and politics become separate. Importance: The Peace of Westphalia allowed German states to determine their own religions, was a large step towards valuing religious freedom and individual choice.

War Memorials

Erected all throughout Europe and accompanied by ceremonies to commemorate the dead. Memorial parks, large monuments, and massive cemeteries on major battlefields were also used. All belligerent countries adopted national ceremonies for the burial of an Unknown Soldier, a reminder of the extreme brutality of World War I. Businesses, schools, universities and other corporate bodies all set up their own war memorials.

The Bauhaus

Especially important to the spread of functionalism was the Bauhaus School of Art, architecture and design, founded in 1919 in Weimar, Germany by the Berlin architect Walter Gropius. The Bauhaus teaching staff consisted of architects, artists and designers who worked together to blend the study of fine arts with the applied arts. Gropius urged his followers to foster a new union of arts and crafts to create the buildings and objects of the future.

Lebensraum

Espoused by Karl Haushofer, a professor of geography at the University of Munich. Maintained that a nation's power depended on the amount and kind of land it occupied. Hitler firmly believed in this.

Dutch East India Company

Established pepper plantations on Java and Sumatra, which became the source of massive profits for Dutch merchants of Amsterdam. Succeed in bringing almost the entire Indonesian archipelago under their control. Originally established as a chartered company in 1602, when the Dutch government granted it a 21-year monopoly on Dutch spice trade. Importance: Became an important figure in the spice trade and they gained power and many territories.

Law of General Maximum

Established price controls on goods declared of first necessity, ranging from food to and drink to fuel and clothing. The controls failed to work very well because the government lacked the machinery to enforce them. Importance: Tried to give lower prices for the necessary needs of the people, but it failed due to the lack of machinery.

Workhouses

Established with the Poor Law of 1834 as a sort of prison type buildings that the jobless poor were forced to work and live in.

The Poor Law of 1834

Established workhouses where jobless poor people were forced to live. They assumed the poor were responsible for their condition so they tried to make these warehouses as much like prisons a possible, so the poor would be scared of them. Despite sporadic opposition, more than 200,000 poor people were locked up in warehouses. Family members were separated, forced to live in dormitories, given work assignments, and fed dreadful food. Importance: Basically, they imprisoned the jobless poor and forced them to live in awful conditions to scare the other oor into being less poor.

Rapprochement

Establishing peaceful relations with other nations. Not entirely successful.

"The White Man's Burden"

Europeans had a moral responsibility to civilize ignorant people.

Revolutions of 1848

Even after the French Revolution, the conservative order still remained in charge of much of Europe. But liberalism and nationalism continued to grow. In 1848, these factors prepped for revolution. First starting in FRance, revolution provided the spark for other countries. Soon ,most of central and southern Europe faces revolutions of their own.

Helsinki Agreements, 1975

Example of reduced tensions between the superpowers. Signed by the United States, Canada, and all European nations, these accords recognized all border that had been established in Europe since the end of World War II. Acknowledged the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe. Committed tthe powers to recognize and protect the human rights of their citizens.

First Consul and Emperor

Executive power in the government rested in the hands of the individual. Napoleon was the first consul and directly controlled the entire executive authority of the government. He had overwhelming influence over the legislature, appointed members of the bureaucracy, controlled the army, and conducted foreign affairs. He was made consul for life in 1802. Crowned himself emperor of France in 1804. Importance: These two new titles for France, established by Napoleon, made the French government even more autocratic than the monarchy of the old regime.

Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron

Expelled from school for advocating atheism. Tried to reform the world. Completed Prometheus Unbound in 1820, a portrait of the revolt of human beings against the laws and customs that oppress them. He drowned in a storm in the Mediterranean. Lord Byron: Dramatised himself as the melancholy Romantic hero that he described in his work, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. Participated in the movement for Greek independence and died in Greece fighting the Ottomans. Importance: To examples of the Romantic hero that lived dramatic lives and died in hazardous and heroic conditions.

German Expressionists

Expressionism existed as a movement before the first World War, the war itself had a devastating impact on the German Expressionist artists who focused on the suffering and shattered lives caused by the war. Otto Dix was an artist who gave visual representation to the horrors of war in his The War because he had served in the war and so he was able to give a graphic representation of the devastating effects of World War I.

First and Second Estates

First Estate: Consisted of the clergy, about 130,000 people. The church owned 10% of the land. Clergy were exempt from the taille. The church "voluntarily" gave a donation to the state every five years. Clergy was radically divided, as there was the wealthy and the poor. Second Estate: Consisted of the nobility, about 350,000 people. Owned 25 to 30% of the land. Played a crucial role in French society. Held many of the leading positions in the government, military, law courts, and the higher church offices. Much heavy industry was controlled by nobility. Nobility was divided. Nobles of the robe- derived status from officeholding, dominated royal law courts and important administrative offices. Nobles of the sword- descendants of medieval nobility. Wanted to expand their privileges, defend liberty, and continue to control the church government, and law. Generally married within their own ranks. Exempted from taxation. Importance: The top two tiers of French society, but even these ranks were further divided, both of these classes were corrupt- they were exempted from taxation and owned much of France's land.

The English Civil War

First Phase: Went from 1642 to 1646. Parliament was victorious in the end of the first phase due to their capture of King Charles I in 1646. They were successful because of the creation of the New Model Army, composed mainly of extreme Puritans called Independents, believed they were battling for the Lord. Second Phase: Parliamentary forces split. Presbyterian majority wanted to disband the army and restore Charles I with a Presbyterian state church. Negotiations began in 1647. Charles fled. Second civil war started in 1648. Cromwell was victorious and the king was captured. Presbyterian members of Parliament were purged. Charles was beheaded on January 30, 1649. Importance: These civil wars resulted in the triumph of the revolution and the temporary destruction of England's monarchy.

The Jacobins

First emerged as a gathering of more radical deputies at the beginning of the Revolution, especially during the events of the night of August 4, 1789. After October 1789, they occupied the Jacobin convent in Paris. Jacobin clubs also formed in the provinces for discussion groups. They finally joined together in an extensive correspondence network and by spring 1790 were seeking affiliation with the Parisian center. Members were usually the elite of their local societies, but they also included artisans and tradespeople. Importance: A group of radicals made up of the elite, formed during the Revolution, offered radical solutions to the the nation's problems.

Popular Front

First government was formed in June 1936. A coalition of the Socialists and Radicals.Leader was Leon Blum. Served as prime minister. Initiated a program for workers that some have called the French New Deal. Established the right of collective bargaining, a forty-hour workweek, two-week paid vacation, and minimum wages. Policies failed to solve the problems of depression.

The Persian Letters

First law was the Persian Letters, published in 1721. Used the format of two Persians supposedly traveling in western Europe and sending their impressions back home to enable him to criticize French institutions, especially the Catholic Church and the French monarchy. Principles of French Enlightenment are contained in this work- attack of traditional religion, advocacy for religious toleration, the denunciation, and the use of reason to liberate human beings from their prejudices. Importance: In this work he criticized the Church and advocated for people to stray away from their traditional beliefs to instead support religious toleration.

The Battle of Lepanto

First major naval battle in the Mediterranean fought entirely between galleys. Victory of the Holy League prevented the Ottoman Empire from expanding further along the European side of the Mediterranean.

Oratory of Divine Love

First organized in Italy in 1497. Not a religious order but an informal group of clergy and laymen who worked to foster reform by emphasizing personal spiritual development and outward acts of charity.The "philosophy of Christ" that is endorsed by Erasmus is appealing to many. Made up of cardinals who wanted a reformation of the church. Cardinal Ximenes was a primary figure of this group. Importance: Favored a reformation of the church, wanted an emphasis in person spiritual development and charity towards others.

Totalitarian State

First used by Mussolini to describe his new fascist state. Eventually applied to the Nazi State and the Soviet Union. States brought under Soviet control.A state characterized by government control of economic, social, political, cultural and intellectual life; the subordination of the individual to the state; and insistence that the masses be actively involved in the regime's goals. Totalitarian regimes extended the functions and power of the central state far beyond what it had been in the past. Used modern mass propaganda techniques and high speed modern communications to conquer the hearts and minds of its citizens. This state was led by a single leader and a single party and ruthlessly rejected the idea of liberal minutes government power and constitutional guarantees of individual freedoms. None of the totalitarian states ever gained complete control of its society.

Warsaw Pact

Formed by Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union in 1955 to create a formal military alliance.

PLO and Yasser Arafat

Formed by Egypt at a meeting of Arab leaders in Jerusalem in 1964 to represent the interests of the Palestinians. Believed that only Palestinian people had the right to form a state in Palestine. A guerilla movement called al-Fatah, led by the PLO political leader Yasir Arafat, began to launch terrorist attacks on Israeli territory.

European Coal and Steel Community

Formed by France, West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg in 1951 to create a common market for coal and steel products among the six nations by eliminating tariffs and other trade barriers. Successful.

Trade Unions

Formed by skilled workers in new industries. Served two purposes: To preserve their own position by limiting entry into their trade and by gaining benefits from the employer. Had limited goals. Favored a working class struggle against employers, but only to win improvements for the members of their own trades. Som unions were willing to strike to attain their own goals. Unions began to be tolerated and in the 20's and 30's, this movement began to focus on the creation of national unions. Importance: An association of workers in the same trade, formed to help members secure better wages, benefits, and working conditions.

Indian National Congress

Formed in 1883. Moderate, educated Indians were beginning to seek self government. By 1919, Indians were demanding complete independence.

Mao Zedong's Great Leap Forward

Formed in 1958 when the collective farms failed to increase food production. Existing collective farms, each the size of a traditional village, were combined into vast"people's communes," each containing more than 30,000 people. Hoped this would create mobilization for a massive effort to speed up the economic growth and reach the final stage of communism- a classless society. Ended in disaster due to bad weather and peasant peasant hatred of the new system which led to a downward food production rate.

Desiderius Erasmus' The Praise of Folly

Formulated and popularized the reform program of Christian humanism. Born in Holland. Educated at one of the schools of the Brothers of the Common Life. Making common-sense criticisms of the abuses in the church is evident in The Praise of the Folly. Written in 1509. This book manages to be humorous yet effective in its criticisms of the most corrupt practices of his own society, especially harsh on the abuses within the ranks of the clergy. Importance: This work greatly helped pave the way for the Reformation and Martin Luther, exposed the abuses in his society and in the clergy.

Bank of England

Founded in 1694. Unlike other banks, accustomed to receiving deposits and exchanging foreign currencies, the bank of England made loans. Issued banknotes backed by the bank's credit to go with its loans. These became negotiable and a paper substitute for gold and silver. These loans also created "national debt" as well. Importance: Introduced a form of paper currency and gave loans to people, these loans created public debt as well.

The Grand National Consolidated Trades Union

Founded in February 1834. As a national federation of trade unions, its primary purpose was to coordinate a general strike for the eight hour working day. By the summer of that year the federation collapsed due to the lack of general support from the working class. The union movement reverted to trade unions for individual crafts. Importance: Had the primary purpose of coordinating a general strike for the eight hour working day, but failed due to a lack of support from the general working class.

Physiocrats

Founders of the modern discipline of economics. Physiocrats claimed they would discover the natural economic laws that governed human society. Their first principle was that land constituted the only source of wealth and that wealth itself could be increased only by agriculture because all other economic activities were unproductive and sterile. Rejected the mercantilist emphasis on the significance of money—that is, gold and silver—as the primary determinants of wealth. Their second major "natural law" of economics also represented a repudiation of mercantilism, specifically, its emphasis on a controlled economy for the benefit of the state. Stressed that the existence of the natural economic forces of supply and demand made it imperative that individuals should be left free to pursue their own economic self-interest. They argued that the state should in no way interrupt the free play of natural economic forces by government regulation of the economy but rather should just leave it alone, a doctrine that subsequently became known by its French name, laissez-faire. Importance: Believed agriculture was the sole pursuit for economic profit, founders of the modern discipline of economics, claimed they would discover the natural economic laws that governed human society, helped lay the foundation for the economic liberalism.

Austerlitz and Trafalgar

France had engaged in war upon Britain, Russia, and Austria. Napoleon faced a large army under Tsar Alexander I and some Austrian troops at Austerlitz. These combined forces outnumbered France, but the tsar chose poor terrain for this battle, and so Napoleon obliterated both of these forces. Austria sued for peace and Tsar Alexander took his remaining troops back to Russia. The British navy defeated a combined French-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in 1805, dissuading Napoleon from an English invasion. Importance: These two battles show the immense strength of the French military under Napoleon, though the French could never conquer Britain.

The Taille

France's chief tax. Weighed heavily on French peasantry and middle class. Importance: A form of French taxation that the upper class was exempt from.

Louis Pasteur

French. Formulated the germ theory of disease, which had enormous practical applications in the development of modern scientific medical practices. Chemist. Discovered fermentation and the science of bacteriology. Pasteurization was discovered- hearing a product to destroy the organisms causing spoilage. In 1855 he developed a vaccine for rabies. 1890's the principle of vaccination was extended to diphtheria, typhoid fever, cholera, and plague, creating a modern immunological science. Importance: Isolated the specific bacteriological causes of numerous diseases had a far reaching impact. Provided a rational means of treating and preventing infectious disease to transform the medical world. Discovered germs.

Johannes Gutenberg

From Mainz. Played an important role in making the moveable metal type widespread by being the first one to write a book with it in 1455 or 1456 in the West. Importance: Helped encourage the usage of the printing press and ultimately lead it to extreme popularity.

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)/"Star Wars"

Furthered by Reagan. Its purpose was to create a space sheild that could destrpy incoming missles.

Brandenburg-Prussia

Gained its power mainly from the work of the Hohenzollern dynasty. Received the duchy of Prussia in 1618 while they were already in control of some other German lands. The dominions consisted of three disconnected masses in western, central, and eastern Germany. They were only connected by the Hohenzollern ruler. Importance: Became one of the main powers mainly because of the Hohenzollern dynasty.

Reform Act of 1832

Gave recognition to the new changes that the Industrial Revolution brought. Disenfranchised 56 rotten boroughs and enfranchised 42 new towns ad cities and reappointed others. There was still a property qualification for voting. One in every thirty people was represented in Parliament. Primarily benefitted the middle class. Importance: The reform Act of 1832 recognized the changes that had ome from the Industrial Revolution and allowed the industrial middle class to join the landed interests in ruling Britain.

The Nineteenth Amendment

Gave women in the United States the right to vote in 1920.

Hindenburg and Ludendorff

General Paul von Hindenburg was chief of general staff and Erich Ludendorff was the deputy of staff. They came to control the German government by 1916 and virtually became the military dictators of Germany. War heroes. In 1916, they decreed a system of complete mobilization for total war. Eventually made all male noncombatants between the ages of seventeen and sixty to work only in jobs deemed crucial to the war effort.

Ataturk

General of Turkey. Wished to westernize. Gave new rights to women. Helped with education. A dictator. Secularized the government

The Blitz

German air raids.

Battle of Kursk

German forces were defeated by the Soviets at this battle. The greatest tank battle of World War II. The Germans lost 18 of their best panzer divisions.

Maginot Line

German panzer divisions broke through the weak French defensive positions, outflanking the Maginot Line, raced across France to reach the English Channel and divide the Allied forces.

Battle of Britain

Germans tried to harm Britain through attacks from the Luftwaffe. British had a very effective radar system that alerted them quickly of German aircrafts coming. British aircrafts faced critical losses but were ultimately saved by Hitler's change of strategy. Instead of targeting military bases, Hitler decided to bomb cities to break morale. The British were able to rebuild their forces and win the battle, imposing major losses to the Nazis.

"Dictated peace"

Germans were outraged by the peace treaty presented to them by the allies after the war. Rejection meant a renewal of war, but that was no longer practical.

Central Powers

Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire.

Friedrich Nietzsche's "slave morality"

Glorified the irrational. The "slave morality" of Christianity had obliterated the human impulse for life and had crushed the human will.Europeans had killed God. They were now liberated and could achieve a higher kind of being. Importance: The "slave morality" of Christianity had obliterated the human impulse for life and had crushed the human will.

Philip II

Greatest advocate of militant Catholicism in the second half of the sixteenth century. Known as the "Most Catholic King". He strictly conformed to Catholicism, enforced by the Spanish Inquisition and the establishment of strong, monarchical authority. Did manage to expand royal power in Spain by making the monarchy less dependent on the traditional landed aristocracy. Failed to distinguish between important and trivial matters and fell behind on state correspondence because he couldn't delegate. His attempt to make Spain great gain led to large debts and crushing taxes, and military actions in defense of Catholicism ended in failure and misfortune in both France and the Netherlands. Also hoped to strengthen his control in the Netherlands.Importance: "Most Catholic King". A champion of the Catholic cause against Protestantism. Sought to maintain Habsburg control in the Netherlands by combating a Protestant revolt. Used large debts and crushing taxes to try to gain money/ power. His military actions in defense of Catholicism ended in failure and misfortune in the Netherlands and France.

Leo Tolstoy

Greatest work was War and Peace. This was a lengthy novel played or against the historical background of Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812. It is realistic in its vivid descriptions of military life and character portrayal. Each person is delineated clearly and analyzed psychologically. Upon a great landscape, Tolstoy imposed a fatalistic view of history that ultimately proved irrelevant in the face of life's enduring values of human love and trust. Importance: The nineteenth century realistic novel reached its height in his works.

Thomas Malthus

Greatly enhanced the case against government interference in economic matters. In Essay on the Principles of Population, he argued that an unchecked population increases at a geometric rate while the food supply increases at a much slower arithmetic rate. The result of this would be overpopulation and starvation, deeming nature's interference necessary. Misery and poverty were the inevitable result of the law of nature; no government or individual should interfere with its operation. Importance: He believed an unchecked population would result in overpopulation and mass starvation, so the interference of nature was necessary and should not be disputed by government or individuals.

Galen

Greek physician. His teachings dominated late medieval medicine. Lived in the second century. His influence was pervasive in anatomy, physiology, and disease. Relied on animal dissection to understand human anatomy, but this lead to many misconceptions. His ideas on human anatomy were used into the Later Middle Ages for human dissection. Believed that there were two separate blood systems where one controlled muscular activities and contained bright red blood moving up and down through the arteries and the other governed the digestive functions and contained dark red blood that ebbed and flowed through the veins. Treatment of disease was also highly influenced by Galen's doctrine of four bodily humors- blood (warm and moist), yellow bile (warm and dry), phlegm (cold and moist), and black bile (cold and dry). Disease was supposedly caused by an imbalance of these humors. Urine testing, bleeding, purging, and herbal medicines were used as treatment. Importance: Galen produced ideas about anatomy, physiology, and disease that were used for centuries after his death.

The New World

Had gold and silver, as well as good agriculture, commerce, textiles, silk and leather goods. Importation of silver also had detrimental effects because ot helped set off a spiraling inflation that disrupted the Spanish economy, hurting both textile production and agriculture. Importance: The New World introduced the trade of gold and silver which led to an economic drop in the Spanish Economy.

The League of Nations

Had some success in guaranteeing protection for the rights of many ethnic and religious minorities that remained in some of the newly formed states. Not particularly effective at maintaining the peace. America's lack of presence in the League made it weaker from the beginning.The League's sole weapon for halting aggression was the imposition of economic sanctions such as trade embargoes and the severance of financial ties by League members, but this failed to prevent the League members from engaging in military action. It's failure to reprimand its members for their acts of military aggression further undermined its credibility. Efforts to promote disarmament were also ineffective.

Plato

He influenced the way people thought for centuries. A student of Socrates and a teacher of Aristotle. His writings explored justice, beauty and equality, and also contained discussions in aesthetics, political philosophy, theology, cosmology, epistemology and the philosophy of language. Plato founded the Academy in Athens, one of the first institutions of higher learning in the Western world. Importance: Ancient Greek philosopher Plato founded the Academy and is the author of philosophical works of unparalleled influence in Western thought.

Benedict de Spinoza

He was a philosopher who strongly believed in freedom of thought and developed pantheism. Pantheism, or monism, was the belief that God is the universe, and therefore people are a part of God. This new philosophy tolerated every and all forms of God(s). Importance: He created Pantheism, which was a new philosophy that was a purer and more truthful way of looking at the universe without the excuses of the church.

Blaise Pascal

He was a scientist and mathematician who strove to unite both science and religion. After an accomplished career in science, he had a vision and from there on, he devoted his life to the unification of his passions, science and the church. Importance: His views on science and religion were a step in the right direction after the plethora of disagreements between scientists and the church.

Raphael

He was in his prime as an artist at the early age of 25. Already regarded as one of Italy's best painters. Best known for his series of madonnas, his frescoes in the Vatican Palace, and his School of Athens. In his artwork, Raphael tried to create a sort of beauty that exceeded human standards in his madonnas. Uses the underlying principles of the art of the Classical world of Rome and Greece in his School of Athens. Importance: Like da Vinci, Raphael combines the ideals of both Classical art and the art styles of the High Renaissance.

Nuremberg rally

Held every September. Combined the symbolism of a religious service with the merriment of a popular amusement.Held great appeal and usually evoked mass enthusiasm and excitement.

House of Medici

Helped Florence regain its preeminence in banking in the fifteenth century. Went from cloth production to commerce to real estate to banking. Was once the greatest bank in Europe, having branches in Venice, Milan, , Rome, Avignon, Bruges, London, and Lyons. Were the principal bankers for papacy. The Medici's sudden decline 1494 stemmed from bad leadership and uncollectable loans. Expelled from Florence by the French and got their property confiscated as well. Importance: Made it so that Florence was able to regain its preeminence in banking.

Archimedes

His contributions in geometry revolutionised the subject and his methods anticipated the integral calculus 2,000 years before Newton and Leibniz. He was also a thoroughly practical man who invented a wide variety of machines including pulleys and the Archimidean screw pumping device. Importance: Archimedes was the greatest mathematician of his age.

Caspar David Friedrich, J.M.W. Turner, Eugene Delacroix

His early life experiences left him with a lifelong preoccupation with nature and God. Painted landscapes with an interest that transcended the presentation of natural details. Portrayal of nature was a manifestation of divine life. Man and Woman Gazing at the Moon. Believed artistic process depended on one's inner vision. Importance: Artist with a preoccupation with the divinity of nature.

Louis XIV's wars

His increase in royal power as well as his desire for military glory led Louis to wage many wars. He waged four wars between 1667 and 1713. Invaded the Spanish Netherlands to spark his first war. Sued for peace in 1668. France then invaded the United Provinces but again had to make peace at Nimwegen in the Dutch War due to the Dutch procuring allies. In his next war, he took over cities of the Holy Roman Empire. The reaction to this sparked his third war, the War of the League of Augsburg which lasted until 1697. Brought economic depression and famine to France. The Treaty of Ryswick ended the war. Finally there was the War of the Spanish succession which lasted from 1702 to 1713. About the succession to the Spanish throne. Nobody wanted this unification if France and Spain though as it would be too much power. Treaties finally decided that Philip V would become king but the empires of Spain and France would have to remain separate. Importance: All of these wars left France in a very bad state economically, so it seems some of them weren't really worth it and had only been fought for the glory of the king.

Sir Walter Scott

His novels became European bestsellers in the first half of the nineteenth century. One of his most popular works was Ivanhoe, where Scott tried to evoke the clash between Saxon and Norman knights in medieval England.

"degenerate art"

Hitler and the Nazis rejected modern art as degenerate or Jewish art. He thought art of the time should instead glorify the healthy, the strong, and the heroic.

Albert Speer

Hitler's personal architect. Made minister for armaments and munitions in 1942. Eliminated waste and rationalized procedures to triple the production of armaments between 1942 and 1943 despite the intense Allied air raids. Wanted total mobilization of the resources for the war effort. Finally implemented in 1944 but it was too late.

Council of Trent

In 1542, Pope Paul III took the decisive step of calling for a general council of Christendom to resolve the religious differences created by the Protestant revolt. A group of cardinals, archbishops, bishops, abbots, and theologians met in March 1545 at the border of Germany and Italy. The plague, war between France and Spain, and the changing of popes, prevented them from meeting annually. Met in three major sessions between 1545 and 1563. Final doctrinal decrees of the Council of Trent reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings in opposite to protestant beliefs. Importance: After the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church possessed a clear body of doctrine and a unified church under the acknowledgement supremacy of the popes, who had triumphed over bishops and councils.

Richard Trevithick

In 1804, he developed the first steam-powered locomotive. Located on an industrial railway in southern Wales. Able to pull ten tons of ore along with seventy people while going five miles per hour. Importance: Set the stage for later advancements of the steam-powered locomotives and other transformations of railways.

Greek Revolt

In 1821, the Greeks were revolted against their ottoman Turkish masters. Subject to Muslim control for 400 years. The revival of Greek national sentiment at the beginning of the 19 century added to the growing desire for liberation from Turkish oppression. In 1827, a combined British and French fleet went to Greece and defeated a large Ottoman armada. Russia itself declared war on the Ottoman empire. The Treaty of Adrianople allowed Russia, France, and Britain to decide the fate of Greece. In 1830, the three powers declared Greece an independent kingdom, and two years later, a new role dynasty was established. But this revolution was only successful because it had assistance from the great powers. Importance: The revolt of Greece against the control of the Ottoman Empire was only made successful through the intervention of the great powers of Europe.

Charles de Gaulle's Fifth Republic

In 1958, de Gaulle immediately drafted a new constitution for the Fifth Republic that greatly enhanced the power of the president, who would now have the right to choose the prime minister, dissolve parliament, and supervise both defense and foreign policy.

Bay of Pigs

In 1961, an American-supported attempt to invade Cuba via the Bay of Pigs and overthrow Castro's regime ended in utter failure.

Falklands Island/war

In 1982, when Argentina attempted to take control of the Falkland Islands, one of the few remaining British colonial posts, 300 miles off its coast, the British successfully rebuffed the Arenties, at the cost of 255 lves and lots of money.

The French Academy

In France, informal meetings of scientists and intellectuals in Paris during the 1650s led to the formation of this. This group was first formally recognized by King Louis XIV in 1666. Since they received funding and support from the government, they mainly researched for the benefit of "king and state." Importance: Sponsored by the state, published a journal that is similar to today's scientific magazines and was an organized group that was able to further improve and develop science.

The Brothers Grimm

In Germany, the Grimm brothers collected and published local fairytales

The Prague Spring

In January 1968, Alexander Dubcek was elected first secretary of the Communist Party and soon introduced the reforms of Freedom of speech and the press, freedom to travel abroad, and a relaxation of secret police activities. A period of euphoria that followed these reforms came to be known as the "Prague Spring." Short-lived. Red Army invaded and stopped the reform movement.

Iron Curtain

In March 1946, in a speech to an American audience, former prime minister Winston Churchill declared that "an iron curtain" had "descended across the continent," dividing Germany and Europe into two hostile camps.

University of Nanterre, 1968

In May, 1968, a student revolt erupted at the University of Nanterre, where about five hundred students gathered for demonstrations and demanded a greater voice in the administration of the university. Authorities reacted with force and students soon followed suit. On May 3, 80 policemen and about 300 students were hurt and almost 600 students arrested. Demonstrations spread to other universities. On My 10, barricades were put up by students and when police went to tear them down, violence ensued. Students got workers to join the movement and half of France's workforce went on strike that month. De Gaulle instituted a hefty wage hike and the workers went back to work and the remaining students were suppressed.

Rome-Berlin axis

In October 1936, Mussolini and Hitler concluded an agreement that recognized their common political and economic interests and one month later Mussolini referred publicly to the new Rome-Berlin axis.

Temple of Reason:

In Paris, the cathedral of Notre-Dam was designated the Temple of Reason. In November 1793, a public ceremony dedicated to the worship of reason was held here; patriotic maidens adorned in white dresses paraded before a temple of reason where the high altar once stood. At the end of the ceremony, a female figure personifying Liberty rose out of the temple. Importance: A manifestation of de-Christianization where the cathedral of Notre-Dam was converted into The Temple of Reason.

Lech Walesa and Solidarity

In Poland, continued worker unrest led to the rise of the independent labor movement, Solidarity. Led by Lech Walesa, Solidarity represented 10 million of Poland's 35 million. With the support of workers, many intellectuals, and the Catholic Church, Solidarity was able to win a series of concessions. The Polish government seemed powerless to stop the flow of concessions until December 1981, when it arrested Walesa and other Solidarity leaders, outlawed the Union, and imposed military rule.

The Social Contract

In Rousseau's treatise, The Social Contract, published in 1762, he tries to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority. An agreement on the part of an entire society to be governed by its general will. General will represented a community's highest aspirations. Liberty was achieved through being forced to follow what was best for all people because what was best for all was best for each individual. True freedom is adherence to laws that one has imposed on oneself. Everybody was responsible for framing general will. The creation of laws could never be delegated to a parliamentary institution. Importance: Attempts to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority in this social contract.

Congress of Vienna

In September 1814, people, mostly European royalty, traveled from all over to gather in Vienna, the capital of the Austrian Empire. Festivities were held for days on end. These people were representatives of all the states that had fought Napoleon. They met to arrange a final peace settlement after almost a decade of war. On June 8, 1815, they completed this task. The upheaval that the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars had caused subsided momentarily in 1815 as rulers sought to restore stability by reestablishing much of the old order to Europe. Kings, landed aristocrats, and bureaucratic elites reasserted their control over Europe. However, by the 1820's and 30's, the people were rebelling against the reestablishment of the old order. By 1848, there were widespread revolutions and though some were successful, most were not. But due to the amassed change that the French and Industrial Revolutions brought about, the old order began to fall through. Importance: The gathering of notables whose countries fought against Napoleon to reach the peace settlement of reestablishing the old order to Europe.

Louis Blanc and Flora Tristan

In The Organization of Work, Blanc maintained that social problems could be solved by government assistance. Denouncing competition as the main cause of the economic evils of his day, he called for the establishment of workshops that would manufacture goods for public sale. The state would finance these workshops, but the workers would own and operate them. Tristan was a female utopian socialist who travelled led through France preaching the need for the liberation of women. Worker's Union 1843. Wanted to reconstruct family and work for the female. Envisioned absolute equality as the only hope to free the working class and transform civilization. Was ignored by contemporaries. Importance: These two individuals represent the socialists of this time who envisioned a utopian society.

The Papal Sates

In central Italy. Mostly under the control of popes, but new states arose inside that were independent of the pope's leadership. Independent states were Urbino, Bologna, and Ferrara. The popes tried to reestablish their control over the Papal States in the fifteenth century. Importance: The Papal States was a region in the Renaissance that was independent of the leadership of the popes.

Italian and Egyptian Campaigns

In his Italian campaign, he won the confidence of his men by his energy, charm and ability to comprehend complex issues quickly and make decisions rapidly. Turned a group of ill-disciplined soldiers into an effective fighting force and with this army defeated Austria. Napoleon was tough and relentless with officers, but was a charming friend to the soldiers. He won the Italians over with his intelligence, ease with words, and supreme confidence in himself. Attempted to take over Egypt as a hit to England but abandoned his efforts when the British cut off his supplies. Importance: Napoleon was able to win over vast amounts of armies and turn them into fighting forces.

Robert Owen's New Lanark

In this Scottish city, Robert Owen was successful in transforming a squalid factory town into a flourishing, healthy community. Importance: This city became the symbol for the utopian cooperative environment that was growing popular at this time.

The Sacraments

Includes Baptism, Confirmation or Chrismation, Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony.

Albrecht Dürer

Influenced by Italian art. Lived from 1471 to 1528. From Nuremberg. Went to Italy twice, learned about proportion and perspective. Wrote treatises on both. His Adoration of the Magi combines the details favored by the Northerners and the careful examination of the human form used by the Italians. Importance: Dürer amalgamates the ideals of Northern and Italian art styles to achieve a new look in his Adoration of the Magi.

The Bourgeoisie

Inhabitants (merchants and artisans) of boroughs and burghs (towns). The middle class. This group included the merchants, industrialists, and bankers, they controlled trade manufacturing, and finance. The middle class also consisted of the lawyers, holders of public offices, doctors, and writers. Sought security and status through the purchase of land. Wished for the social and political privileges of the nobility, this resentment was a large contributor toward the French Revolution. Wealthy bourgeoisie could rise up to the ranks of the nobility. Importance: This middle class, made up of merchants, industrialists, bankers, lawyers, officeholders, doctors, and writers, resented their place in society as they compared it to the nobles.

Paul Cezanne

Initially influenced by Impressionism but soon rejected it. Painted Mont Sainte-Victoire. Sought to express visually the underlying geometric structure and form of everything he painted. Pressed his wet brush directly onto the canvas to form cubes of color on which he built the form of the mountain. Broke down forms to their major components. "You must see nature in the cylinder, the sphere, and the cone." Importance: One of the most important Post-Impressionists.

Florence Nightingale

Insisted on strict sanitary conditions and was able to save many lives and helped make nursing a profession of trained, middle-class women. Importance: Helped ensure sanitary conditions for soldiers and made nursing a profession of trained, middle-class women.

Existentialism

Inspired by meaninglessness. The desperation caused by two wars and the breakdown of traditional values caused this. Reflected the anxieties of the twentieth century and became especially well known after World War II. God was absent from the universe. Sartre and Camus. The death of god meant that humans were alone. Hence, the world was absurd and without meaning. Humans only have themselves as a source of hope. The word could only be absurd if people judged it so. Humans are unique. Man defines himself. Only through one's acts can one determine one's values. Involved an ethics of action, of involvement in life. Individuals true to themselves refused to be depersonalized by their society.

Encomiendas

Instituted by Queen Elizabeth. An economic and social system that permitted the conquering Spaniards to collect tribute from the natives and use them as laborers. The holders of these were supposed to protect the Indians, pay them wages, and supervise their spiritual needs. Settlers were free to implement the paternalistic system of the government as they pleased. Importance: The Spanish were able to ignore their government and brutally used the Indians to pursue their own economic interests.

Madame de Pompadour

Intelligent and beautiful. Mistress of Louis XV. Most famous mistress of the eighteenth century. Made important government decisions and gave advice on appointments and foreign policy. Gained wealth and power. Importance: Influenced the decisions and rule of Louis XV, most famous mistress of the eighteenth century.

Hungarian uprising

Internal discontent over the Soviets, communism, and economic turmoil. Nag declared Hungary a free nation on November 1, 1956 to try to quell the discontent. Promised free elections. Janos Kadar, a reform-minded cabinet minister, replaced Nagy and worked with the Soviets to quash the revolts. By collaborating with Soviet invaders, Kadar saved many of Nagy's economic reforms.

Tanks

Introduced to European battlefields in 1916.The first tank was a British model and it used caterpillar tracks, which enabled it to move along rough terrain. Armed with mounted guns. First tanks were not very effective. In 1918 with the introduction of the British Mark V model, tanks now had more powerful engines and greater maneuverability. Could now be used in great numbers. Did not have a great impact on WW1 but they had the potential to create a new kind of warfare.

Richard Arkwright

Invented a "water frame" powered by horse or water, which turned out yarn much faster than cottage spinning wheels. Created this in response to the flying shuttle speeding up the process of weaving on a loom, which created a need for more yarn. In response to this abundance of yarn, mechanicalized looms were developed. Importance: Invented a "water frame" powered by horse or water, which turned out yarn much faster than cottage spinning wheels.

James Watt and the rotary engine

Invented the steam engine in the 1760's. Had the ability to pump water from mines three times faster than earlier engines. He improved his invention in 1782 by adding a rotary engine that could turn a shaft, making it able to power machinery . The textile industry was now able to extremely increase production and efficiency. Importance: The rotary engine changed the cotton industry and much more forever through its new technology.

James Joyce Ulysses

Irish exile. Published in 1922. Told the story of one day in the life of ordinary people in Dublin by following the flow of their inner dialogue. Disconnected ramblings and veiled allusions pervade Joyce's work. This work was an example of the stream-of-consciousness technique in which the writer presented an interior dialogue, or a report of the innermost thoughts of each character.

Ferdinand and Isabella

Isabella lived from 1474 to 1504 and Ferdinand from 1479 to 1516. Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469. Dynastic union, not political union. Parliaments, courts laws, coinage, speech, customs, and political organs were not changed in either court after the marriage. Worked together to try to gain more control over their governments. They removed all aristocrats from the royal council and replaced them with middle-class lawyers. Reorganized Spain's military forces. Was made into the best army by the sixteenth century. They controlled the Catholic Church. Initiated reform. Made a Spanish Catholic Church possible. Convinced the pope to introduce Inquisition into Spain in 1478. Expelled all Jews from Spain in 1492. 150,000 to 200,000 Jews fled the country. Battled Muslims in Granada for 11 years. City fell in 1492. In 1502 Isabella banned all Muslims from her kingdom. Now if you were Spanish then you were Catholic. Importance: Ferdinand and Isabella ultimately did much more bad than good by taking away the free will from their subjects and making a large amount of the population flee due to their religions, set the stage for the Reformation in Spain.

Leo XIII's "De Rerum Novarum"

Issued in 1891. He upheld the individual's right to private property but at the same time criticized "naked" capitalism for the poverty and degradation that it left for the working class. Much in socialism was Christian in principle. Condemned Marxist socialism for its materialistic and anti religious foundations. Catholics should form socialist parties and labor unions of their own to help the workers. Importance: Very different from past conservative popes, Leo XIII instead proposed a sort of compromise between the new ideas of their age and the old values of the church, was very much an advocate for socialism.

Declaration of Pillnitz

Issued on August 27, 1791 by Emperor Leopold II of Austria and King Frederick William II of Prussia. Invited other European monarchs to work together to help strengthen and assist and strengthen the French monarchy. This was a precautionary measure to keep revolution from occurring in their countries. However, due to monarchs being skeptical of each other to undertake such a plan, these measures were never taken. Importance: This was issued by the rulers of Prussia and Austria and it encouraged other nations to help strengthen the French monarchy, so they might revolution spreading to their countries, however these plans were never acted upon.

Agricultural Revolution

It is debated that improvements in agricultural practices and methods in the eighteenth century led to an agricultural revolution. Significant changes occurred mostly in England. Food production increased due to more farmland, increased yields per acre, healthier and more abundant livestock, and an improved climate. Amount of land cultivation was increased by abandoning the open-field system. The abandonment of this method also meant an increase in livestock. This increase in meat led to it having a larger portion size and enhanced food production. Greater yields of vegetables. New crops brought in. A change in landholding accompanied the increase in food production. Agriculture was modernized through new techniques and changes. Importance: The shift from hunting animals and gathering plants for sustenance to producing food by systematic agriculture that occurred gradually between 10000 and 4000 BC.

Legitimacy

It was considered by Metternich that to reestablish peace and stability in Europe, it was necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions. The principle of legitimacy was largely ignored except for in france, spain, and some of the italian states. The Romanov dynasty of Russia was put on the throne of Poland. Poland was given back most of its lands. Importance: The idea that after the Napoleonic wars, restoring legitimate monarchs would preserve at the traditional institutions; guided by Metternich at the Congress of Vienna

Poland's Sejm

It was the elective nature of the Polish monarchy that reduced it to impotence. Aka Polish diet. A two-chamber assembly in which landowners completely dominated the few townspeople and lawyers who were also members. To be elected to the kingship, prospective monarchs had to agree to share power with the Sejm (in effect with the nobles) in matters of taxation, foreign and military policy, and the appointment of state officials and judges. The power of the Sejm had disastrous results for the central monarchical authority, for the real aim of most of its members was to ensure that central authority would not affect their local interests. The acceptance of the liberum veto in 1652, whereby the meetings of the could be stopped by a single dissenting member, reduced government to virtual chaos. Importance: Greatly weakened the authority of the monarchy through it's power, and ultimately destroyed the government by the liberum veto, their main concern was their local interest.

Heliocentric Universe

It was thought by Copernicus that the universe consisted of eight spheres with the sun motionless at the center and the sphere of the fixed stars at rest in the eighth sphere. The planets revolved around the sun in the order of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The moon revolved around the earth. What appeared to be the movement of the sun and the fixed stars around the earth was really explained by the daily rotation of the earth on its axis and the journey of the earth around the sun each year. Importance: A changed conception of how the universe worked with the sun as the center of the universe instead of the earth, developed by Copernicus.

1527 sack of Rome

Italy became the fighting grounds of France and Spain.Rome was sacked by the armies of Spain in 1527 and thereafter was dominated by the Spaniards. However it did end the wars there temporarily. Importance: Left Rome in an awful state, was the product of France and Spain's fighting.

Chartism and the People's Charter

Its aim was to achieve political democracy. Chartism took its name from the People's Charter, a document drawn up in 1838 by the London Working Men's Association. The charter demanded universal male suffrage , payment for members of Parliament, and annual sessions of Parliament. Women joined in on this movement but fought for the political rights of their husbands, as they were not given the right to vote in the charter. Collected million of signatures and presented them to Parliament, trying to pursue their goals through peaceful means. Rejected by Parliament. Movement ended in 1848. Importance: This movement that advocated for universal male suffrage ped the way for future acceptance of their ideas.

Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

January 1917, Germans went back to unrestrained submarine warfare. Convinced the emperor that this could be used to starve the British into submission within five months. The British would starve before the Americans could act. This return to unrestricted submarine warfare brought the Unite States into the war on April 6, 1917. This gave the Allies a psychological boost.

Calas Affair

Jean Calas was a Protestant from Toulouse who was accused of murdering his own son to stop him from becoming Catholic. Tortured to confess his guilt and died shortly thereafter. Voltaire forced a retrial which proved the son had actually committed suicide. The family was paid an indemnity and Voltaire's appeals for toleration appeared more reasonable. Importance: Helped Voltaire's movement of religious toleration spread due to the extremities of this event.

Pogroms

Jewish communities were looted and massacred. Made Jewish existence dependent on their territorial rulers. Importance: The organized massacres of Jews that was common in Europe.

Pope Clement VII

Joined the side of Francis I in the second Habsburg-Valois War because he was fearful of Charles's power in Italy. Clement came to terms with the emperor after a bloody sacking of Rome. Importance: Feared Charles V, but he couldn't be stopped, even with his support.

Anglo-German naval pact

June 18, 1935. Britain subsequently moved toward open acceptance of Germany's right to rearm when it agreed to this treaty. Allowed Germany to build a navy they would be 35% of the size of the British navy with equality in submarines.

Marshall Plan

June 1947. Prompted by the Truman Doctrine. The European Recovery Program aka Marshall Plan. Intended to rebuild prosperity and stability. Included $13 billion for the economic recovery for post war Europe. Underlying it was the belief that Communist aggression fed off economic turmoil. Did not include the Soviet Union. Helped speed up the division of Europe into two competing blocs. Soviets viewed the Marshall Plan as the construction of bloc states obligated to the US and to guarantee American loans in return for the relinquishing by the European states of their economic and political independence.

Thomas Kempis's Imitation of Christ

Kemp was an individual who was part of the Modern Devotion which downplayed religious dogma and stressed the need to follow the teachings of Jesus. "Truly, at the day of judgement we shall not be examined by what we have read, but what we have done; not how well we have spoken, but how religiously we have lived." Importance: This work helped the movement of Modern Devotion gain momentum.

Frederick William the Great Elector

Laid the foundation for the Prussian state. Lived from 1640-1688. Came to power in the midst of the Thirty Years' War. Built a standing army to protect Brandenburg-Prussia. Assembled a force of 40,000 men which was more than half of the state's revenues. Established the General War Commissariat to levy taxes for the army and oversee its growth and training. This became an agency for civil government. This bureaucratic machine became his chief method for ruling the state. Gained the support of the nobles by making a tacit agreement. Made a deal with the nobles that if he got a free hand in running the government then they could have almost unlimited power over the peasants, they could be exempted from taxation, and they could have the highest ranks in the army. Serfdom was now reinforced under his rule. Used Mercantilism. Used high tariffs to construct roads and canals. Favored the nobility over the power working class. Importance: Laid a secure foundation for Brandenburg-Prussia by increasing the size and efficiency of the army, raising taxes and creating an efficient bureaucracy to collect them, and gained the support of the landed aristocracy.

Russian Serfdom

Landed aristocrats were able to bind the peasants to their land. There was an abundance of land and shortage of peasants, making this serfdom desirable for the landowners. Townspeople were controlled as well. Merchants could not move without government approval and they could not sell their businesses to anyone in a higher class. Revolted.

The Fronde

Lasted from 1648 to 1649. Led by the nobles of the robe. Broke out in Paris and was ended by compromise. The second Fronde started in 1650. Led by the nobles of the sword. Crushed by 1652. They started fighting each other instead of Mazarin. When the Frondes ended, many French believed that the stability for France lay in the crown. Importance: These were the battles between the nobles and Mazarin, but they did turn into civil wars in the end.

The Seven Year's War

Lasted from 1756 to 1763. Maria Theresa of Austria refused to accept the loss of Silesia, so she worked with her foreign minister to separate Prussia from its chief ally, France. In 1756, Austria achieved a diplomatic resolution. France abandoned Prussia to ally itself with Austria. Russia allied itself with Austria as well. Great Britain now allied with Prussia. This war was viewed as the first world war, as it was fought on many different soils. Importance: Started after the War of Austrian Succession by Maria Theresa who wished to retrieve the town of Silesia that Prussia had stolen, France and Russia allied with Austria who fought against Prussia who allied with Great Britain, this is considered the first world war as it was fought in India, Europe, and North America.

Mao Zedong and the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution

Lasted from 1966 to 1976. Red Guards set out across the nation to eliminate old ideas, culture, customs, and habits. They destroyed temples, books written by foreigners, and jazz records. Replaced street names with more revolutionary names. Vicious attacks were mae on individuals who had supposedly deviated from Mao's thought. They were humiliated at public meetings where they were forced to admit to their alledged crimes and many were beaten, often to death.

Boer War

Lasted three years. Boers used guerrilla tactics which caused mass British casualties. 450,000 British forces were needed to defeat the Boer forces of 87,000 and 22,000 Brits died. This war demonstrated that increased military and monetary investment would be needed to maintain the British Empire.

Baron Haussmann and Paris

Lead the reconstruction of Paris. Modernized Paris through broad boulevards, spacious buildings, circular plazas, a new public water supply, gaslights, public squares, and an underground sewage system. The new Paris served a military and aesthetic purpose. Importance: Haussmann lead the modernization of Paris.

Louis Kossuth

Leader of Hungarian liberals. His followers were agitated for commonwealth status.They were willing to keep the Habsburg monarch but wanted their own legislature. Metternich was dismissed and the conservative order was toppled. In Vienna, revolutionary forces took control of the capital and insisted that a constituent assembly be summoned to draw up a liberal assembly. Hungary now had it own legislature, a separate national army, and control over its foreign policy and budget.

Klemens von Metternich

Leader of the Congress of Vienna. Austrian foreign minister. An experienced diplomat who was also conceited and self-assured. Claimed he was guided by the principle of legitimacy. Importance: Played a major role at the Congress of Vienna as the chief exponent of the principle of legitimacy.

Menno Simons

Leader who rejuvenated Dutch Anabaptism . 1500's. Netherlands, Germany. Mennonites were his followers and spread from Netherlands into America and Canada where they found religious freedom. The Foundation of Christian Doctrine was his best known work. Written in 1539. Importance: Helped spread the idea of a peaceful, evangelical Anabaptism that stressed separation from the world.

J. Robert Oppenheimer

Led Allied scientists in the construction of the atomic bomb in a secret laboratory in New Mexico.

Gustavus Vasa

Led Swedish barons to overthrow Scandinavian kingdoms. Became king of Sweden. Took the lead in establishing a Lutheran Reformation in his country. By the 1530's the Swedish Lutheran National Church had been created. Importance: Helped further Lutheranism as a religion, helped it gain popularity.

Rosa Luxemburg

Led the Independent Social Democratic Party with Liebknecht.

Leon Trotsky

Led the Left of the Politburo, wanted to end the NEP and launch the Soviet Union on the path of rapid industrialization, primarily at the cost of the peasantry, and also wanted revolution. A key figure in the success of the Bolshevik Revolution and the Red Army. IN 1924, he held the post of commissar of war and was the leading spokesman for the Left in the Politburo.

Georges Danton

Led the Paris Commune. Minister of justice. Sought revenge for those who had aided the king and resisted the popular will. Allowed the massacre of thousands of presumed traitors and Parisian townspeople engaging in the mass killing of their inmates in prisons to make more room. Replaced in 1792 when the National Convention came back. Importance: Led the sans-culottes and the Paris Commune, he was the minister of justice.

Blitzkrieg

Lightning war. Depended on mechanized columns and massive air power to ct quickly across battle lines and encircle nd annihilate entire armies. Enemies could be quickly defeat with this type of warfare and also determined much of Hitler's rearmament program.

Pre-industrial Workers

Lived a very different lifestyle than factory workers; they usually worked hard for short amounts of time to get their quota filled and then spent the rest of the week without much structure. In contrast, the factory workers had regular hours. Importance: Before the Revolution, workers usually had inconsistent work hours and schedules, but that changed with the new policies of this time period.

John Wyclif and John Hus

Lived from 1328 to 1384. An Oxford theologian who lead English Lollardy. Disgusted by clerical corruption, so he attacked papal authority and medieval Christian beliefs and practices. Believed that the Bible should be a christian's only authority and that the popes should be stripped of their authority. Petitioned for the Bible to be made in all vernacular languages. Rejected all practices not mentioned in Scripture. Attracted followers that people called Lollards. His ideas spread to Bohemia through a royal marriage. John Hus lived from 1374 to 1415. A chancellor of the university at Prague, led a group of Czech reformers. Didn't believe in the papacy's excessive amount of power or the evident corruption of the clergy. His movement gained followers from the Czech's hate of Germans who represented a large number of the clergymen. Hus was called to the Council of Constance and instead of getting a hearing for his ideas, he instead was arrested, condemned as a heretic, and burned at the stake. This sparked the revolution to go into full swing until a truce was arranged in 1436. Importance: Hus and Wyclif made a huge advancement in calling out the corruption that had become evident in the papacy and made a revolution possible, shows early signs of the papacy declining.

Lorenzo Valla

Lived from 1407-1457. Had a dream to be a papal secretary. Wrote The Elegances of the Latin Language to try to purify medieval Latin. Created a new literary standard. Importance: Lorenzo Valla's works helped modernize Latin in a way that made it omnipresent and widely accepted.

Marsilio Ficino and Neoplatonism

Lived from 1433-1499. A leader of the Florentine Platonic Academy. Dedicated his life to translating Plato's dialogues and to the exposition of the Platonic philosophy known as Neoplatonism. His Neoplatonism=two primary ideas- the Neoplatonic hierarchy of substances and a theory of spiritual love. The theory maintained that just as all people are bound together in their common humanity by love, so too are all parts of the universe held together by bonds of sympathetic love. Importance: Ficino presented this new concept of how love bounds both humans and the universe together in different ways.

Christopher Columbus

Lived from 1451 to 1506. An Italian that was an important figure in the history of Spanish exploration. Convinced that the circumference of the earth was less than contemporaries believed and that Asia was larger than people thought, felt that Asia could be reached by sailing West instead of around Africa. Persuaded Queen Isabella of Spain to finance his exploratory expedition after he was rejected by the Portuguese. Brought 90 men and three ships; the Santa Maria, the Nina, and the Pinta. Set sail on August 3, 1492. Reached the Bahamas on October 12. Believed that he had reached Asia when he was actually on the coastline of Cuba and the northern shores of Hispaniola. Thought he could find gold and convert the natives there, whom he called "Indians", to Christianity. In three subsequent voyages, (1493, 1498, 1502) Columbus sought to find a route to the Asian mainland. In all four voyages he still thought he had reached Asia. Importance: Sponsored by Ferdinand and Isabella, converted people to Christianity, Columbus tried to find a path to Asia by going West and he discovered new lands, though throughout all of his travels, he persisted to think he was in Asia.

Vasco de Gama

Lived from 1460 to 1524. Commanded the fleet that rounded the cape and stopped at several ports controlled by Muslim merchants along the coast of East Africa.They crossed the Arabian Sea and reached the port of Calicut , on the southwestern coast of India , on May 18, 1498. When he got there, he announced that he came in search of "Christians and spices." Found spices, not Christians. Lost two ships on the voyage, but the ginger and cinnamon they brought back profited by a thousand percent. Importance: The first to successfully import cinnamon and and ginger from using the trade route of going around the southern tip of Africa to get there.

Ivan III

Lived from 1462 to 1505. Helped the new Russian state form. Annexed other Russian principalities. Took advantage of dissension among the Mongols to throw off their yoke by 1480. Importance: Became a great prince by bringing a new Russian territory to life as well as a strong presence as a monarch.

Pico Della Mirandola's Oration on the Dignity of Man

Lived from 1463 to 1494. One most famous pieces of writing renaissance. Used the works of other philosophers to find common truths that he believed were all part of God's revelation to humanity. Took an avid interest in hermetic philosophy, accepting it as the "science of the divine." Importance: This work became popular because people wanted to feel more powerful than they actually were, relates to the philosophies of Hermeticism.

Copernicus

Lived from 1473 to 1543. Studied mathematics and astronomy, first at Krakow in his native Poland and later at the Italian universities of Bologna and Padua. Completed the manuscript of his famous book, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, between 1506 and 1530, after he discovered works that contradicted the earth-centered conception of the universe. Feared contradicting his fellow astronomers, so he published it finally in May 1543, shortly before his death. Not an accomplished observational astronomer and relied on his data on the records of his predecessors. He was a mathematician who felt that Ptolemy's geocentric system was too complicated and failed to accord with the observed motions of the heavenly bodies. He offered a heliocentric conception. He was conservative. Would not completely abandon Ptolemy's ideas. Importance: A mathematician of the fifteenth century that changed the way the universe was viewed, as illustrated in his book, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.

Bartolome de las Casas

Lived from 1474 to 1566. A Dominican friar who championed the Indians. First he participated in the conquest of Cuba and he received land and Indians in return for his efforts. Went under a radical transformation in 1514 and came to believe that the Indians had been mistreated by his fellow Spaniards. Became a Dominican friar and spent the two remaining years of his life advocating against the mistreatment of the Indians. Importance: The government abolished the encomienda system and provided more protection for the natives mainly in response to his publications advocating for their rights and the misdeeds of the Spanish.

Vasco Nunez de Balboa

Lived from 1475 to 1519. A Spanish explorer who led an expedition across the Isthmus of Panama and reached the Pacific Ocean in 1513. Importance: One of the explorers of his age that started to explore the eastern coasts of North and South America, made it to the Pacific Ocean.

Francesco Guicciardini

Lived from 1483 to 1540. Debatably the greatest historian between Tacitus in the first century and Voltaire and Gibbon in the 18th century. The high point of Renaissance historiography was achieved in his works in the beginning of the 16th century. Importance: Guicciardini wrote history so that it was more easily understood and less confusing for people to try to grasp.

Henry VII

Lived from 1485 to 1509. Defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III at Bosworth Field as the duke of Richmond. Became the first Tudor king. Tried to reduce internal dissension and to inaugurate a powerful monarchy. Ended private wars by abolishing "livery and maintenance". (Wealthy aristocrats could no longer keep private armies). Instituted the Court of Star Chamber to administer the unruly behavior of the nobles. Used torture and not juries. Used diplomacy to avoid war. Made an income by using traditional financial resources of the English monarch. Importance: Led England into the new Tudor dynasty, avoided warfare and was an overall good king.

Hernan Cortez

Lived from 1485 to 1547. Led a Spanish expedition in 1519 that landed at Veracruz. Marched to Tenochtitlan and led a small contingent of troops, making alliances with city-states that had gotten tired of Aztec rule. Tlaxcala was an important alliance. Cortes arrived in Tenochtitlan in November, where he received a friendly welcome from the monarch Montezuma. Thought Cortes was sent by a god, so he was showered with gifts of gold.They took Montezuma captive though and pillaged the city. In 1520 the remaining populace revolted and made the Spaniards flee. Without natural immunities to fight off the small pox that the Spanish had brought, many Aztecs died. Cortes rounded up 50,000 soldiers to come overthrow the city, but the devastation of the small pox had already done the damage by the time they got there, four months later. Spaniards destroyed everything there. Between 1531 and 1550, they gained control of northern Mexico. Importance: A minor Spanish nobleman who came to the New World in 1504 in search of fortune. Contrary to his superior's orders, he waged an independent campaign of conquest and overthrew the Aztec Empire.

Paracelsus

Lived from 1493 to 1541. Real name was Philippus Aureolus von Hohenheim. Renamed himself Paracelsus (greater than Celsus, an ancient physician). Born near Zurich. Left home at 14. Awarded a medical degree from the University of Ferrara. Appointed city physician and professor of medicine at Basel in 1527. He was vain and quick tempered, so he lost this glory. Had extreme contempt for those who disagreed with his ideas. Wandered between towns until his death in 1541. Rejected the works of Aristotle and Galen and attacked universities as centers of moribund philosophy. Hoped to replace the traditional system with a new chemical philosophy that was based on a new understanding of nature derived from fresh observation and experiment. Closely related to the macrocosm-microcosm principle. All parts of the universe were represented within each person. Believed that the chemical reactions of a universe as a whole were reproduced in human beings on a smaller scale. Thought that disease was caused by chemical imbalances that were localized in specific organs and could be treated by chemical remedies. Attentively watched the proper dosage of their chemically prepared metals and minerals. "Like cures like." Poisons causing a disease could also cure it if given in the proper form and quantity. Importance: Made extreme advancements in medicine, started the belief that disease was caused by chemical imbalances and could be treated by the very poison that started the disease if given in the right form and amount, he is known as a father of modern medicine and as the forerunner of homeopathy and the holistic medicine of the postmodern era, but there are others who viewed him poorly due to his vanity, temper, and his not strong reputation for the curing of his patients, associated with the diagnosis and treatment of disease.

Vesalius

Lived from 1514 to 1564. Credited with the advancement of anatomy in the sixteenth century. Studied medicine in Paris. Involved in the works of Galen, especially On Anatomical Procedures. Led him to emphasize practical research as the principal avenue for understanding human anatomy. Received a doctorate in medicine at the University of Padua in 1536. Accepted a position as a professor of surgery there. Published On the Fabric of the Human Body in 1543 and it was his masterpiece. This was based on Paduan lectures in which he deviated from traditional practice by personally dissecting a body to illustrate what he was discussing. This anatomical treatise presented a careful examination of the individual organs and general structure of the human body. Artistic advancements of the Renaissance as well as the technical developments in printing made possible the creation of illustrations superior to any hitherto produced.This hands-on approach let him rectify some of Galen's most glaring errors. Great blood vessels came from the heart, not the liver. Vesalius still accepted some of Galen's incorrect ideas. Importance: Vesalius greatly advanced the knowledge of human anatomy in the sixteenth century by personally dissecting bodies to get a better idea of their organ locations and general anatomy.

Saint Teresa of Avila

Lived from 1515 to 1582. A nun of the Carmelite order, Teresa experienced a variety of mystical visions that she claimed resulted in the ecstatic union of her soul with God. She was a nun from the the Carmelite order, and experienced a variety of mystical visions that resulted in the ecstatic union of her soul with God. Importance: Believed that mystical experience should lead to a mystical experience should lead to an active life of service on behalf of her Catholic faith. She founded a new order of barefoot Carmelite nuns and worked to foster their mystical experience.

El Greco

Lived from 1541 to 1614. Real name was Domenikos Theotocopoulos. From Crete. Studied in Venice and Rome. Moved to Spain in the 1570's. Became a church painter in Toledo. El Greco's elongated and contorted figures, portrayed in unusual shades of yellow and green against an eerie background of turbulent grays, reflect the artist's desire to create a world of intense emotion. Importance: Mannerism reached its height of expression in the work of El Greco, famous for his paintings for a church in Toledo.

Lope de Vega

Lived from 1562 to 1635. Set the agenda for playwrights. From a middle-class background. An incredibly prolific writer. Almost one third of his hundred plays survive. They are witty, charming, action-packed, and realistic. Wrote plays that would please the audience. Very cynical about this. Importance: A playwright from the middle-class, he wrote a hundred plays, but only about one third of those are left. Wrote to please the audience.

Galileo Galilei

Lived from 1564 to 1642. Taught mathematics. Inaugurated a new age of astronomy through the use of the telescope. Got the idea from a Flemish lens grinder who developed the "spyglass." Discovered mountains and craters on the moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter, the phases of Jupiter, and sunspots. His observations demolished another aspect of the traditional cosmology in that the universe seemed to be composed of material substance similar to that of Earth rather than ethereal or perfect and unchanging substance. Importance: The first European to use a telescope to make systematic observations of the heavens.

Johannes Kepler

Lived from 1571 to 1630. Parents wanted him to become a Lutheran minister. Studied theology at the university of Tubingen until he met the well known Michael Mastlin, a German astronomer, who influenced him to abandon theology and instead become a teacher of mathematics and astronomy at Graz in Austria. His work illustrates the line separating magic and science. Believed in the harmony of the human soul reflecting on numerical relationships between planets. Succeeded Brahe as imperial mathematician to Rudolf II. Used Brahe's work to develop his three laws of planetary motion. These laws confirmed and modified Copernicus' theory and eliminated the other one. First two laws published in 1609. His first law rejects Copernicus by showing that the orbits of the planets around the sun were not circular but elliptical, with the sun at one focus of the ellipse rather than the center. His second law demonstrates that the speed of a planet is greater when it is closer to the sun and decreases as its distance from the sun increases. Third law was published ten years later and establishes that planets with larger orbits revolve at a slower average velocity than those with smaller orbits. Grand Duke Cosimo II of Florence offered him the new position of court mathematician. Importance: Became a key figure in the rise of the new astronomy, built on Brahe's research to discover the three laws of planetary motion that improved upon the ideas of Copernicus, but completely rejected those made by Aristotle and Ptolemy.

William Harvey

Lived from 1578 to 1657. Attended Cambridge University and later Padua. Received a doctorate in medicine in 1602. On the motion of the Heart and Blood is where his reputation rests. Published in 1628. His work was based upon meticulous observations and experiments. Demolished the ancient Greek's erroneous contentions. Discovered that the heart was the beginning point of the circulation of blood in the body, that the same blood flows in both veins and arteries, and that the blood makes a complete circuit as it passes throughout the body. It was not until the 1660's that he received general recognition for his work because of the discoveries of capillaries, which explained how blood was passed from the arteries to the veins. Importance: Discovered that the heart was the beginning point of the circulation of blood in the body, that the same blood flows in both veins and arteries, and that the blood makes a complete circuit as it passes throughout the body, his theory for the circulation of the blood laid the foundation for modern physiology.

Thomas Hobbes

Lived from 1588 to 1679. Lived during the English Civil War, was alarmed by the revolutionary upheavals in his contemporary England. Associated with the state's claim to absolute authority over its subjects, he elaborated on this in his major treatise on political thought in Leviathan, published in 1651. Thought that before society was organized, humans were animalistic. He believed that we owe our peace to people contracting a form of commonwealth of a mortal god. Sovereign authority had all of the collective power of the commonwealth. This ruler served as executor, legislator, and judge. This absolute ruler possessed unlimited power. Subjects couldn't rebel under this leader; if they do then they need to be suppressed. Importance: As shown in Leviathan, Hobbes believed humans were animalistic until putting all of the power of the commonwealth into a mortal god, giving this absolute ruler unlimited power.

Rene Descartes

Lived from 1596 to 1650. An extremely important figure in Western history. He was a philosopher and mathematician. He wrote the Discourse on Method and came up with an interesting view on the world that separated mind and body called Cartesian dualism. This was based on his belief that one should doubt everything which is not already proved by reason. From this comes his famous statement "I think, therefore, I am." Truths could be distinguished by reason. Theories were built upon human reason and a person's ability to rationalize the world around them and discover truths. Importance: The founder of modern rationalism and modern philosophy, believed human beings could understand the world (which was a mechanical system) by the same rational principles inherent in mathematical thinking.

Rembrandt van Rijn

Lived from 1606 to 1669. The finest product of the golden age of Dutch painting. Early in his career, he painted opulent portraits and grandiose scenes that were often quite colorful. Prolific and successful, but he turned away from materialistic success to follow his own artistic path. Shared the Dutch predilection for realistic portraits. Became more introspective as he grew older. Refused to follow contemporaries. Half his own paintings depicted scenes from biblical tales. Importance: One great Protestant painter of the seventeenth century, went his own path with his artwork.

Margaret Cavendish

Lived from 1623 to 1673. One of the most prominent female scientists of the seventeenth century. Came from an aristocratic background. A participant in the crucial scientific debates of her time. Excluded from membership in the Royal Society. She wrote Observations upon Experimental Philosophy and Grounds of Natural Philosophy as well as others on Scientific matters. Attacked what she considered the rationalist and empiricist approaches to scientific knowledge and was especially critical of the growing belief that through science, humans could be masters of nature. A good example of the women in France and England who worked in science. Importance: One of the most prominent female scientists of the seventeenth century, came from an aristocratic background, wrote about scientific matters.

Robert Boyle

Lived from 1627 to 1691. One of the first scientists to conduct controlled experiments. His pioneering work on the properties of gases led to boyle's law, which states that the volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it. Developed the idea that all matter is composed of atoms in place of the medieval belief that all matter consisted of the same components. Would later be known as the chemical elements. Called these atoms "little particles of all shapes and sizes." Importance: Scientist who developed the modern concept of atoms and chemical elements and who was the first to conduct controlled experiments.

John Locke

Lived from 1632 to 1704. Viewed the exercise of political power quite differently from Hobbes. He argued against the absolute rule of one man. Two Treatises of Government. Believed that humans lived in a state of equality and freedom and that they had the natural rights of life, liberty, and property rather than a state of war before they had an organized society. No impartial judge in this society. Mutual agreement on the establishment of a government. Government would ensure the protection of the people's rights and the people would respect the government. If a government broke this agreement, the people might form a new government. People= landholding aristocracy. Importance: His ideas proved important to both the Americans and the French in the eighteenth century and were used to support demands for constitutional government, the rule of law, and the protection of rights.

Louis XIV

Lived from 1643 to 1715. Established a routine. Set the standard for monarchies and aristocracies across Europe. Believed in the theory of absolute monarchy she consciously fostered the myth of himself at the Sun King. He was able to reconstruct the central policy-making machinery of government because it was part of his own court and household. Greatest danger to his rule came from the very high nobles and princes of the blood. Louis removed them from the royal council, the chief administrative body of the king and overseer of the central machinery of government, and enticing them to his court to eliminate them as a threat. His domination of his ministers and secretaries gave him control of the central policy-making machinery areas of monarchical power. Had trouble with internal administration. Maintained religious harmony. Importance: Greatest ruler of his time due to his intelligent political, religious, and economic decisions for his country.

Pierre Bayle

Lived from 1647 to 1706. A skeptic, but remained a Protestant through becoming a religious critic of traditional religious attitudes. Attacked superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism. Believed religious bias was hypocritical and was contrary to what religion should be about. Individual conscience should determine one's actions. Argued for complete religious toleration and that having many religions would benefit, not harm, the state. Believed that the new rational principles of textual criticism should be applied to the Bible and secular documents. Historical and Critical Dictionary was his most famous work, referred to as the "Bible of the eighteenth century." In this, he demonstrates the results of his own efforts with a famous article on the Israelite King David. Portrayed the king as evil. Attacks traditional religious practices as well as heroes. Importance: One of the first well known individuals to advocate for religious toleration, attacks many traditional beliefs in his works.

Maria Merian

Lived from 1647 to 1717. Established a reputation as an important entomologist by the beginning of the eighteenth century. Training came from working in her father's workshop. Learned the art of illustration. Her exact observation of plants and insects was demonstrated through these highly detailed illustrations. In 1699, she undertook an expedition to the wilds of Surinam in South America and observed plant and insect life there. This led to her famous work Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam where she used sixty illustrations to show the reproductive and developmental cycles of Surinam's insect life. Importance: Learned the art of illustration and was able to use this in showing the reproductive and developmental cycles of Surinam's insect life, a good example of female involvement in the Scientific Revolution stemming from the craft tradition.

Bernard de Fontenelle

Lived from 1657 to 1757. Acted as a direct link between the fusing of the principles of the Scientific Revolution with the philosophies of the Enlightenment. Secretary of the French Royal Academy of Science from 1691 to 1741. His knowledge of all scientific works led him to fame, rather than actually having scientific achievements of his own. Gained in popularity by spreading the ideas of the Scientific Revolution in a witty and charming fashion to the upper class nobles. His book, Plurality of Worlds, made it possible for the educated elite of Europe to learn the basic fundamentals of the newest scientific discoveries. Initiated the spread of scientific knowledge to the rest of society. Science now was able to become a part of literature rather than "the monopoly of experts." Was a skeptic. Contributed to the growing skepticism toward religion at the end of the seventeenth century by portraying the churches as enemies of scientific progress. Importance: A skeptic of religion who contributed toward growing skepticism against the church, he made the advancements of the Scientific Revolution more accessible and more easy to understand for the rest of society.

Mary Astell

Lived from 1666 to 1731. The daughter of a wealthy English could al merchant. Wrote A Serious Proposal to the Ladies in 1697. Argued that women needed to become better educated. Believed she would be opposed by men. In Some Reflections upon Marriage, she argues for gender equality in marriage. Importance: Advocated for the equivalence of men and women in marriage and for the education of women.

Maria Winkelmann

Lived from 1670 to 1720. Educated by her father and uncle. Received advanced training in astronomy from a nearby astronomer who was self-taught. Married Gottfried Kirch, Germany's foremost astronomer. Became his assistant at the astronomical observatory operated in Berlin by the Academy of Science. Applied for a position as assistant astronomer when her husband died in 1710, but was turned down though she was extremely qualified. Importance: The most famous of the female astronomers in Germany, was the assistant astronomer to her husband at observatory operated in Berlin by the Academy of Science until he died.

Antoine Watteau

Lived from 1684 to 1721. Used the Rococo style. His lyrical views of aristocratic life reflected a world of upper class pleasure and joy. An element of sadness existed in his paintings in the fragility and transitory nature of pleasure, love and life. Importance: A main figure in the Rococo art movement & combines upper class happiness with a sort of depressing fragility.

Johann Sebastian Bach

Lived from 1685 to 1750. A musical genius. Came from a family of musicians. Bach held the post of organist and music director at a number of small German courts before becoming director of church music at the church of Saint Thomas in Leipzig in 1723. Composed Mass in B Minor, Saint Matthew's Passion, cantatas and motets that have established his reputation as one of the greatest composers of all time. His music was above all a way to worship God for him. Importance: Completely revolutionized not only this century but the rest of time as well with his music that is still famous today.

George Frederick Handel

Lived from 1685 to 1759. Born in Saxony, Germany, the same year and place as Bach. Went through a stormy, international career and was secular in temperament. Began his career in Italy, writing operas until 1712, when he moved to England to attempt to run an opera company. Patronized by the royal court. Wrote huge, unusual sounding pieces that he performed in front of large numbers of people. Best known for his religious music. Messiah is one of these works. Importance: Helped foster the Baroque music style with his music.

Balthasar Neumann

Lived from 1687 to 2753. Greatest architect of the eighteenth century. Two Masterpieces: The Vierzehnheiligen in southern Germany and the Bishop's Palace, or the Residenz, the residential palace of the Schonborn prince-bishop of Wurzburg. Combines secular and spiritual aspects in both buildings. Importance: Greatest architect of the eighteenth century.

baron de Montesquieu

Lived from 1689 to 1755. Aka Charles de Secondat. Came from French nobility. Received a Classical education. Studied law. His most famous work was The Spirit of the Laws, which was published in 1748. This was a comparative study of governments in which he tries to apply the scientific method to the social and political arena to ascertain the "natural laws" governing the social relationships of human beings. Distinguished three basic kinds of government: republics, for small states based on citizen involvement, monarchy, for middle-sized states and grounded in the ruling class's adherence to law, and finally despotism, for large empires that inspired fear and dominance. Importance: Wrote the Persian Letters as well as The Spirit of the Laws which set new ideas about government and he was an advocate for religious toleration.

Francois Quesnay

Lived from 1694 to 1774. Leader of the Physiocrats. A highly successful French court physician. Claimed he could discover the natural laws that governed human society. Advocated all of the ideas of the Physiocrats. Importance: Leader of the Physiocrats, highly successful French court physician.

Voltaire

Lived from 1694 to 1778. Greatest figure of the Enlightenment. Aka Francois-Marie Arouet. Came from a middle-class family from Paris. Received a Classical education. Was hailed as the successor to Racine by his mid twenties for hs tragedy Edipe and his epic Henriade as a playwright. Witty. Forced to flee to England for two years. Well received in literary and social circles. Philosophic Letters on the English was written in 1733 and depicted his time spent in Europe. He outwardly criticized the absolute monarchy of France and favoured over it the freedoms of England. Retired to Cirey. Lived on the estate of his mistress there. Then he settled in Ferney on a magnificent estate. Since it was near the Swiss border, he had the freedom to write what he wanted. Now he was wealthy. Advocated religious toleration. A polemicist. The Calas affair is the most common example of this. Published his Treatise on Toleration in 1763. Importance: Well known for his criticism of traditional religion and his support of religious toleration, championed deism as well, preferred the freedoms of England over the absolute monarchy of France.

Madame Geoffrin

Lived from 1699 to 1777. A wealthy bourgeois widow whose father had been a valet. Welcomed the state suppressed encyclopedias to her salon and offered financial assistance to complete the work in secret. Importance: Her salon helped sanction the Encyclopedia when it was banned and helped financially as well.

John Wesley

Lived from 1703 to 1791. An ordained Anglican minister. Experienced a deep spiritual crisis and underwent a mystical experience. Became a missionary of the English people. Christ came to him and took his sins. Brought this salvation to all people as a missionary. Opposed by Anglican church as they thought emotional mysticism was superstitious. All could be saved by experiencing God. Held masses in open fields. Importance: A missionary who wanted to spread the spiritual mysticism and salvation with all people.

David Hume

Lived from 1711 to 1776. An important figure in the history of philosophy. "A pioneering social scientist." Wrote Treatise on Human Nature. Subtitled "An Attempt to Introduce the Experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects." Argued that observation and reflection, grounded in "systematized common sense," made conceivable a "science of man." Careful examination of the experiences that constituted human life would lead to the knowledge of human nature that would make this science possible. Importance: Argued that observation and reflection could lead to a conceivable "science of man."

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Lived from 1712 to 1778. Extremely critical of the work of his predecessors. Born in Geneva. Wandered through France and Italy in his early life. Studied music and the classics in school. Migrated to Paris where he was introduced to the philosophes there. Wasn't one for the social aspects of this and preferred solitude. Expressed his political beliefs in Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind. Believed humans were happy in their primitive state. Laws and governors were developed for the preservation of private property. Government was considered evil but necessary. He viewed women as "naturally" different from men. Importance: In his works, Rousseau expressed many influential ideas that dominated his time, he severely contradicted past intellectuals.

Baron d'Holbach

Lived from 1723 to 1789. A wealthy German aristocrat. Settled in Paris. Preached a doctrine of strict atheism and materialism. Wrote System of Nature. Written in 1770. Argued that everything in the universe consisted of matter in motion. Human beings were machines. God was a product of the human mind. People only needed reason to live. Shocked his fellow philosophes with his "uncompromising atheism." Most intellectuals were comfortable with deism and feared the effects of atheism on society. Importance: Believed in atheism and materialism, human beings were machines, God was not real, reason was vital for survival.

Adam Smith

Lived from 1723 to 1790. Scottish philosopher. Wrote Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Aka The Wealth of Nations. Unlike the Physiocrats, he believed the true source of a nation's wealth was labor rather than soil or gold and silver. Importance: Believed in three major principles- free trade, labor theory of value, and the economic liberty of the individual, emphasized the laissez-faire in his work.

Franz Joseph Haydn

Lived from 1732 to 1809. Spent most of his adult life as musical director for the wealthy Hungarian princes, or the Esterhazy brothers. Incredibly prolific- composed 104 symphonies, string quartets, concerti, songs, oratorios, and Masses. The freedom to perform in front of large audiences in England inspired him to write his two great orations, The Creation and The Seasons, both of which were dedicated to the common people. Importance: One of the musicians who furthered the popularity of classical orchestra music.

Cesare Beccaria

Lived from 1738 to 1794. Wrote On Crimes and Punishment in 1764. Argued that punishments should serve only as deterrents, not as exercises of brutality. Opposed the use of capital punishment. Failed to stop others from committing suicide. Imprisonment made a far more lasting impression. Also argued that capital punishment was also harmful to society because it set an example of barbarism. Importance: Opposed the use of capital punishment and instead favored imprisonment as punishment.

Marie-Jean de Condorcet

Lived from 1743 to 1794. French philosophe. Made an exaggerated claim for progress. A victim of the turmoil of the French Revolution. Wrote The Progress of the Human Mind while in hiding during the Reign of Terror. Thought humans had progressed through nine stages of history. Thought that humans were entering a tenth stage, one of perfection, filled with science and reason. This prophet of humankind's perfection died in a French revolutionary prison. Importance: Believed humans had progressed through nine stages of history and were now entering a stage of perfection, one furthered by science and reason.

Antoine Lavoisier

Lived from 1743 to 1794. Invented a system of naming the chemical elements, much of which is still used today. Demonstrated the fundamental rules of chemical combination. His wife helped him by being his scientific collaborator. She learned English to translate British works into German and made engravings to illustrate his experiments. Importance: The father of modern chemistry, invented the system for naming the elements.

Jacques-Louis David

Lived from 1748 to 1825. In Oath of the Horatii, he recreated a scene from Roman history in which the three Horatius brothers swore an oath before their father, proclaiming their willingness to sacrifice their lives for their time. Encompassed a certain moral seriousness and an emphasis on honor and patriotism made him extremely popular during the French Revolution. Importance: Encompassed a certain moral seriousness and an emphasis on honor and patriotism made him extremely popular during the French Revolution & his works clearly show values of the Neoclassicism movement.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Lived from 1756 to 1791. A child prodigy who gave his first harpischord concert at six and wrote his first opera at twelve. The archbishop of Salzburg forced him to move to Vienna. His failure there to find a patron made his life terrible. Wrote music prolifically and passionately until he died at age 35, full of debt. The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute, and Don Giovanni, all composed by Mozart, are considered to be three of the world's greatest operas. Composed with a combination of grace, precision, and emotion that cannot be competed with. Importance: Mozart transformed the face of music with his operas and other compositions.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Lived from 1759 to 1797. English writer. Founder of modern feminism. Produced the strongest statement for the rights of women in the eighteenth century. Wrote Vindication of the Rights of Women. Importance: Founder of modern feminism, wrote Vindication of the Rights of Women.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Lived from 1769 to 1821. Dominated both French and European history from 1799 to 1815. The coup that brought him into power occurred exactly ten years after the outbreak of the French Revolution. Brought the Revolution to an end. The Son of the Revolution. The French Revolution made possible his rise first in the military and then to supreme power in France. Known for saying, "I am the Revolution," reminding the French that they owed him the preservation of all that was beneficial in the revolutionary program. Restored the French monarchy by declaring himself emperor. Importance: Brought the French Revolution to an end, rose through military ranks until he finally restores the French monarchy by declaring himself emperor.

Francis Bacon

Lived rom 1561 to 1626. An Englishman with few scientific credentials. Attempted to put forth a new method of acquiring knowledge. Made an impact on the Royal Society of England in the seventeenth century and other European scientists in the eighteenth century. A lawyer and lord chancellor. Rejected Copernicus and Kepler and misunderstood Galileo. In his unfinished work, The Great Instauration, he called for his contemporaries "to commence a total reconstruction of sciences, arts, and all human knowledge, raised upon the proper foundations." Believed that humans had made mistakes in their knowledge of the natural world. His new foundation was a correct scientific method. Believed that from carefully organized experiments and thorough, systematic observations, correct generalizations could be developed. Importance: His method completely changed the ways people proved truths in science and laid the foundation for modern science.

Lebensraum

Living space. Doctrine adopted by Hitler That states that a nation's power depends on the mount of land it occupies; a nation must expand to be strong.

Zemstvos

Local assemblies. Provided a moderate degree of self government. Representatives are elected from nobles and peasants but was biased towards nobles. Given the limited amount of power to provide public services, such as education, famine relief, and road and bridge bridge maintenance. They could levy taxes for this. Importance: Local assemblies established in Russia in 1864.

Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin

Louis XIII's chief minister. Initiated policies that eventually strengthened the power of the monarchy. Transformed the Huguenots into more reliable subjects by eliminating the political and military rights of the Huguenots while preserving their religious ones. He understood the influential role played by the nobles in the French state. Developed an efficient network of spies to uncover noble plots and then crushed the conspiracies and executed the conspirators, thereby eliminating a major threat to royal authority. He sent out intendants to the provinces to execute the orders of the central government. He proved to be less capable in financial matters. Confronting the Habsburgs in the Thirty Years War led to French debt from Richelieu. Died in 1642. Mazarin dominated the government. Attempted to carry on the policies of Richelieu. He was greatly disliked due to his being a foreigner. Wanted to overthrow Mazarin for their own purposes. Caused civil wars between nobles. Died in 1661. Importance: Strengthened the French monarchy by eliminating the private armies and fortifies cities but they stuck to their economic policies, making France go into a downward spiral economically.

The Edict of Worms

Made Martin Luther an outlaw within the empire. His works were to be burned and he was to be captured and delivered to the emperor. Luther's prince, the Elector of Saxony sent Luther into hiding at the Wartburg Castle where he remained for a year. Importance: Made Luther an outlaw, condemned him for speaking out against the church.

Joint Stock Companies

Made the commercial expansion of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A commercial organization. Individuals brought in shares in a company and received dividends based on their investment while a board of directors ran the company and made the important business decisions. Investors received 30% on their money. Importance: Made it easier to raise large amounts of capital for world trading ventures, completely changed commercial investment.

Neoclassicism

Maintained a strong appeal and emerged in France as an official movement in the late eighteenth century. Neoclassical artists wanted to recapture the dignity and simplicity of the Classical style of ancient Greece and Rome. Some were especially influenced by the recent evacuations of the ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Importance: The art movement of the late eighteenth century, focused on recreating the Classical art of ancient Greece and Rome.

Christian Humanism

Major goal was the reform of Christianity. Aka northern Renaissance humanism. These humanists became focused on the sources of early Christianity, the Holy Scriptures, and the writings of church fathers such as Augustine, Ambrose, and Jerome. Called Christian humanists because of their profound occupation with religion. Reform program was the most important characteristic of this movement. Believed that that through education in Classical (especially Christian) antiquity they could instill a true inner piety an inward religious feeling that would bring about a reform of the church and society. Belief in the power of education. Believed that changing the people who made up a society would change society itself, but this intellectual optimism was shattered by the turmoil of the reformation. Importance: Advocated for intellectual optimism and a reformation of the church and society.

New elites

Many of the new elites included new industrial entrepreneurs, the most successful of which came from a mercantile background. Stemmed from the professional and industrial middle class. Came to amass much wealth and play an important role alongside the traditional landed elites of their society. They were resourceful, single-minded, resolute, ambitious, initiative, greedy, and they had vision. They raised capital, determined markets, set company objectives, organized the factory and its labor, and trained supervisors who could act for them. Much opportunity for making money, but there was tremendous risk involved. Cotton trade was competitive. One could only feel confident through constant expansion, so early entepneures invested most of their initial profits. Constant fear of bankruptcy. Most early industrial enterprises were small. As entrepreneurs went bankrupt, new people could enter the race for profits, especially since the initial outlay required was not gigantic. This group of new elites came from extremely diverse social backgrounds. Land and domestic industry were often separate. Legally excluded from many public offices, members of religious minorities were able to participate in the new industrial capitalism and strike it rich. Religious minorities supported each other financially. In Britain, many aristocrats became entrepreneurs, helping Britain assume the leadership role in the early Industrial Revolution. Importance: As the new bourgeois bought great estates and acquired social respectability, they also sought political power, and in the course of the nineteenth century, the wealthiest members would merge with those old elites.

Cholera

Many supported these new health reforms because of their fear of acquiring cholera. Outbreaks of this deadly disease had ravaged Europe in the early 1830s and late 1840s and were especially rampant in the overcrowded cities. Importance: A serious and often deadly disease commonly spread by contaminated water; a major problem in the nineteenth-century European cities before sewerage systems were installed.

Catherine the Great

Married to a palace guard, Peter III, but he died so she became queen. Intelligent woman who recognized and valued the works of philosophes. Didn't completely try to reform Russia with the new Enlightenment ideas, as she realized it would alienate nobility and gentry. Wrote Instruction which advocated equality of all people in the eyes of the law and condemned serfdom, torture, and capital punishment, however this didn't end up making any change. Favored landed nobility. Divided Russia into fifty provinces, profiting the nobles who now ruled their areas. Showed no kindness to peasants. After a failed peasant revolt, Catherine increased the amount and extent of serfdom even more. Expanded Russia's territories into Poland, to the edge of the Black Sea, and even more land through the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji. Importance: Initially attempted to reform Russia with Enlightenment ideas, as expressed in her Instruction, but ultimately didn't make any change due to fear of alienating nobility. By the end of her rule, she made serfdom even more oppressive and openly favored the landed class to a large degree.

The Protestant minister and family

Martin Luther married Katherina von Bora, providing a model of married and family life for the new Protestant minister. Importance: Sets a standard of marriage and family for the next Protestant minister.

Renaissance

Meaning "Rebirth". The period of time between 1350 and 1550, following the so called "Middle ages". They had a renewed interest in Greek and Roman texts, art, and philosophies. Centered in Italy. Key Individuals include: Da Vinci, Erasmus, Machiavelli, Medicis, Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, etc. Importance: Period of artistic and intellectual revival, classicism, and humanism that set the stage for the Reformation and Enlightenment.

Kristallnacht

Meaning Night of Shattered Glass. A young Polish Jew's assassination of a third secretary in the German embassy became the excuse for synagogues being burned, seven thousand Jewish businesses destroyed, at least one hundred Jews were killed, thirty thousand Jewish males were sent to concentration camps. Led to further drastic steps.

Gas chambers

Medical technicians chose Zyklon B, or hydrogen cyanide, as the most effective gas for quickly killing large numbers of people in gas chambers designed to look like shower rooms to facilitate the cooperation of their victims. After gassing, the corpses would be burned in specially built crematoria.

Congress of Berlin

Met in 1878. Dominated by Bismarck. Effectively demolished the Treaty of San Stefano. New Bulgarian state was considerably reduced , territory given to the Ottomans. Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania were now independent. Balkan territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under Austrian protection.

"Displaced Persons"

Millions of people became uprooted from the war. Europe had around 30 million displaced people, many of whom found it hard to return home.

Hermann Goring

Minister of the interior and head of the police of the Prussian state. Purged the police of the non-Nazis and established an auxiliary police force composed of SA members. This legitimized Nazi terror.

Separation of Powers

Montesquieu's most most far-reaching and lasting contribution to political thought. This enhanced the importance of checks and balances. Believed England's system, with its separate powers, provided the greatest freedom and security for a state. Part of the reason he wanted nobility of France to play an active role in governing France. Importance: Separated the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government in France, let the nobility of France play an active role in governing France.

Thomas More's Utopia

More's most famous work, one of the most controversial of his age. Written in 1516. An account of the idealistic life and institutions of the community of Utopia, an imaginary island in the vicinity of the recently discovered New World. Presented a new social system in which cooperation and reason replaced power and fame as the proper motivating agents for human society. Utopian society was based on communal ownership rather than private property. Importance: Set the new ideal of a society favoring reason over power.

Henry the Navigator

Motivated by "his great desire to make increase in the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ and to bring him all the souls that should be saved." Religious motive was second to economic considerations. Lived from 1394 to 1460. His sponsorship made Portugal able to take the lead in the European age of expansion when it began to explore the coast of Africa. His motives were were a blend of seeking a Christian kingdom as an ally against the Muslims, acquiring trade opportunities for Portugal, and spreading Christianity. Founded a school for navigators in 1419. On the southwestern coast of Portugal, increasing the involvement in trade and exploration. Importance: His sponsorship of trade and exploration made Portugal able to become very powerful, wanted to acquire trade opportunities, spread Christianity, and gain a Christian aly against the Muslims.

NATO and COMECON

NATO- The North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Formed in April 1949 when Belgium, Britain, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and Portugal signed a treaty with the United States and Canada to agree to provide mutual assistance if any one of them was attacked. West Germany, Greece, and Turkey joined soon after. COMECON- Formed by the Eastern European states in 1949 for economic cooperation.

Mexico and Emperor Maximilian

Napoleon III sought to control Mexican markets. Sent French troops to Mexico in 1861. There was a struggle between liberal and conservative Mexican factions. Spain and Britain removed their forces but the French stayed. In 1864 Napoleon installed Archduke Maximilian of Austria, his handpicked choice, as the emperor of Mexico. He was left without an army when the French forces were needed back in Europe. He surrendered to the Mexican liberal forces in May 1867 and was executed in June. Importance: This was a blow to the prestige of the French.

Crimean War

Napoleon III was motivated by the desire to free France from the restrictions of the peace settlements of 1814-1815 and to make France the chief arbitrator of Europe. With the decline of the Ottoman Empire, he used this opportunity. The Russians took the Ottoman territory of Crimea in 1783. War started between Russia and the Ottoman Empire in 1853. War started when the Russians demanded the right to protect Christian shrines in Palestine, this privilege was the French's. When Ottomans refused, the Russians occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. The Ottomans, Great Britain, and France all declared war on Russia in 1853. Factors of the French and British making this move were to avoid an upset in the balance of power, the French felt insulted that the Russians should try to overtake their duty of protecting Christians living in Ottoman territories, and the French feared the collapse of the Ottoman empire and the growth of Russian influence there. Austria would not support Russia in their fight. Poorly planned and poorly fought, the Crimean War is best known for the suicidal charge of the British Light Brigade at the Battle of Balaklava. Alexander II sued for peace. In March 1856, Russia was forced to give up Bessarabia at the mouth of Danube and accept the neutrality of the Black Sea. Moldavia and Wallachia were placed under the protection of the great powers. 60% of the 250,000 soldiers who died, died of disease, especially cholera. Importance: The Crimean War broke up long-standing European power relationships and effectively destroyed the Concert of Europe.

The Concordat

Napoleon negotiated with Pope Pius VII to reestablish the Catholic Church in France. The Concordat was arranged with the pope in 1801. This let the pope gain the right to depose French bishops, but no real control over the French Catholic Church. In signing this, the pope also acknowledged the accomplishments of the Revolution and accepted that the lands they had lost in the Revolution were no longer theirs. Catholicism was not reestablished as the state religion; Napoleon merely recognized it as the religion of the majority of France. Clergy members and Protestant ministers were now paid by the state. The Church was no longer an enemy of France. Importance: This agreement between Pope Pius VII and Napoleon decided that the pope could depose French bishops and clergy were now paid by the state, but they now had to accept the loss of their lands from the Revolution, the accomplishments of the Revolution, and the fact that Catholicism would not be recognized as the state religion of France but as the religion of the majority.

Book of Common Prayer

New acts of Parliament instituted the right of the clergy to marry, the elimination of images, and the creation of a revised Protestant liturgy that was elaborated in a new prayer book and liturgical guide known as the Book of Common Prayer. Importance: Prayer book for the Church of England and contains the order to be followed in church services.

Rococo

New art style of the eighteenth century. Affected decoration and architecture all over Europe. Emphasized grace and gentle action. Rejected strict geometrical patterns and had a fondness for curves. Liked to follow the wandering lines of natural objects. Made use of interlaced designs colored in gold with delicate contours and graceful curves. Highly secular, its lightness and charm spoke of the pursuit of pleasure, happiness, and love. Demonstrates decorative architecture. Attempts to mimic the style used in the palace of Versailles. A combination of Baroque and Rococo architecture was popular. This was used in palaces as well as churches. Importance: A new art style of the eighteenth century & can be identified by an emphasized grace and gentle action.

Edwin Chadwick

New kind of urban reformer. Had a background in law. Became obsessed with eliminating the poverty and squalor in the metropolitan areas. Became a civil servant. Was appointed to a number of government investigatory commissions. Secretary of the Poor Law Commission. Initiated a passionate search for detailed facts about the living conditions of the working class. Summarized his three years of observation with his Report on the condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain, which was published in 1842. In this, he concluded that epidemic, endemic, and other diseases were directly caused by the horrible living conditions of this time, specifically overcrowding, decomposing animal and vegetable substances, and damp and filth. Advocated a system of modern sanitary reforms consisting of efficient sewers and a supply of piped water. In 1848, his demands were met after Britain's first Public Health Act created the National Board of Health, empowered to form boards that would establish modern sanitary systems. Importance: Edwin Chadwick made the conclusion that the mass disease outbreaks in Britain were being caused by the unsanitary living conditions of his time; to create a solution for this dilemma, he advocated a system of modern sanitary reforms consisting of efficient sewers and a supply of piped water that later led to Britain making major health reforms.

New Imperialism/Economic Imperialism

New: The revival of imperialism after 1880 in which European nations established colonies throughout much of Asia and Africa. Competition between countries. Colonies served as a source of international prestige, military bases ports, and coaling stations. Closely tied to nationalism. Patriotic fervor. Social Darwinism- superior races must dominate inferior races by military force to show how strong and virile they are. Economic: The process in which banks and corporations from developed nations invest in underdeveloped regions and establish a major presence there in the hope of making high profits; not necessarily the same as colonial expansion in tht businesses invest weher thy can make a profit, which may not be in their own nation's colonies. Natural resources. Controlled area where these raw materials were found.European finance dominated the economic activity of a large part of the world.

Balkan's Crisis

Newly aligned Slavic nations of Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece had driven Turkish forces out of Macedonia, a territory of the Ottoman Empire located in the tumultuous Balkans region of southeastern Europe.By 1913, many in both Austria-Hungary and Germany—especially within the country's' military leadership—had decided that a preventive war against Serbia would be necessary to restore the empire's prestige and power; as Russia was almost certain to back Serbia in any such conflict, a third war in the Balkans would most likely proceed directly to a general European one, with Germany and Austria-Hungary facing off against Serbia, Russia, Russia's primary ally, France, and possibly Britain.

Principia

Newton's major work. The "hinge point of modern scientific thought." Aka Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. The last highly influential book in Europe to be written in Latin. Spelled out the mathematical proofs demonstrating his universal law of gravitation. This was the culmination of the theories of Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler. A coherent synthesis for a new cosmology. In the first book of Principia, Newton defines the basic concepts of mechanics by elaborating the three laws of motion. In book three, Newton applies his theories of mechanics to the problems with astronomy by demonstrating that these three laws of motion govern the planetary bodies as well as terrestrial objects. The universal law of gravitation explained why the planetary bodies did not go off in straight lines but continued in elliptical orbits about the sun. Importance: Newton's major work, proves the existence of the universal law of gravitation, a huge contribution to the conception of the universe, provides a newfound, sound basis for the future development of planetary movement.

Sugar Factories

Nickname for the sugar plantations in the Caribbean. They played an especially prominent role. By the last two decades of the eighteenth century, the British colony of Jamaica , one of Britain's most important, was producing 50,000 tons of sugar annually with the slave labor of 200,000 blacks. The French colony of Saint-Domingue had 50,000 working on 3,000 plantations. This colony produced 100,000 tons of sugar per year. High death rate from slaves there. Cane sugar was one of the most valuable products in the West Indies. By 1700, sugar was replacing honey as a sweetener. Importance: As the demand for sugar grew, more and more factories were made for the production of sugar and many of these factories extremely mistreated their slaves.

Northern Renaissance

Northern artists had a different artistic approach to their artwork than the artists of Italy, as they were trying to capture their landscape as exactly as possible. Italian artists used human form as their main source of expression. Frescoes were very popular for the Italians while Northerners had more illuminated manuscripts and wooden panel paintings for alters. Northerners tended to be very keen to details. Artists of the Northern Renaissance tried to imitate nature but often failed due to their tendency to value the use of detail over perspective and proportion. Importance: The Northern Renaissance produced works that weren't necessarily worse than those of the Italian Renaissance but they were definitely a different style due to the environment.

Joseph Stalin

Not a good speaker or writer, but he excelled at organizing and so he became the general secretary. Stalin used his post as party general secretary to gain complete control of the Communist Party. Expelled Trotsky from the party in 1927. Finally was murdered in Mexico in 1940 on Stalin's orders. By 1929, Stalin had succeeded in eliminating the Old Bolsheviks of the revolutionary era from the Politburo and establishing an extremely powerful dictatorship.

The Agricultural Revolution

Occurred in the eighteenth century. Changes in the methods of farming and stock breeding that led to a significant increase in food production. British agriculture had advanced so that it could feed more people at a lower price and with less labor. Ordinary British families did not have to use most of their income to buy food, giving them the potential to buy manufactured goods. Importance: These changes in the methods of farming and stock breeding led to a significant increase in food production and paved the way for the Industrial Revolution.

Dual Monarchy

Occurs when two separate kingdoms are ruled by the same monarch, follow the same foreign policy, exist in a customs union with each other and have a combined military but are otherwise self-governing. Typically used to refer to Austria-Hungary, a dual monarchy that existed from 1867 to 1918. which parts of the empire know have a constitution, it's own bicameral legislature, it's own governmental machinery for domestic affairs, and it's own capital, Vienna for Austria and Buda for Hungary. Francis Joseph was Emperor of Austria and king of hungary. They had a common army, foreign-policy, and system of finances. hungry up is now independent in domestic affairs. Importance: Hungary and Austria were set under the same leadership and new laws were put into place that gave equal rights Hungarians and Austrians.

Edict of Fontainebleau

October 1685. Provided for the destruction of the Huguenot churches and the closing of Protestant schools. 200,000 Huguenots defied it. An influx of English and Irish political and religious refugees into France offset the loss in the French economy. Importance: Supported Catholicism over Protestantism and Huguenots, greatly impacted both of those religions badly.

"liberal studies"

Offered in the academic training by Vittorino. Concerning Character by Pietro Paolo Vergerio stressed the importance of liberal studies as the key to true freedom. It was said that liberal studies enabled individuals to reach their full potentials. liberal studies included history, moral philosophy, eloquence (rhetoric), letters (grammar and logic), poetry, mathematics, astronomy, and music. Importance: Supposed to produce individuals who followed a path of virtue and wisdom and possessed the rhetorical skills were able to persuade others to do the same.

French Parlements

Often frustrated efforts at reform. The thirteen law courts, which were responsible for registering royal decrees, could block royal edicts by not registering them. Louis XIV forced them into submission, but the Parlements had gained more strength in the eighteenth century as they and their noble judges assumed the role as defenders of "liberty" against arbitrary power of the monarchy. As noble defenders, they also pushed back their own interests, especially by blocking new taxes. Importance: Made of thirteen law courts, which were responsible for registering royal decrees, could block royal edicts by not registering them.

Berlin Wall

On August 13, 1961, East German workers under military supervision began the construction of the Berlin Wall. Within a few months, more than 100 miles of wall, topped by numeros structures, surrounded West Berlin. Americans accepted the wall as access into West Berlin was still available through West Germany. Became a powerful symbol of a divided Europe.

Pearl Harbor

On December 7, 1941, Japanese carrier-based aircraft attacked the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian Islands. The next day, the United States declared war on Japan. Three days later, Hitler declared war on the United States.

League of Nations

On January 25, 1919, the conference adopted this principle. Details were to be determined later and Wilson compromised on territorial agreements to guarantee the establishment of a League, believing that a functioning League could later rectify bad arrangements. Clemenceau comprised in that he renounced France's desire for a separate Rhineland and instead accepted a defensive alliance with Great Britain and the United States. Both states pledged to aid France if it was attacked by Germany.

Woodrow Wilson's 14 Points

On January 8, 1918, President Wilson submitted to the U.S. Congress an outline known as the "Fourteen Points"that he believed justified the enormous military struggle as being fought for a moral cause. Open covenants of peace instead of secret diplomacy, the reduction of national armaments, the self- determination of all people, absolutism and militarism could only be eliminated by democratic governments and general association of nations, political independence. New world order based upon democracy and international cooperation.

France's July Revolution of 1830

On July 26, 1830, Charles X issued a set of edicts (the July Ordinances) that imposed rigid censorship on the press, dissolved the legislative assembly, and reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections. These actions led to the July Revolution. Barricades went up in Paris as a provisional government led by a group of moderate, propertied liberals who was hastily formed and appealed to Louis-Philippe, the duke of Orleans, a cousin of Charles X, to become the constitutional king of France. Charles X fled to Britain; a new monarchy had been born. Importance: A rebellion against the new diets established by Charles X, a group of liberals put the cousin of Charles X on the throne, Louis-Philippe.

The National Assembly

On June 17, 1789, the Third Estate voted to constitute itself as a "National Assembly." Decided to draw up a constitution. This was in response to the First Estate declaring itself in favor of voting by order. Importance: The Third Estate's reaction to the First Estate declaring itself in favor of voting by order was to constitute itself as this.

Battle of Midway

On June 4, at the Battle of Midway Island, American planes destroyed all four of the attacking Japanese aircraft carriers and established American naval superiority in the Pacific. Two fifths of the American planes were shot down in the encounter.

Normandy

On June 6, American forces landed five assault divisions on the Normandy forces in history's greatest amphibious invasions. Three airborne divisions were also sent. Put 150,000 soldiers ashore in one day, requiring more than seven thousand naval ships. Americans established a beachhead due to German indecisiveness. Within two months, they had landed two million men and a half million vehicles to break the German defense lines.

Rhineland

On March 7, 1936, buoyed by his conviction that the Western democracies had no intention of using force to maintain all aspects of the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler sent German troops into the demilitarized Rhineland. Used to be a German territory before WWI but became a buffer of demilitarization and the French were currently occupying it, so Germany used force to take it back and Britain would not support France. This showed Hitler that France and Britain were weak nations unwilling to use force to defend the old order. German generals opposed this but Hitler overrode them.

"We are bringing back the baker...."

On October 5, after marching to the Hotel de Ville, the city hall, to demand bread for their starving children, thousands of Parisian women set off for Versailles, 12 miles away, so that they could confront the king and the National Assembly.King Louis promised to bring grain supply back to Paris, but the women;s actions had forced the National Guard of Paris to march with them to Versailles. The crowd insisted that the royal family must come to Paris. The king complied on October 6 and brought with him flour from the palace stores. The were escorted back by women with pikes, singing, "We are bringing back the baker, the baker's wife, and the baker's boy!" (The royal family.) The king now accepted the National Assembly's decrees. Importance: Parisian women, enraged by the lack of bread for their children, marched to Versailles and forced the royal family to come back with them to Paris, where him came with wagons full of flour.

Sudetenland

On September 15, 1938, Hitler Demanded the cession of the Sudetenland to Germany and expressed his willingness to risk world war to achieve his objective.

November 11, 1918

On September 29, 1918 Ludendorff told the government the war was lost. Germans tried to sue for peace. Tried to set up a liberal government so peace could be made. William II left the country on November 9. Socialists under Friedrich Ebert announced the reestablishment of a republic. On November 11, 1918, an armistice agreed to by the new German government went into effect. The war was over.

July 4, 1776

On this date, the Second Continental Congress approved a declaration of independence written by Thomas Jefferson. This political document affirmed the Enlightenment's natural rights of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" and declared all of the colonies to be "free and independent states absolved from all allegiance to the British crown." This ignited the war for independence in America. Importance: The Second Continental Congress approved a declaration of independence written by Thomas Jefferson, America now had natural rights and allegiance, the war for independence in America had now begun.

July 14, 1789

On this morning, 8,000 Parisians went in search of weapons to the Bastille, a royal armory and a state prison. Seeing it's prisoners only reinforced the Parisians that the government was tyrannic in its ways. The armory was defended by the marquis de Launay and a garrison of 114. After three hours of fighting, Launay surrendered. The victorious mob was enraged by the deaths of 98 of their men, so they decapitated Launay and carried his head through the streets of Paris. This was the start to the French Revolution. Importance: This day marks the beginning of the French Revolution, Parisians invaded the Bastille, stole its weapons, killed the marquis de Launay, and proceeded to parade his head up and down the streets of Paris, in tribute to their victory.

"Open Door" policy

One country would not restrict the commerce of the other countries in its sphere of influence.

The Cottage System

One of Britain's main sources of wealth and industry. Provided a strong financial base for entrepreneurs who wished to run a factory. Of the 110 spinning mills in the midlands, 62 of them were part of the cottage system. Importance: The cottage system was mainly used in the beginning of the Industrial Revolution as an important source of wealth, though it ran on manual labor mainly.

Predestination

One of his ideas derived from his emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God. Calvin called it an "eternal decree" and "He has once for all determined, both whom he would admit to salvation, and whom he would condemn to destruction." Luther also believed in this principle. Importance: Belief, associated with Calvinism, that God, as a consequence of his foreknowledge all all events, has predetermined those who will be saved (the elect) and those who will be damned.

Frederick II (the Great)

One of the best educated and most cultured monarchs of the eighteenth century. Involved in Enlightenment. Believed in the king as the "first servant of the state." Made few innovations in the state's administration. Made the bureaucracy honest and efficient. Allowed religious toleration, freedom of speech and press to a certain degree, and eliminated torture. However, didn't interfere with the extreme serfdom his country experienced as he was dependent on the nobles' support. Social conservative, strengthened aristocracy. Expanded army to 200,00 men. Engaged in the War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. Gained territory between Brandenburg and Prussia, leading Prussia to become a great European power. Importance: One of the most cultured and educated rulers, Frederick II valued Enlightenment principles, advanced the army, and gained new lands for Prussia, but didn't combat and even encouraged serfdom.

Karl Liebknecht

One of the leaders of the Independent Social Democratic Party. Followers favored an immediate social revolution carried out by the councils of soldiers, sailors, and workers. Helped form the German Communist Party in December 1918. Now known as Communists. Brutally murdered by the Free Corps and the regular army, this was an order from Friedrich Ebert and the moderate socialists.

William Wordsworth

One of the most important aspects of Romanticism was the love of nature which was exemplified in his works. His experience of nature was almost mystical. To him, nature contained a mysterious force that the poet could perceive and learn from. Nature was alive and sacred. Nature served as a mirror to humans that they could look into and learn about themselves. Importance: A poet of the period who wrote about the love of nature that was becoming an important aspect of Romanticism.

James Hargreaves' spinning jenny

One of the new inventions of the Industrial Revolution. Yarb was in high demand after the invention of the flying shuttle, prompting Hargreaves to create this. Importance: Through this invention, Hargreaves was able to enhance the production of textiles along with satisfying the needs of the people.

Francis Xavier

One of the original members of the Society of Jesus, carried the message of Catholic Christianity to the East. Converted people in India, Malacca, and the Moluccas before reaching Japan in 1549. He spoke highly of them "They are a people of excellent morals-good in general and not malicious" Importance: Helped spread Catholic Christianity, one of the founders of the Jesuits order.

Igor Stravinsky's "The Rite of Spring"

One of the twentieth century's most important composers. Gained international fame as a ballet composer. The Rite of Spring (1913), based off of Russian fairy tale, proved to be a revolutionary piece in the development of music. Premiered May 29, 1913 and its pulsating rhythms, sharp dissonances, and unusual dancing overwhelmed the Paris audience and caused a riot at the theater. Sought a new understanding of irrational forces in his music, which became an important force in inaugurating a modern musical movement. Importance: A chief exponent of musical primitivism, helped develop a modern musical movement, one of the most important composers of the twentieth century.

The Habsburgs

One of the wealthiest landholders in the empire and by the mid-fifteenth century. Played an important role in European affairs. Gained success from dynastic marriages. A particular marriage between his son Maximilian and Mary gave the family international power as well as lots of new territories and the opposition of the French monarchy. When Maximilian became emperor his only successes were his child's marriage alliance. Mary and Maximilian's son Philip married Ferdinand and Isabella's daughter Joanna. Their son, Charles became the leading monarch of his age after a series of deaths in the families lead to him becoming the sole heir to the Habsburg, Burgundian, and Spanish lines. Importance: One of the most important lines of their time, gained power through marriage, joined lines with Ferdinand and Isabel to produce one of the most powerful people.

Stalin's 1st Five Year Plan

Ordered in 1928. Its goal was the transformation of the Soviet Union from an agricultural country to an industrial state. Instead of consumer goods, the first five-year plan centered on capital goods and armaments and succeeded in quadrupling the production of heavy machinery and doubling oil production.

Sans-culottes

Ordinary patriots without fine clothes. Made up the Paris Commune. Many were the working class or the poor, but many were also merchants and better-off artisans. Importance: "Without breeches." The common people, who did not wear the fine clothes of the upper classes and played an important role in the radical phase of the French Revolution.

Castiglione's Book of the Courtier

Outlines the ideals that are to be expected of an aristocrat, written by the Italian Baldassare Castiglione in 1528. Stayed popular for centuries after it's release as it was used as a sort of handbook for all European aristocrats. Outlined three three main qualities the paragon of a courtier should have: 1. Nobles should possess fundamental native endowments 2. Must cultivate certain achievements 3. Have a Classical education and to adorn his life with the arts. Importance: Shaped society by outlining the principles and attributes all courtiers should have, described a certain social ideal that became the ultimate goal for aristocrats.

Pablo Picasso and Cubism

Painted in a variety of styles. Instrumental in the development of Cubism. Used geometric designs as visual stimuli to re-create reality in the viewer's mind. Picasso's 1907 work, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon is considered to be the first Cubist painting. Importance: Picasso created the new art movement of Cubism in which geometric designs were used as visual stimuli to re-create reality in the viewer's mind.

Pius II's Execrabilis

Papal bull. Written to try to defeat the conciliar movement. Issued in 1460. Condemned appeals to a council over the head of a pope as a heretical. Importance: Helped contribute toward the papacy reasserting their power over the Catholic Church.

The factory acts

Passed between 1802 and 1819. Limited labor for children between the ages of nine and sixteen to twelve hours a day. The employment under nine years old was forbidden. Children were to receive instruction in reading and arithmetic during work hours. These acts applied only to cotton mills. No provision was being made for enforcing the acts through a system of supervision. Factory Act of 1833 strengthened earlier labor legislation. All textile factories were now included. Importance: Many new laws were passed to further protect children from the dreadful factory conditions.

Defense of the Realm Act

Passed by British government in the beginning of the war. Allowed the public authorities to arrest dissenters as traitors. Later extended to authorize public officials to censor newspapers by deleting objectionable material and even suspend newspaper publication.

The Test Act

Passed by Parliament in 1673. Specified that only Anglicans could hold military and civil offices. This diminishes the power of Catholics and Puritan Dissenters. Importance: Suppressed the rights of those who were not Anglicans.

Poverty and prosperity

Peasants- Peasantry made up 85% of Europe's population. There were free peasants and serfs. Subject to dues, fees, tithes, and the aristocrats had hunting privileges on their land. The village of the peasant were the centers of their social lives, it maintained public order, provided poor relief, a church, and sometimes aa schoolmaster, it collected taxes for the central government, maintained roads and bridges, and established common procedures for sowing, plowing, and harvesting crops. Diet of peasants was dark bread, water, wine beer, soups, gruel, corn, and potatoes. Nobles- Nobility consisted of 2-3% of the population. Played a dominating role in society. Hereditary. Judgement by their peers, immunity from extreme punishment, and exemption from many forms of taxation. Set apart from the rest of society. Trade was beneath them. Diet consisted of lots of meat, fish, cheeses, nuts and sweets. Played important roles in military and government affairs. Not a homogenous social group. More educated. Amount of nobles declined by one third between 1750 and 1815. Importance: There was an immense gap between the lifestyles of nobility and peasantry; while the peasants worked to stay alive and barely had enough resources available to them, the nobility seemed to flourish off their inheritances rather than actually working and lived by their lavish ways.

"Land Girls"

Performed agricultural labor usually undertaken by men. By 1944 women held 50% of civil service positions.

Warsaw Pact

Poland pledged to remain loyal to the Warsaw Pact and the Soviets agreed to allow Poland to follow its own path to socialism.

Pope Paul lll

Pontificate of Pope Paul proved a turning point in the reform of the papacy. Continued Renaissance papal practices by appointing his nephews as cardinals, involving himself in politics and patronizing arts and letters on a lavish scale. In 1535, Paul III took the audacious step of appointing a reform commission to study the condition of the church. Also formally recognized the Jesuits and summoned the Council of Trent. Importance: Helped reach a turning point in the reformation of the papacy.

Second Vietnam War

Post war, Vietnam was divided politically between the Soviet supported side under Ho Chi Minh and the American sponsored sude under Ngo Dinh Diem. John F. Kennedy continued Eisenhower's policies there, but was discontented by the Diem regime there. In November 1963, the Americans supported a military coup that overthrew the Diem regime. The new government established was even weaker and was on the verge of takeover by the Vietcong. The American president, Lyndon Johnson, launched bombing raids on the north and sent US combat troops to South Vietnam to prevent a total defeat of the anti-Communist government in Saigon and keep the Communist regime of the north from uniting the entire country under its control. The Vietamese were successful in fighing of the Americans and the amount of troops the US was sending into war produced both a strong anti-war movement. In 1973, President Richard Nixon reached an agreement with North Vietnam that allowed the United States to withdraw its forces. Within two years, Vietnam had been forcibly reunited by Communist armies from the North.

Paris Commune

Power passed from the assembly to the Paris Commune, initiating a more radical stage of the revolution. Composed of sans-culottes. Importance: This was the group that seized the municipal government of Paris in the French Revolution and played a leading part in the Reign of Terror until suppressed in 1794.

Balance of Power

Predicted on how to counterbalance the power of one state by another to prevent any one state from dominating the others. Importance: A distribution of power among several states such that no single nation may dominate or interfere with the interests of another.

Empress Maria Theresa

Prepared her empire for conflict with Prussia. Reduced power of the provincial assemblies. Now nobles payed their taxes directly to the crown rather than the diets. Austrian lands were divided into ten provinces, all governed by the crown. This strengthened Habsburg power. Enlarged and modernized their army. Very Catholic and would not allow religious reform. Importance: Her main goal was to strengthen Austria's power through taxation, more royal control over the empire's lands, and a more efficient army, but she refused to reform religiously.

Anabaptists in Munster

Proclaimed it to be the new Jerusalem. As they became radical millenarianists and captured the city, Lutherans and Catholics became increasingly distrustful and coalition recaptured the city in 1535. The Anabaptists were exterminated here. Importance: Anabaptists were not received well by other religions, led to their demise in Munster.

Britain's Poor Law Commission

Produced detailed reports of the conditions in the early industrial cities. The investigators often were struck by the physically and morally debilitating effects of urban industrial life on the poor. It was observed that young working class men were considerably shorter and scrawnier than the sons of middle class families and were often more subject to disease. They were especially alarmed by the fact that these conditions n lower class families often led to prostitution, crime, and sexual morality. Importance: Through Britain's Poor Law Commission, we were able to gain detailed reports of the living conditions and the effects of these conditions for the working class.

Marburg Colloquy

Produced no agreement and no evangelical alliance. 1509. It was a foretaste of the issues that would divide one reform group from another and lead to the creation of different Protestant groups. Importance: Shows the beginnings of division of reform groups within Protestant Reformation.

George Eastman

Produced the first Kodak camera for mass production in 1888. Photography became very popular after this. Importance: Produced the first Kodak camera for mass production in 1888.

Frederick William I

Promoted the evolution of Prussia's bureaucracy by establishing the General Dictionary. Strove to maintain a highly efficient bureaucracy of civil service workers. Made sure everyone was obedient to the king and put him first. He closely watched his officials to check their loyalty toward him. Rigid class stratification continued in his reign- aristocracy had lots of power. Passionately expanded the army, it went from 45,000 to 83,000. Had the fourth largest army now of Europe. Used nobles as officers, gaining the nobles' support and loyalty to the king. Prussian army the most important institution in the state. "Prussian militarism." Social classes below nobility had very little power; their only opportunity for advancement was through the army. Importance: Passionately expanded Prussia's army so that Prussia could become a greater European power, strengthened the bureaucracy by establishing the General Dictionary, and he was an absolute monarch who made it so that he had authority over all others.

The Puritans

Protestants in the Anglican Church inspired by Calvinist theology. Wanted James to eliminate the episcopal system of church organization in the Church of England in favor of a Presbyterian model. Refused because the Anglican Church was a major support of monarchical authority. Puritans now opposed the king. Most gentry in England became Puritans, they made up a substantial amount of the House of Commons, the lower house of Parliament, and held important local positions. Alienating Puritans was no longer wise. Importance: Due to the king's refusal to eliminate the episcopal system of church organization in the Church of England in favor of a Presbyterian model, Puritans opposed the rule of the king and the conversion of many gentries in England into Puritans made them a more powerful enemy.

Theodor Herzl and Zionism

Published The Jewish State in 1896. In this, he maintained that the Jews who wish it will have their state. Financial support for the development of the settlements in Palestine came from wealthy Jewish banking families who wanted a refuge in Palestine for persecuted Jews. Establishing settlements was difficult because Palestine was then a part of the Ottoman empire and Ottoman authorities were opposed to Jewish immigration. The First Zionist Congress, which met in Switzerland in 1897, had the goal of creating a home in Palestine secured by law for all of the Jews. Importance: A key figure in the growth of political Zionism.

The Starry Messenger

Published in 1610. Written by Galileo. Stunned his contemporaries by revealing that the celestial bodies were not perfect and immutable but composed of material substance similar to that of the earth. Explains his observations as seen with the telescope. Revealed himself as a firm proponent of Copernicus's heliocentric system. Showed Europeans the new picture of the universe. Was received by scholars as a conquering hero in Rome. Importance: Documents Galileo's observations as seen by the telescope, shows that celestial bodies are imperfect and composed of similar material to that of Earth.

John Stuart Mill's "On the Subjection of Women"

Published this essay after his attempt to include women in the voting reform bill of 1867 failed.Wrote this work with his wife, Harriet Taylor. He argues that the legal subordination of one sex to the other was wrong. The differences between men and women were due to social practices rather than different natures. With equal education, women could achieve as much as men. Importance: An important work in the nineteenth century movement for women's rights.

Jesuits

Pursued three main activities. Established highly disciplined schools, borrowing freely from humanist schools for their educational methods. Education of young people was crucial to combating the advance of Protestantism for them. Took over premier academic posts in Catholic universities by the sixteenth century and by the 1600s they were the most famous educators in Europe. Importance: Greatly encouraged the importance of education, became famous educators.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

Put into effect in June 1790. Both bishops and priests of the Catholic Church were to be elected by the people and paid by the state. All clergy were required to swear an oath of allegiance to the Civil Constitution.The pope forbade this, so only 54% of the French parish clergy took the oath, and the majority of the bishops refused.This was a critical development because the Catholic Church, still an important institution in the lives of the French, now became an enemy of the Revolution. The Civil Constitution has also been viewed as a tactical blunder on the part of the National Assembly, for by arousing the opposition of the church, it gave counterrevolution a popular base from which to operate. Importance: This removed the Catholic church from its place in the French government, it stripped them of most of their lands, caused division in the church, made it so that bishops and priests had to be elected by the people and paid by the state, and forced more than half of the clergy to swear an oath of allegiance to the Civil Constitution.

Apartheid

Racial segregation system in Africa.

Racine and Moliere

Racine: Lived from 1639 to 1699. Got many of his themes and plots from Classical sources. Phedre, his best play, closely follows the plot of Hippolytus. Perfected the French neoclassical tragic style. Focused on conflicts, such as love and honor or inclination and duty, that characterized and revealed the tragic dimensions of life. Moliere: Lived from 1622 to 1673. Enjoyed the favor of the French court. Benefitted from the patronage of King Louis XIV. Wrote, produced and acted in a series of comedies that often satirized the religious and social world of his time. In Tartuffe, he ridicules religious hypocrisy, from which he was only saved from severe harassment by the clergy from the king. Importance: These are the two main playwrights from France at their time who exemplified in new versions of Classics as well as comedies.

John Calvin

Received diverse education in humanistic studies and law in France. Since King Francis I was persecuting Protestants, Calvin went to Basel where he published Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536. Ahearded to the doctrine of justification by faith alone to explain how humans achieve salvation. Identified three tests that might indicate possible salvation: an open profession of faith, a "decent and godly life", and participation in the sacraments of baptism and communion. Calvin himself stressed that there could be no absolute certainty of salvation. Believed in the Lord's Supper but only in the spiritual sense. Importance: Calvin became a dynamic and activist faith, he became the militant international form of Protestantism. He also succeeded in creating a new church for those that believed in God's work.

The Dawes Plan

Reduced reparations and stabilized Germany's payments on the basis of its ability to pay. Named after the American banker who chaired the commission. Granted the initial 200 million dollar loan for German recovery, which opened the door to heavy American investments in Europe that helped usher in a new era of European prosperity.

Mohandas Gandhi

Referred to as India's "Great Soul" or Mahatma. Set up a movement based on nonviolent resistance whose aim was to force the British to improve the lot of the poor and provide independence to India. Used the principle of civil disobedience. Manufactured his own clothes.

Popular Culture

Refers to the written and and unwritten lore and social activities and pursuits of the masses, most of which is passed down orally. Distinguishing characteristic: its collective and public nature. Group activity was especially evident in festival. Carnival was celebrated in the weeks leading to the beginning of Lent. Carnival was a time of great indulgence. Another chief gathering place of the common people were taverns or cabarets. There, people talked played games, conducted small business matters, and drink. The upper class gradually abandoned popular culture. Traditional songs and stories were passed down from generation to generation. Chapbooks were sold to the lower class as well. Most lower class were illiterate, though. Importance: Refers to the written and and unwritten lore and social activities and pursuits of the masses, most of which is passed down orally & distinguishing characteristic was its collective and public nature.

Botticelli's Primavera

Reflects Botticelli's interest in Greek and Roman myths. Set in the garden of Venus, which is eternally in springtime. The figures are defined and yet also don't conform to the realism style that dominated that time. Importance: Challenged the art style of his time, strayed away from realism.

Queen Victoria

Reigned from 1837 to 1901 from 1837 to 1901. The longest in, the longest in English history. National pride. Sense of duty and moral respectability reflected of the attitude of her age. Victorian Age. An era of uneasy stability. Party lines are blurred in Parliament. Importance: Her reign enacted an era of stability in Britain, the Victorian Age.

Postmodernism

Rejects the modern Western belief in an objective truth and instead focuses on the relative nature of reality and knowlege.

Deism

Religious outlook shared by most philosophes. Built on the Newtonian world-machine, which suggested the existence of a mechanic (God) who created the universe. God had no direct involvement in the world he had created and allowed it to run according to its own natural laws. God did not extend grace or answer prayers. Jesus was a "good fellow" as voltaire put it but he was not divine. Importance: The religious outlook that most philosophes believed, God created the earth but let it be and did not intervene in human affairs, Jesus was not divine.

Renaissance Popes

Renaissance papacy includes popes from the end of the Great Schism in 1417 to the beginning of the Reformation in the early sixteenth century. Papacy governs the Catholic Church as its spiritual leader. Had to procure loyal servants to further their territorial aims. Relied on nepotism to promote their interests. Popes were patrons of Renaissance culture, their efforts made Rome a cultural leader. Famous popes of this time include Julius II, Pope Sixtus IV, Alexander VI, and Leo X. Importance: Renaissance Papacy lasted for almost two centuries, precedes the Reformation and comes after the Great Schism.

Amsterdam

Replaced Antwerp as the financial and commercial capital of Europe. Had 30,000 inhabitants in 1570. By 1610, that number doubled from the amount of immigrants coming in, mostly from the Spanish Netherlands. In 1613, the government responded to the new population growth by increasing the city's territory from 500 to 1,800 acres. The city's physical expansion was soon matched by its population as it grew to 200,000 by 1660. Became the financial and commercial center of Europe because Amsterdam merchants possessed vast fleets of ships that were important carriers for the products of other countries, and the Dutch invention of the fluyt, a shallow-draft ship of large capacity, enabled the transport of enormous quantities of cereals, timber, and iron. Dam square was where cargoes were unloaded. Became a crossroads for many of Europe's chief products because of the quantity of goods brought there. Some of the city's greatest wealth came from war profits. Was the principal supplier of military goods by 1700. Trading posts provided large quantities of capital for investment. The founding of the Exchange Bank of Amsterdam in 1609 as well as the Amsterdam Stock Exchange greatly facilitated the city's financial role. Prosperous merchants dominated the government. Importance: Became the financial and commercial center of Europe due to the influx of people, it's importance as a trading post, and the establishment of banks.

Allied Strategic Bombing Survey

Revealed that the production of war materiel had actually increased between 1942 and 44.

Neo-Gothic Architecture

Revival of gothic architecture. Pseudo-medieval castles and cities bedecked with grandiose neo-Gothic cathedrals, city halls, parliamentary buildings, and even railway stations. Importance: A revival of Gothic architecture.

Catholic Reformation

Revived the best features of medieval Catholicism and then adjusted them to meet new conditions, as is most apparent in the revival of mysticism and monasticism. The emergence of a new mysticism, closely tied to the traditions of Catholic piety, was especially evident in the life of the Spanish mystic Saint Teresa of Avila. Regeneration of religious orders. Of all the new religious orders, the most important was the Society of Jesus, known as the Jesuits, who became the chief instrument of the Catholic Reformation. Importance: Revival of mysticism and monasticism, regeneration of religious orders, Society of Jesus was most important religious order.

The Peasants' War of 1524

Revolt first erupted in southwestern Germany in 1524 and spread northward and eastward. Thomas Muntzer inflamed these peasants. Greatest struggle for Luther. Luther had to support the kings and princes for his ideas to stay alive. Suppressed by May 1525. Importance: Made Luther even more dependent on state authorities for his reformed church to continue to grow.

Reign of Terror

Revolutionary courts were organized to protect the Republic from its internal enemies. Victims of the terror ranged from royals to former revolutionary Girondins to thousands of peasants. Many victims were people who had opposed the radical activities of the sans-culottes. 50,000 people were victims of the Terror in all. These executions mainly took place in the Vendee and cities such as Lyon and Marseilles who had been in rebellion against the National Convention. Cannons and grapeshot were even used for the process to go faster. The Terror was at its most destructive at the Vendee. 42% of the total executions were passed in territories affected by the rebellion. The Terror demonstrated little class prejudice. Although theoretically a republic, the French government during the Terror was led by a group of twelve men who ordered the execution of people as national enemies. Importance: Led by the Committee of Public Safety, this was a time where 50,000 were executed for being enemies of the state, the murders consisted of people that had opposed the revolution.

Richard Arkwright's water frame

Richard Arkwright's water frame was a device that was used to increase the production in the process of spinning yarn. It was used in conjunction with James Hargreaves's spinning jenny to make call and outputs much greater. It also created a more efficient way to spin yarn. Importance: Powered by either water, horse, or Samuel Crompton's mule, Richard Arkwright's water frame was a huge help to

Louis XV

Ruled from 1715 to 1774. Decided to rule without the financial advice and help from a minister. He was lazy and weak which led to ministers and mistresses influencing his rule, controlling the fairs of the state, and undermining the prestige of the monarchy. Importance: Led France to great debt and was unable to recognize and act against the extreme unrest apparent in tax increase, famine of the general public, and lavish lifestyle at the Palace of Versailles that dominated his rule.

Louis XVI

Ruled from 1774 to 1792. Louis XV's grandson. Incompetent. Knew little about the operations of the French government. Lacked the necessary energy to deal with state affairs properly. Married to marie Antoinette. Importance: Was unable to rule effectively, so the worsening unrest and economic crisis led to a violent revolution.

Reason of State

Rulers should be more concerned with the effects that their decisions make on their state than how their decisions affect their own names. This emerged in the eighteenth century. Shown by Frederick II and William Pitt the Elder. Importance: The principle that a nation should act on the basis of its long-term interests and not merely to further the dynastic interests of its ruling family.

Enlightened absolutism

Rulers who serve as examples for this type of leadership are Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria; this furthered modern nationhood in their countries. Importance: An absolute monarchy in which the rule follows the principles of the Enlightenment by introducing reforms for the improvement of society, allowing freedom of speech and the press, permitting religious toleration, expanding education, and ruling in accordance with the laws.

Battle of Tannenberg and Battle of Masurian Lakes

Russian army moved into east Germany, but were decisively eaten at these two battles. August 30 nd September 15. These battles established the military reputations of the commanding general, Hindenburg. The Russians were no longer a threat to German territory.

Dimitri Mendeleyev

Russian chemist. Classified all the material elements then known on the basis of their atomic weights and provided the systematic foundation for the periodic law.

Alexander II and the Serfs

Russian landowners where economically priced and unable to compete with for an agriculture. Servants were uneducated and unable to deal with complex machines in the weapons of war. Peasant revolts. On March 3, 1861. The rights were still limited. peasants had in adequate amounts as good arable land to support themselves. Since the land given to the peasants was taken from the landowners, the peasants were expected to repay the state in long-term installments. Peasants were now subject to mir, which was collectively responsible for the land payments to the government. The village common owns the land, not the peasants. Importance: emancipation lead not to a friend, landowning peasantry but to an unhappy, land-starved peasants that largely followed the old ways of farming.

Wassily Kandinsky

Russian. Square with White Border, a work of his, sight to avoid representation altogether.Believed that art should speak directly to the soul. To do so, it must avoid any reference to visual reality and concentrate on color. Importance: One of the founders of abstract painting

"Bloody Sunday"

Russo-Japanese War caused the breakdown of the transport system which caused food shortages in major Russian cities. On January 9, 1905, a massive procession of workers marched to the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg to present a petition of grievances to the tsar.Troops opened fire on the peaceful demonstration, killing hundreds and starting a revolution. This incited workers to call strikes and form unions.

Munich Conference

September 29. The British, the Italians, the French and the Germans reached an agreement that basically met all of Hitler's demands- German troops were allowed to occupy Sudetenland. The Munich Conference was the highpoint of Western appeasement of Hitler.

Yugoslavia

Serbia formed its nucleus.

Robert Walpole

Served as prime minister from 1721 to 1742. Pursued a peaceful foreign policy to avoid new land taxes. Handled Parliament for George I and George II. Growing trade and industry led to the middle class favoring the expansion of trade and world empire, so William Pitt the Elder became the people's choice over Walpole. Importance: Prime minister that ran Parliament and pursued a peaceful foreign policy to avoid new land taxes.

Allied Reparations Commission

Settled on a sum of 33 billion dollars for the Germans to pay in annual installments of 2.5 billion gold marks. Caused problems when the Germans could not pay the money the next year.

Emile Zola

Showed how alcoholism and different environments affected people's lives. Used Darwin's ideas in his Rougon-Macquart, a twenty volume series of novels on the natural and social history of a family. Maintained that the artist must analyze and dissect life a biologist would a living organism. Importance: His novels provide good examples of Naturalism.

Treaty of Versailles

Signed on June 28, 1919. Peace with Germany. Germany had to reduce its army to 100,000 men, cut back its navy, and eliminate its air force. Lost the cession of Alsace and Lorraine to France and sections of Prussia to the nw Polish state.German land west of the Rhine was established as a demilitarized zone and stripped of all armaments or fortifications to serve as a barrier to any future German military moves westward of France. Could not reject this treaty.

League of Nations' mandates

Since Woodrow Wilson had opposed the outright annexation of colonial territories by the Allies, the peace settlement had created a system of mandates whereby a nation officially administered a territory on behalf of the League of Nations. This system of mandates could not hide that the principle of national self-determination was for Europeans. A system established after WW1 where nation officially administers a territory on behalf of the League of Nations. France administered Lebanon and Syria as mandated and Britain administered Iraq and Palestine.

Luddites

Skilled craftspeople from the Midlands and northern England who in 1812 attacked the machines that they believed threatened their livelihoods. Their attacks failed to stop mechanized industrialism in Britain and were viewed as naive. Reaction against unrestrained industrial capitalism. Received major local support. Importance: A group dedicated to attacking machines and trying to stop industrialism in order to save their jobs.

Triangular Trade

Slave trade connecting Europe, Africa, and the American continents. Characterized the new Atlantic economy. European merchant ships carried European manufactured goods such as cloth, gin, and guns to Africa, where they were traded for a cargo of slaves. Slaves were then shipped to the New World and sold. European merchants bought tobacco, molasses, sugar, rum, coffee, and cotton back to Europe. 275,000 enslaved Africans were exported to other countries in the 16th century, that number jumped to 6 million by the 18th century. 10 million altogether by the 19th. Importance: Trade began between Europe, Africa, and the Americas, this is where slave trade had a huge influx. Goods from Europe went to Africa, African slaves went to the Americas, and American goods went to Europe.

Charles Fourier's phalansteries

Small model communities. Voluntary associations that would demonstrate the advantages of cooperative living.Self-contained cooperatives , each consisting of ideally of 1,620 people. Communally housed, the inhabitants o the phalansteries would live and work together for their mutual benefit. Work assignments would be rotated frequently to relieve workers of undesirable tasks. Plan remained untested de to lack of financial backing. Importance: A self-sustaining cooperative community, as advocated by Charles Fourier in the early nineteenth century.

Stalinization and de Stalinization

Social process of adopting (or being forced to adopt) the policies and practices of Joseph Stalin. (in communist countries) the policy of eradicating the memory or influence of Joseph Stalin and Stalinism, especially after 1956. Advocated by Khrushchev. Reduced the powers of the secret police and closed some of the Siberian prison camps.

France's Francois Mitterrand

Socialist leader elected president of the National Assembly in France. Froze prices and wages in the hope of reducing the huge budget deficit and high inflation. Passed a number of liberal measures to aid workers- an increased minimum wage, expanded social benefits, higher taxes for the rich, a mandatory fifth week of paid vacation for salaried workers and a 39 hour workweek. Centralized national banks and industry and decentralized granting local governments greater powers.

William Shakespeare

Son of a prosperous glovemaker from Stratford-upon-Avon. Appeared in London in 1592. A "complete man of theater." Best known for writing plays. Also an actor, shareholder in the Lord Chamberlain's Company. Has long been recognized as a universal genius. Master of the English language. He was instrumental in codifying a language that was still in transition. Insight into psychology. Exhibited a remarkable understanding of human condition. Importance: One of the most famous playwrights of the Western world, a universal genius. He outclassed all others in his psychological insights, depth of characterization, imaginative skills, and versatility.

Surrealism

Sought a reality beyond the material, sensible world and found it in the world of the unconscious through the portrayal of fantasies, dreams, or nightmares. Employed logic to portray the illogical. Surrealists created disturbing and evocative images. The Spaniard Salvador Dali became the high priest of Surrealism and in his mature phase he became a master of representational Surrealism. Placed objects in unrecognizable relationships to create a disturbing world in which the irrational had become tangible, forcing viewers to question the rational in his The Persistence of Memory.

Charles V

Sought to maintain religious unity throughout his vast empire by keeping all of his subjects within the bounds of the Catholic Church. Due to his conflict with Francis I of France and his difficulties with the Turks, the papacy, and the German princes, Charles was never able to check the spread of Lutheranism. Importance: Part of the Habsburg dynasty, the most powerful monarch in Europe.

Spanish Armada

Spanish fleet that finally set sail which did not have the ships nor the troops that Philip planned to send. The Fleet was battered by a number of encounters with the English, when it sailed back to Spain by a northward route, it was battered by Scotland and Ireland. Importance: Spanish Armada was defeated by the English, making England stay a protestant country and was a psychological blow to the spaniards.

Ignatius of Loyola

Spanish nobleman. Founded Society of Jesus. Battle injuries forced him to cut short his military career. Experienced a spiritual torment similar to Luther's but, unlike Luther, resolved his problems not by a new doctrine but by a decision to submit his will to the will of the church. Unable to be a real soldier, he vowed to be a soldier of God. Over a period of twelve years, Loyola prepared for his lifework by prayer, pilgrimages, going to school, and working out a spiritual program in his brief but powerful book, The Spiritual Exercises. This was a training manual for spiritual development emphasizing exercises by which the human will could be strengthened and made to follow the will of God as manifested through his instrument, the Catholic Church. Recognized as a religious order by a papal bull in 1540. Loyola served as the first general of the order until his death in 1556. Importance: In his Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius of Loyola developed a systematic program for "the conquest of self and the regulation of one's life" for service to the hierarchical Catholic Church. Ignatius's supreme goal was the commitment of the Christian to active service under Jesus's banner in the Church of Christ (the Catholic Church).

Einsatzgruppen

Special strike forces. Created by Heydrich to round up all Polish Jews and concentrate them in ghettos established in a number of Polish cities. Became mobile killing units in June 1941. Killed one million Jews.

the space race and Sputnik

Sputnik was the first space satelite put into orbit around Earth by the Soviets. Caused the US to lauch a project to land a manned spacecraft on the moon within a decade.Acheived this in 1969, with help from the government.

Big Three

Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill.

Benito Mussolini

Started as an elementary school teacher. Mussolini became a socialist. Obtained the position of the editor of the Avanti. Expelled from the Socialist Party. Laid the foundation for fascism. Mussolini shifted from the leftist to rightist politics and began to gain support from middle class industrialists fearful of working class agitation and large landowners who objected to the agricultural strikes. He used the Italians sadness over not gaining territory from World War I. Anti Communism, anti strike activity, nationalistic rhetoric, and brute force helped him achieve his goals. Allied with the Liberals, gaining regaining respectability and a free han for his violent squadristi. Won the Fascists more seats due to this. The use of violence was crucial to his plans. Believed the terrorist tactics of the Fascists would eventually achieve political victory. Planned a march on Rome to seize power. A bluff to scare the government into giving them more power. Made prime minister on October 29, 1922 by King Victor Emmanuel III. 24 hours later, the Fascists were able to march into Rome in order to create the myth that they had gained power by an armed insurrection after a war. Established his Fascist dictatorship by 1926.

African National Congress

Started by African intellectuals in the south who wanted to make reforms. against apartheid. Tried to overthrow system.

Appeasement

Started by Britain. Based on the belief that if European states satisfies the reasonable demands of dissatisfied powers, the latter would be content, and stability and peace would be achieved in Europe. British appeasement was grounded in large part on Britain's desire to avoid another war, but British statesmen who believed that Nazi Germany offered a powerful bulwark against Soviet communism also fostered it.

Pugachev's Rebellion

Started by an illiterate Cossack, Emelyan Pugachev. Turned the peasants' apparent discontent into a mass revolt. Won the support of many peasants by issuing a manifesto in 1774 that freed all peasants from oppressive taxes and military service. Peasants killed their landlords and their families, killing more than fifteen hundred by the end. More government forces came, though and the movement faltered. Pugachev was betrayed by his own subordinates and was captured, tortured, and murdered. Importance: A movement started by Emelyan Pugachev that protested the intense serfdom Catherine the Great had created, but failed.

Realism

Started in 1850. Art and literature. Literary realists were distinguished by their rejection of Romanticism. Wanted to deal with ordinary characteristics of real life. Favored prose and the novel over poetry. Combined interests of everyday life with a searching examination of social questions. Importance: The new literature and art movement that went against the values of Romanticism and instead valued everyday life.

Russo-Japanese War

Started miny because Russia had taken control of northern Korea and some other rgions. Japa made a suprise attack on the Russian eastern fleet at Port Arthur in 1904. Russia then sent its Baltic fleet halfway across the world to the East, only to be deafeated by the new Japanese navy at Tsushima Strait off the coast of Japan. A hit to the Europeans as many could not believe that an Asian state could be militarily superior to a great European power. Russia sued for peace in 1905.

Incas

Started off as a small community in the area of Cuzco, located at an altitude of 10,000 feet in the mountains of Peru, in the fourteenth century. In the 1440's, under the leadership of Pachakuti, the Incas launched a campaign of conquest that led them to take over the entire region. Created a highly centralized state. Their capital, Cuzco, was transformed from mud and thatch into a city of stone. Pachakuti's immediate successors were Topa Inca and Huayna Inca. Empire extended to Ecuador, central Chile, and the Amsterdam basin. Included 12 million people. Realm was divided into quarters, each ruled by a governor. Quarters were divided into provinces, which were also ruled by governors. Relatives of royal family were usually the governors. Each province contained about 10,000 people. Emperor was on the top, thought to be descended from the sun god. Great builders. 24,800 miles of roads, built bridges as well. Pizzaro arrived there in 1530 with steel weapons, gunpowder, and horses. Europeans introduced smallpox there. Incan emperor died. Civil war was caused by the emperor's sons both staking a claim to the throne. Pizzaro seized the victorious brother. Europeans captured the capital and established a new capital at Lima in 1535. Importance: Incas were ahead of their time with their advancements in building and government but ultimately fell to the Europeans due to their lack of immunities and technology advancements.

Joseph II

Still wanted to enhance Habsburg power within the monarchy and Europe, like his mother Maria Theresa, but he also wanted to make some serious social changes for Austria as well. Believed in reason. Abolished serfdom, abolished the death penalty, insured equality before the law, and allowed complete religious toleration while limiting the Catholic Church's amount of power. However these changes alienated nobility throughout the freeing of serfs, alienated the church by his attacks on monastic establishment, and the non-Germans who couldn't speak the national language. Many of his reforms were undone by later rulers. Importance: Went to extreme lengths to attempt to reform Austria socially, politically, and religiously, but it only ended up alienating large parts of the population, and these reforms were later undone.

Constantinople in 1453

Sultan Mehmet II laid siege to Constantinople with 80,000 troops behind him, while Constantinople only had 7,000 to defend itself. In this battle, the Turks used massive cannons with 26-foot barrels that launched stones weighing up to 120,000 pounds. The Byzantine Empire died when the walls were breached and the final battle occurred. Importance: Symbolizes the end to the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople had all of the odds against them in the battle.

Simone de Beauvoir

Supported herself as a teacher, novelist, and writer. Involved in the existentialist movement which led her to be involved politically. Believed herself to be a liberated twentieth-century women but still felt that she face restrictions that men did not have to deal with. In The Second Sex, she argues that, as a result of male-dominated societies, women had been defined by their differences from men and consequently received second class status. Took an active role in the French women's rights movement of the 1970's.

Jacob Burckhardt

Swiss historian and art critic who coined the term "Renaissance" in his book, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, 1860. Focused on the glorification of the individual's intellectual potential. He did not adequately represent the religious affinity of the scholars of the day, and created misconceptions about the era that included an emphasis on humanism and a distinct focus on the contributions of the Italians. Importance: Burckhardt's concept of the Renaissance as a distinct and separate period has been disputed, the characteristics of the Renaissance he emphasized such as humanism have remained fundamental to the modern conception of the period.

Lawrence of Arabia

T.E. Lawrence. A British officer. United Arab princes to revolt against their Ottoman overlords in 1916. In 1918, British forces from Egypt and Mesopotamia destroyed the rest of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East.

Transubstantiation

Taught that the substance of the bread and wine consumed in the rite is miraculously transformed into the body and blood of Jesus. Luther did not believe in this. Importance: Created controversy over the different religions during the Reformation of whether it was symbolic or physically real.

Johann Tetzel and indulgences

Tetzel was a rambunctious Dominican who hawked the indulgences in Germany with the slogan, "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs." Importance: Sale of indulgences turned out to be very controversial, encouraged Luther to write his 95 thesis.

Tsar Nicholas I

That revolt transformed Nicholas I from a conservative into a reactionary determined to exterminate any more rebellions. He strengthened the bureaucracy and the secret police. The political police deported suspicious or dangerous persons, maintained close surveillance of foreigners in Russia, and reported regularly to the tsar on public opinion. He also feared revolution abroad. Contemporaries called him the Policeman of Europe because of his willingness to use Russian troops to crush revolutions. Importance: A tsar of Russia whose initial accession to the throne was revolted upon, and ever since then he became obsessed with crushing rebellions, in or out of Russia.

Louis XVIII and Charles X

The Bourbon family was restored as the monarchs of France in 1814 with Louis XVIII. Louis accepted Napoleon's Civil Code with its primary principle of equality before the law. Property rights were restored. A bicameral legislature was established, which consisted of the Chamber of Peers, chosen by the king and the Chamber of Deputies, chosen by electorate restricted to slightly fewer than 100,000 wealthy people. Ultra Royalists opposed his willingness to to merge the ideals of the old order with those of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, as they instead wanted a monarchical system dominated by landed aristocrats and the restoration of the Catholic Church to its former position of influence. When the initiative was passed to the ultra royalists in 1824 and Louis died, his brother, Charles X, became king. He gave the aristocrats back the land that they had lost in the Revolution. He encouraged the Catholic Church to assert control over the educational system. He was forced to accept the principle of ministerial responsibility in 1827. In 1829 he violated this and when the deputies protested, he dissolved the legislature in 1830 and call for new elections. Importance: The two monarchs of the Bourbon dynasty that were restored to the French throne, but their policies sparked a whole new revolution in France.

Yorktown

The British army of General Cornwallis was forced to surrender here to a combined French and American army and French fleet under Washington in 1781. It was at this point that the British government decided to call it quit. Importance: It was here that the British army surrendered to the combined French and American army.

Dardanelles and Sevastopol

The British feared that an aggressive Russia would try to profit from the obvious weakness of the Ottoman Empire by seizing Dardanelles. Britain and France attacked the Russian peninsula of Crimea and finally the Russian fortress of Sevastopol fell in September 185, six months after the death of Tsar Nicholas I. Importance: Two territories that were part of the Crimean war.

Great Exhibition of 1851

The British organized the world's first industrial fair in 1851. Housed at Kensington in England in the Crystal Palace, an enormous structure made of glass and iron, constructed as a tribute to British engineering skills. Covered 19 acres. Contained 100,000 exhibits. Six million people visited the fair in six months. The Great Exhibition displayed Britain's wealth to the world; it was a gigantic symbol of British success. Also represented British imperial power. The Great Exhibition of 1851 displayed Britain's wealth to the world; it was a gigantic symbol of British success in the Revolution. Also represented British imperial power.

Corn Laws and the Peterloo Massacre

The Corn Law of 1815 was the Tory government's response to falling agricultural prices. this impost extraordinarily high tariffs on foreign grain. these taxes benefited the landowners but the price of bread rose substantially, making conditions for the working class or difficult. There were mass protests of this law. One of these protests took a nasty turn when a squadron of cavalry attacked a crowd of 60,000 demonstrators at Saint Peter's Field in Manchester in 1819. The deaths of 11 people, called the Peterloo Massacre by government detractors, led Parliament to take even more repressive measures. Importance: the Corn Law of 1815 may have benefited the landowners, but it also increased the price of bread to the point where mass protests occurred; one of these protests, now known as the Peterloo Massacre, resulted in 11 dead.

"The Threepenny Opera"

The German Kurt Weill had been a struggling composer of classical music before he turned to jazz rhythms and other popular musical idioms for the music of The Threepenny Opera.

"Miracle of Dunkirk"

The German Luftwaffe were ineffective in their bombings of Dunkirk and so the British were able to rebuild their forces and achieve a gigantic evacuation of 350,000 troops by a fleet of small ships before the Germans were able to advance again.

Weimar Republic

The German democratic state established after World War I.Formed by a coalition of Social Democrats, the Catholic Center Party, and German Democrats. The government had no outstanding political leader and proved to be unstable. Paul von Hindenburg was elected president in 1925. The republic suffered from attempted uprisings and attacks from both the right and the left. Unable to change Germany's basic governmental structure. Army operated as a state within the state. The republic also faced the problems that stemmed from the inflation. The Depression brought even more social and economic issues to the government.

North German Confederation

The German states north of the Main River became the North German Confederation, controlled by Prussia. A new constitution was created for them. Each German state kept its own local government,king of Prussia was the head of the confederation, the chancellor was responsible directly to the king, the army and foreign policy were in the hands of the king and the chancellor, and parliament would consist of two bodies, the Bundesrat and the Reichstag.

Great Patriotic War

The German-Soviet War. Witnessed the greatest land battles in history. Incredibly ruthless. To Nazi Germany, it was a war of annihilation and oppression that called for merciless measures. The Soviet Union established a system of supercentralization for the war effort. The initial defeats of the Soviet Union led to drastic emergency mobilization measures that affected the civilian population. This widespread military, industrial, and economic mobilization created yet another industrial revolution for the Soviet Union.

Yalta

The Grand Alliance approved the Declaration on Liberated Europe which was a pledge to assist liberated European nations in the creation of democratic institutions of their own choice. Roosevelt sought Soviet military help against Japan. The creation of the United Nations. Germany must surrender unconditionally and created four occupation zones. German reparations were set at $20 billion.Agreements made for Poland.

India's cotton cloth production

The Industrial Revolution of India did not occur until the end of the nineteenth century. During the eighteenth century, India was one of the main exporters of cotton cloth. At this time, it was made by hand. They were surpassed by the British when they began to export much larger amounts of textiles, cotton and jute, and so India's production of these materials significantly decreased. Importance: This is an example of how the British were able to surpass the other world powers through their domination of new technology.

The Holocaust

The Nazi New Order's deliberate attempt to exterminate the Jewish people of Europe.

Nazi New Order

The Nazis' plan for their new conquered territories; it included the extermination of Jews and others considered inferior, ruthless exploitation of resources, German colonization in the east, the use of Poles, Russians, and Ukrainians as slave labor.

Vienna and the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Turks were able to gain back their power under the leadership of Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent. They conquered Belgrade and Hungary and attempted to conquer Vienna in 1529 but they were unsuccessful. Importance: In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Ottoman Empire possessed an effective bureaucracy and military. They conquered much of the Balkans and made inroads into eastern Europe. By 1699, it had lost the farthest reaches of its European territory and would never again pose a serious threat to Europe.

Austro Prussian War

The Prussians isolated the Austrians and gained the allies of France, Italy, and Russia. Engaged in this war on June 14, 1866. The breech-loading missile gun, railroad systems, and other military reforms helped the Prussians defeat Austria. Austria only lost Venetia to Italy but was excluded from German affairs. Combined nationalism and authoritarian government. Importance: Prussia now dominated all of northern Germany, and Austria had been excluded from any significant role in German affairs.

Six-Day War

The Six-Day War between Israel and its Arab neighbors ends with a United Nations-brokered cease-fire. The outnumbered Israel Defense Forces achieved a swift and decisive victory in the brief war, rolling over the Arab coalition that threatened the Jewish state and more than doubling the amount of territory under Israel's control. The greatest fruit of victory lay in seizing the Old City of Jerusalem from Jordan; thousands of Jews wept while bent in prayer at the Second Temple's Western Wall. Israel devastated Nasser's forces and tripled the size of its territory. Arabs were even more hateful. Another million Palestinians lived in Jerusalem.

Monroe Doctrine

The Spanish tried once again to conquer Latin America, and the British tried to oppose the intervention. Distrustful of British motives, President James Monroe acted alone in 1823, guaranteeing the independence of the new Latin American nations and warning against any further European intervention in the New World in the famous Monroe Doctrine.Importance: This doctrine guaranteed Latin American independence along with gaining them freedom from the European nations in the future.

Benjamin Disraeli and the Reform Act of 1867

The Tory leader in Parliament. Motivated by the desire to win over the newly enfranchised groups to the Conservative Party. The Reform Act of 1867 was an important step toward the democratization of Britain. Lowered the monetary requirements for voting. Number of voters doubled. Believed that this would benefit the Conservatives, but industrial workers helped produce a huge Liberal victory in 1868.

Truman Doctrine

The US President Harry Truman, alarmed by British weakness and the possibility of Soviet expansion in the Mediterranean, responded with the Truman Doctrine. Stated that the United States would provide financial aid to countries that claimed they were threatened by Communist expansion. If the Soviets were not stopped in Greece, the United States would have to face the spread of communism throughout the free war. In March 1947, at Truman's request the US congress agreed to provide $400 million in economic and military aid for Greece and Turkey.

The superpowers

The United States, Russia, and Britain.

Final Solution

The annihilation of the German people. Led by Reinhard Heydrich.

Social Darwinism and Herbert Spencer

The application of Darwin's principle of organic evolution to the social order. Spencer used Darwin's terminology to argue that societies are organisms that evolved through time from a struggle with their environment. The strong survived while the weak died. Wrote the Social Statics in 1851. The state should not intervene with this natural process. Importance: Spencer used Darwin's terminology to argue that societies are organisms that evolved through time from a struggle with their environment.

Richard Nixon's Watergate

The attempted of Democratic National Headquarters, located at Watergate apartment and hotel complex in Washington, D.C. Lied to the public about his involvement in this but secret tapes of his own conversations were found in the White House, proving him guilty. Resigned on August 9, 1974 because of this.

The Vendee

The authority of the convention was repudiated in western France, particularly in the department of this, by peasants who revolted against the new military draft. This rebellion soon escalated into a full blown counter revolutionary appeal. Some of France's major cities, including Lyons and Marseilles, began to break away from central authority, instead favoring a decentralized republic to free themselves of the ascendancy of Paris. Importance: A counter revolution revolt of the peasantry that spread to some of France's major cities.

"Mein Kampf"

The autobiography of Hitler. Characterized his years in Vienna from 1908 to 1913 as an important formative period in his life. Established the basis of his general ideologies. Racism, anti-Semitism, , German nationalism, and the need for a struggle. Written while he was in prison.

"The Communist Manifesto"

The beginning's of Marxism. 1848. A short treatise written by two Germans, Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. Marx and Engels joined the Communist League in 1847. Both were enthusiastic advocates of the radical working class movement and agreed to to draft a statement of their ideas for the league.Published in German on the eve of the revolutions of 1848. Known only to a few of Marx's friends. The government of the state reflected and defended the interests of the industrial middle-class and it's allies.The bourgeois faces the proletariat. The working class will come out victorious, a dictatorship will be formed, and class struggles will be over. Importance: This work became one of the most influential political treatises in modern European history.

Millenarianism

The belief that the end of the world is at hand and the kingdom of God is about to be established on Earth. Importance: Belief of the Anabaptist which lead them to take over cities and drive out nonbelievers or considered godless.

Lorenzo the Magnificent

The city's leading citizen. Aka Lorenzo de' Medici. A patron of scholars, artists, and poets. Famous for sponsoring artists such as Botticelli. Importance: Helped the art world grow and prosper due to his contributions, helped with the production of Botticelli's Primavera.

Hanseatic League

The commercial and military association formed by a number of North German coastal towns in the thirteenth century. Also known as the Hansa. Had more than 80 cities in 1500. Settlements and commercial bases spread to England and northern Europe. Flourished for 200 years. Traded timber, fish, grain, metals, honey, and Fwines. The port city of Bruges became the meeting place of Hanseatic merchants and the Flanders Fleet of Venice in the fourteenth century. Declined because of a silting of the port. Hanseatic League was unable to compete with larger states. Importance: Expanded trade to England and Europe and dramatically changed trading for the better, served as an economic crossroads.

Hiroshima and Nagasaki

The concern that Japanese fanaticism might mean heavy American casualties prompted the US, led by President Truman, to drop an atomic bomb on Hiroshima on August 6 and in Nagasaki on August 9. 70,000 of the 76,000 buildings in Hiroshima were flattened and 140,000 of the city's 400,000 habitants died in 1945; By the end of 1950, another 50,000 had perished from radiation.

Cotton industry

The cotton industry was very successful and profitable and put it in the time of the industrial revolution. The cotton industry was prominent, but his new technology became available such as the mechanized loom, the production of textiles became more efficient. Cotton was in high demand, so efforts were made to increase its production. This included the use of over 110 cotton - spinning mills in the midlands from 1769 to 1800. Importance: In the 1770s and 1780s, the cotton textile industry took the first major step toward the Industrial Revolution with the creation of the modern factory.

Guernica

The devastating air attack on Guernica on April 26, 1937, initiated a new level of brutally destructive warfare

Balance of Power

The diplomats at Vienna believed they were forming a new balance of power that would prevent any one country from dominating Europe. To balance Russian gains, Prussia and Austria had been strengthened. They thought this arrangement had clearly avoided a great danger. Importance: The distribution of power among several states such that no single nation can dominate or interfere with the interests of another

Directory

The executive authority. Consisted of five directors elected by the Council of Elders from a list Presented by the Council of 500. Had to rely on military for survival. A period of materialistic reaction. The government of the Directory had to contend with political enemies from both ends of the political spectrum. Importance: The executive authority. Consisted of five directors elected by the Council of Elders from a list Presented by the Council of 500.

"Night Witches"

The female pilots who helped defeat the Germans at Stalingrad

Dresden

The ferocious bombing of Dresden from February 13 to 15, 1945, created a firestorm that may have killed as many as 35,000 inhabitants and refugees.

High Renaissance

The final stage of Renaissance art. Between 1480 and 1520. Transition to the High Renaissance is marked by the recognition of Rome being a new cultural center. Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo's work dominated this period. Importance: The final phase of the Renaissance, known for the new artistic environment that embodied individualism.

Willy Brandt and Ostpolitik

The first Social Democratic chancellor. Brandt was especially successful with his "opening toward the east"-known as Ostpolitik-for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1972. On March 19, 1971, he met with Ulbricht and worked out the details of a treaty that called for good neighborly relations between West and East Germany.

Donatello's David

The first known life-size, freestanding, nude, bronze statue in European art since antiquity. Severed head of the giant Goliath at his feet. May symbolize the triumph in the battle against the Milanese in 1428. Importance: Like Botticelli's Primavera, David was ahead of it's time.

Jamestown

The first permanent English settlement in America. Founded in 1607 in modern Virginia. It barely survived, making it evident that the colonizing of American lands was not necessarily conducive to quick profits. The desire to practice one's own religion along with economic interests could make it successful. Importance: The first permanent English settlement in America, founded in 1607,survived just barely.

Sputnik I

The first space satellite.

Margaret Thatcher/the "Iron Lady" and Thatcherism

The first woman to serve as prime minister in British history. Part of the Conservative Party. Pledged to lower taxes, reduce government bureaucracy, limit social welfare, restruct union power, and end inflation. Broke the power of the labor unions.Used austerity measures to control inflation. Her economic policy, Thatcherism, improved the British economic situation, but at a price. Cutbacks in education. Took a hard-line approach to Communism.Established Britain as a worl police officer.

Treaty of Locarno

The foreign ministers of France and Germany concluded this in 1925. Guaranteed Germany's new western borders with France and Belgium. Viewed by many as the beginning of a new era of European peace.

Francisco Franco

The general who led Spanish military forces to revolt against the government and initiated a brutal and bloody civil war that lasted three years. Made victory possible against the Popular Front. Established a dictatorship that lasted until his death. His government favored large landowners, businesses and the Catholic clergy, an example of a traditional, conservative authoritarian regime.

Ptolemy

The greatest astronomer of antiquity, who lived in the second century. The cosmological views of the Later Middle Ages had been built on a synthesis of his ideas. A large contributor to the idea of geocentric conception. Importance: Greatest astronomer of antiquity, largely contributed to the idea of geocentric conception.

Charles Dickens

The greatest of the Victorian novelists. Realistic novels that focus on the lower and middle classes in Britain's early industrial stage. His descriptions of the urban poor and the brutalization of human life were vividly realistic. Importance: The greatest of the Victorian novelists.

Philosophe

The intellectuals were known by this french term. Not all were French or philosophers. Philosophes were literary people, professors, journalists, statesmen, economists, political scientists and social reformers. Came from nobility and middle class. Faced different political circumstances depending on the country. International movement. Role of philosophy was to change the world. Reason was a scientific method, an appeal to facts and experience. Called for freedom of expression. Their work was done in an atmosphere of censorship. State censors decided what could be published. Philosophes found ways to get around state censorship. Constituted a sort of "family circle," bound together by certain intellectual bonds, but they did disagree. Importance: The French philosophes affected intellectuals elsewhere and created a movement that engulfed the entire Western world, including the British and Spanish colonies in America.

Poison gas

The introduction of poison gas in 1915 produced new forms of injuries. Poison gas was probably the most feared of all weapons in World War One. Poison gas was indiscriminate and could be used on the trenches even when no attack was going on. Whereas the machine gun killed more soldiers overall during the war, death was frequently instant or not drawn out and soldiers could find some shelter in bomb/shell craters from gunfire. A poison gas attack meant soldiers having to put on crude gas masks and if these were unsuccessful, an attack could leave a victim in agony for days and weeks before he finally succumbed to his injuries.

The Middle Passage

The journey of slaves from Africa to the Americas.The middle leg of the triangular trade route. African slaves were closely packed in cargo ships- there were 300-450 per ship. They were chained in holds without sanitary facilities or room to stand up. Voyage to America took 100 days. Mortality rate was 10%. Even more deaths from disease. Europeans got the slaves in return for gold, guns, or other textiles. Importance: This was the trade path that went from Africa to America. This was the importation of slaves.

Gustavus Adolphus

The king of Sweden. Revived Sweden and transformed it into a great Baltic power. Was a Lutheran and when he brought his army into Germany, he aided the Lutherans there. His army swept the imperial forces and moved to the heart of Germany where the Swedish engaged in what has come to be known as the Battle of Lutzen and although the Swedish prevailed, he died. A military genius. Developed the first standing army of conscripts, notable for the flexibility of its tactics. The infantry brigades of his army were composed equally of musketeers and pikemen, standing six men deep. Employed the salvo, where all rows of infantry fired at once row by row. This cut up the massed ranks of the opposing infantry squadrons and were followed by a pike charge which gave the infantry a primarily offense deployment. He also used the cavalry in a more mobile fashion. They shot a pistol volley and then charged the enemy with their swords. They also achieved additional flexibility through using lighter artillery pieces. Coordination, careful training, and better discipline were required for these changes to work, but they also forced rulers to move away from undisciplined mercenary forces. Importance: The war tactics used by Gustavus Adolphus were mimicked by the rest of Europe, and revolutionized the way wars were fought, played a large part in the Thirty Years War and made Sweden a main power by executing educated military decisions.

Escape to Varennes

The king sought to flee France in 1791 and almost succeeded before being recognized, captured at Varennes, and brought back to Paris. Radicals called for the king to be disposed. Members of the National Assembly feared the popular forces in Paris calling for a republic, so they merely said that the king had been kidnapped. Paris beheld their disloyal monarch and in response created the new Legislative Assembly held its first session in October 1791. Importance: Seeing the extent of his country's discontent in Paris, the king was scared and tried to flee with his family but was recognized at Varennes

No Man's Land

The land that is unoccupied or is under dispute between parties who leave it unoccupied due to fear or uncertainty. The term was originally used to define a contested territory or a dumping ground for refuse between fiefdoms. In modern times, it is commonly associated with the First World War to describe the area of land between two enemy trench systems, which neither side wished to cross or seize due to fear of being attacked by the enemy in the process

Auschwitz

The largest and most infamous of the death camps.

Konrad Adenauer

The leader of the CDU who served as chancellor from 1949 to 1963. Became the founding hero of the Federal Republic. Sought respect for West Germany by associating with other Western countries such as the US. Helped with the resurrection of the German economy.

marquise de Chatelet

The mistress of Voltaire. She was an early philosophe. One of the first intellectuals to adopt the ideas of Newton. Published her own translation of Principia in 1759. Collaborated with Voltaire on a book about the natural philosophe of Newton while he stayed with her. Importance: The mistress of Voltaire, who was an intellectual that was one of the first to accept the ideas of Newton.

The Jesuits

The most active and effective missionaries. Many Jesuit missionaries who went to China were highly educated men who were familiar with European philosophical and scientific developments. Brought clocks that impressed the Chinese and made them more open to Western ideas. They used this openness to promote Christianity. Pointed to similarities between Christianity and Confucian ethics. And allowed the New Catholics to continue the practice of their ancestor worship to make the transfer of religions easier. Had success in Japan as well where they converted a number of local nobles. Importance: Proved to be some of the most proficient missionaries in their time due to their immense intelligence.

Isabella d'Este

The most famous of the ruling women. Daughter of the duke of Ferrara. Known for her intelligence and political wisdom. Nicknamed "first lady of the world". Amassed one of the finest libraries in all of Italy. Was a clever negotiator and ruled effectively. Importance: One of the most highly respected women of her time because of her fairness and intelligence.

Mercantilism

The name historians use to identify a set of economic tendencies that came to dominate economic practices in the seventeenth century.The belief that the total volume of trade was unchangeable. States protected their economies by hoarding precious metals, implementing protectionist trade policies, promoting colonial development, increasing shipbuilding, supporting trading companies and encouraging the manufacturing of products to be used in trade. The prosperity of a nation depended on a plentiful supply of bullion. Desirable to achieve a favorable balance of trade in which goods exported were of greater value than those imported, promoting an influx of gold and silver payments that would increase the quantity of bullion. Imposed high tariffs on foreign goods to be kept out of the country. Focused on the role of the state, believed that state intervention in some aspects of the economy was desirable for the sake of the national good. Importance: Wanted bullion to be kept inside the state to keep their wealth centralized, exporting was better than importing goods.

France's Second Republic

The new constitution that was ratified on November 4, 1848 established the Second Republic with a unicameral legislature of 750 elected by universal male suffrage for three years and a president, also elected by universal male suffrage., for four years. In December 1818, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte became president and four years later would become emperor.

Nikita Khrushchev

The new leader of the Soviet Union. Attempted to take advantage of the American frenzy over missiles to solve the problem with West Berlin. Announced that unless the West removed its forces from West Berlin within six months, he would turn over control of the access routes to Berlin to the East Germans, but eventually backed down when the West stood firm.

The Tennis Court Oath

The oath that the Third Estate took where they vowed to meet until they had produced a French Constitution. Called the Tennis Court Oath because they made this oath in an indoor tennis court when they were locked out of their regular meeting place. First step in the French Revolution. Importance: Finding themselves locked out of their regular meeting place, the deputies of the Third Estate met instead in the nearby tennis courts of the Jeu de Paume and committed themselves to continue to meet until they had established a new constitution for France.

Mestizos

The offspring of Europeans and native American Indians. Became more common when Spanish rulers authorized intermarriage between Europeans and Indians. A sign of the creation of Latin America. Importance: Became a byproduct of Latin America from the intermingling of Portuguese and Spanish with the natives.

Mahatma Gandhi

The only Congress leader who objected to the separation of India. Predicted that the flight of millions of Hindus and Muslims across the new borders would lead to violence; people didn't listen and one million deaths were caused, including his own, Assassinated on January 30, 1948.

Conservatism

The peace arrangements of 1815 were the beginning of a conservative reaction determined to contain the liberal and nationalist forces unleashed by the French Revolution. Metternich was a supporter of this. This philosophy dates back to 1790 in Edmund Burke's work Reflections on the Revolution in France. The state had a partnership with the living and the dead and those who have yet to be born. No one generation had the right to destroy this partnership; each generation has the duty to preserve and transmit it to the next. Against major and sudden revolutionary change. Joseph de Maistre was the most influential spokesman for counter revolutionary and authoritarian conservatism. Vouched for the restoration of hereditary monarchy, specifically absolute monarchies. most conservatives held onto a general body of beliefs; they favorite obedience to political authority, believed that organized religion was crucial to social order, hated revolutionary peoples, and were unwilling to accept either the liberal demands for civil liberties and representative government or the nationalistic aspirations generated by the French revolutionary era. Hereditary monarchs, government bureaucracies, revived churches, and landowning aristocracies all supports this philosophy. The conservative forces appeared dominant after 1815, both internationally and domestically. Importance: An ideology based on tradition and social stability that favor the maintenance of established institutions, organized religion, and obedience to authority and resisted the change, especially abrupt change.

The Great Famine

The potato became a crop that the Irish began to depend upon due to its nutritional value and its ability to grow fairly easily. Half of Ireland's population depended on the potato by 1845. However, by the summer of 1845, a fungus struck the crop in Ireland that turned the potatoes black. Between 1845 and 1851, the Great Famine decimated the Irish population. More than a million people died of starvation and disease and almost two million emigrated to the United States or Britain. Prior to the Great Famine, the population had been at eight million. Of all the European nations, only Ireland had a declining population in the nineteenth century. Importance: The Great Famine, caused by a fungus that turned potatoes black, caused millions of the Irish to die or emigrate to other countries.

Patronage

The practice of awarding titles and making appointments to government and other positions to gain political support. Used by wealthy aristocrats to gain support. Importance: Used by upper class to control vast areas of land through bribery.

Primogeniture

The practice of treating the first son as the favorite. Arguing against this came in the eighteenth century. People now argued that all children deserved their parents' attention. Importance: An inheritance practice in which the eldest son receives all or the largest share of the parents' estate.

Joseph Goebbels

The propaganda minister of Nazi Germany. Believed that film constituted one of the most modern and scientific means of influencing the masses. Created a special film section in his Propaganda Ministry and encouraged the production of both documentaries and popular feature films that carried the Nazi message.

Manchukuo

The puppet state set up by the Japanese in China. Invaded. Used for natural resources. The League renounced the action and so Japan left the League.

The Columbian Exchange

The reciprocal importation and exportation of plants and animals between Europe and the Americas. Europeans brought in horses, cattle, and wheat and, in return, the New World supplied Europe with potatoes, corn, chocolate, tomatoes, and tobacco. Potatoes were soon to become a European staple. They were high in carbs and vitamins and could be stored for a long time. The importation of this good made an improvement in nutrition possible, which soon lead to a rapid increase in population. European lifestyle was greatly affected by the new products from the Americas. Importance: This exchange of goods deeply benefitted both sides participating in the trade.

Ausgleich

The results after the Austro Prussian war between the nationalistic Hungarians and the Austrians. Meaning compromise.1867. Created the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Enables the German-speaking Austrians in the Hungarian Magyars to dominate minorities, especially the Slavic peoples, in their respective states. disagreement did not satisfy the other nationalities that made up this empire. Importance: The "Compromise" of 1867 that created the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Austria and Hungary each had their own capital, constitution, and legislative assembly but were united under one monarch.

The Decembrist Revolt

The revolt if the military leaders of the Northern Union rebelling against the accession of Nicholas to the throne. This occurred in December 1825.The revolt was soon crushed by troops loyal to Nicholas, and its leaders were executed. Importance: The revolting of the Northern Union against the accession of Nicholas I to the throne of Russia.

Brezhnev Doctrine

The right of the Soviet Union to intervene if socialism was threatened in another socialist state. Became an article of faith and led to the use of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia.

The Grand Tour

The sons of aristocrats completed their education by making a tour of Europe's major cities. This was regarded as crucial to their education. At one peak year, 40,000 men were traveling. However, travel at this time was dangerous. Pirates and bed bugs were big issues. The young men were often accompanied by tutors. They saw museums of natural history and antiquity. They visited ruins, art museums, and women. Importance: The final part of the education of aristocratic men, they traveled around Europe going to museums, ancient Classical ruins, and finding women.

Germanic Confederation

The states leftover from the Vienna settlement of 1815. Had little power. It had no real executive, and its only central organ was the federal diet, which needed the consent of all member states to take action, making it virtually powerless. Came to serve as Metternich's instrument to repress revolutionary movements within the German states. Importance: Had no real executive, and its only central organ was the federal diet, which needed the consent of all member states to take action, making it virtually powerless.

Bill of Rights

The ten amendments that were ratified by the states. These granted freedom of religion, speech, press, petition, and assembly as well as the right to bear arms, protection against unreasonable searches and arrests, trial by jury, due process of law, and protection of property rights. Many of these rights were based off of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Importance: Derived from Enlightenment ideas, the Bill of Rights was able to grant Americans many more freedoms including the freedom of worship, speech, and protection.

Gustave Courbet's "The Stonebreakers"

The term realism was first coined to describe one of his paintings. Painted in 1849. Shows two road workers engaged in the deadening work of breaking stones to build a road. Representation of human misery was a scandal. Importance: A realism painting depicting human misery and the common worker.

Stalingrad

The turning point of the war on the Eastern front occurred here. A major industrial center on the Volga. Hitler encountered fierce resistance here. Germans destroyed much of the city, but the Soviets used the abandoned buildings as well-fortified defensive positions. A deadly and brutal street-by-street conflict evolved during September, October, and November, in which both sides took severe losses. On November 8, Hitler announced that they had taken Stalingrad.On November 19 and 20, the Soviets attacked German positions north and south of Stalingrad and by November 23 they had surrounded the German forces. Germans surrendered on February 2, 1943. The entire German Sixth Army of 300,000 men was lost and by the spring even Hitler knew German defeat was inevitable.

Girondins and the Mountain

The two sides that the National Convention took over what to do with the king of France. Girondins were called this because their leaders came from the department of Gironde, located in southwestern France. The Mountains got their name from its members seats being on the side of the convention hall where the floor slanted upwards. Both were members of the Jacobin club. Importance: The Girondins were a faction in the National Convention that favored keeping the king alive while the Mountain was the faction that represented the interests of the city of Paris and favored the execution of the king.

Arthur Harris

The wartime leader of the British air force's Bomber Command. Led major bombing raids.

Leon Battista Alberti

The wealthy Fifteenth century Florentine architect who is famous for saying, "Men can do all things if they will". He advocated for the idea of the l'uomo universale, or the universal person, who was capable of greatness in many areas of life. Alberti helped revive the emphasis on individual ability. Importance: Alberti became a key figure in advocating for the new social ideal of the high regard of human dignity, worth, and achievement.

"Phony war"

The winter of waiting for battle.

Working class

The working class seeked to reduce the social boundaries between themselves and the landed elite. In 1851 Britain's working class consisted of 1.8 million agricultural workers, 1 million domestic servants, and 811,000 factory workers. Artisans, who worked in small industries, remained the largest group of urban workers during during the first half of the nineteenth century. Some craftspeople formed and aristocracy of labor and earned higher wages than others. Artisans tended to be against industrialization as it often put them out of work. Servants formed a large group of urban workers, especially in large cities. Factory workers faced dreadful and dangerous working conditions. Workers faced unfair hours, low pay, high temperatures, and other conditions that risked their health. Importance: The working class of the nineteenth century faced horrible living conditions that were detrimental to their health and quality of life.

The Lusitania

There was a naval battle between the Germans and the British. Strong American protests over the German sinking of passenger lines, especially the British ship Lusitania on May 7, 1915, when more than one hundred Americans lost their lives, forced German government to modify its policy of unrestricted submarine warfare starting in September 1915 and to briefly suspend unrestricted submarine warfare a year later.

The Orthodox Church

There was a schism in the Russian Orthodox Church. Created unsettled conditions. Religious upheaval. Remained largely unaffected as a whole by the Reformation.

Britain's Tories and Whigs

There were two political factions in Parliament, the Tories in the Whigs. Both were still dominated by members of the landed classes, although the Whigs were beginning to receive support from the new industrial middle-class. Tory ministers largely dominated the government until 1830 and had little desire to change the existing political and electoral system. Importance: The Tories and the Whigs were the two political factions in Parliament.

Authoritarian state

These states adopted some of the trappings of totalitarian states, but their greatest concern was not the creation of mass movement aimed at the establishment of a new kind of society but rather the defense of the existing social order. Tended to limit the participation of the masses and was content with passive obedience rather than active involvement in the goals of the regime.

The domino theory

This argument centered around the belief that, if the Communists succeeded in Vietnam, all the other countries in Asia freeing themselves from colonial domination would fall, like dominoes, to Communism.

Goethe's "The Sorrows of Young Werther"

This author later rejected romanticism in favor of classicism. Werther was a Romantic figure who sought freedom in order to fulfill himself. He felt misunderstood and rejected by society, but he continued to believe in his own worth through his inner feelings. His deep love for a girl who did not love him led him to commit suicide.

The Stuarts

This dynasty began when the last heir, Elizabeth, of the Tudor dynasty died in 1603. Started by Elizabeth's cousin, King James VI of Scotland, son of Mary, queen of Scots. He became James I of England. James espoused the divine right of kings. This viewpoint alienated Parliament, as they had before been equal in rule with the Tudors. Parliament then proceeded to deny the king's request for money and from there on out they used their money as a trump card against the king. Importance: The family that took over England as monarchs after the Tudor dynasty ended, clashed with Parliament due to the king's belief in divine right.

The Romanovs

This dynasty ended the Times of Troubles when the Zemsky Sobor chose Michael Romanov as the new tsar. Lasted until 1917. Importance: Russia was able to end the Time of Troubles and prosper under Romano leaders such as Peter the Great because of this monarchy.

The French and Indian War

This stemmed from the Seven Years' War but was fought on American soil. Where the greatest conflicts of the Seven Years' War took place. Two primary areas of contention- the waterways of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, guarded by the fortress of Louisbourg and by forts near the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain that protected French Quebec and French traders and the other was the unsettled Ohio River valley. The French moved from their post near the Great Lakes, establishing forts from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River. This threatened British expansion. French allied with the Indians, as they found the British to be more threatening. French was initially successful, but the British were revived by William Pitt the Elder. French troops were greater in number. French fleets were defeated in major naval battles in 1759, giving the British an advantage since the French could no longer control their garrisons. British continued to be victorious. On September 13, 1759 British troops attacked the French on the Plains of Abraham and were victorious. British then seized Montreal, the Great Lakes, and the Ohio valley. French were forced to make peace with the Treaty of Paris, conceding that Canada and the lands east of the Mississippi to Britain. Spanish, ally of Britain, gave Britain Spanish Florida and France gave their Louisiana territory to Spain. Great Britain became the world's greatest colonial power in 1763. Importance: An offshoot of the Seven Years' War that was fought between the British and the French, British were victorious despite France's numbers and were able to gain much territory.

1939 Non-aggression Pact

To avoid a two-front war in his takeover of Poland, Hitler negotiated a non aggression pact with Stalin on August 23, 1939.

Pius IX's "Syllabus of Errors"

Took a rigid stance against modern ideas. Issued a papal encyclical called the Syllabus of Errors in which he stated that it is an error to believe that the Roman Pontiff can and ought to reconcile himself to, and agree with, progress, liberalism, and modern civilization. He condemned nationalism, socialism, religious toleration, and freedom of speech and press. Importance: Against any modern ways of thinking.

Cosimo de' Medici

Took control of the small merchant oligarchy that that manipulated the republican government in Florence in 1434. He ran the government behind the scenes. Importance: Was able to dominate Florence through lavish patronage and careful courting of political allies, part of the House of Medici.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Took leadership of the Revolt in Saint-Domingue. A son of African slaves who seized control of all of Hispaniola by 1801. Captured by Napoleon's army. Died in a French dungeon within a year. Importance: Led the slave revolt of Saint-Domingue, but was later captured by Napoleon and died in prison.

Leonardo da Vinci

Transitional figure at this time. Continued fifteenth century traditions while bringing a certain idealization of nature that was very pertinent to his time to his artwork as well. In The Last Supper, he is able to portray a person's inner life through their gestures and movements. Importance: Leonardo da Vinci was one of the main artists of this period that was able to change the face of art by using new techniques that brought new sense of emotion into his paintings.

Canada's Pierre Trudeau and Brian Mulroney

Trudeau- Led the most prominent Liberal government in Canada.Came into power in 1968. French Canadian in background. Dedicated to Canada's federal union. In 1968, his government passed the Official Languages Act that allowed buth English and French to be used in the federal civil service. Pushed an industrialization program. High inflation occurred and his efforts to impose the will of the federal government on the powerful provincial governments alienated voters and weakened his government. Mulroney- Economic recession in the early 1980s brought Brian Mulroney, leader of the Progressive Conservative Party, to power in 1984.

The Constitution of 1789

Twelve amendments were proposed to the Constitution by the new Congress. Ten of these were ratified by the states and are now known as the Bill of Rights. Importance: The Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution at this time.

East Germany's Walter Ulbricht and Erich Honecker

Ulbricht- Led the ruling Communist government in East Germany. Honecker- Ulbricht's successor. A party hard-line who made use of the Stasi, the secret police, to rule with an iron fist for the next eighteen years. Every one out of 165 people was a Stasi officer by the end of 1989. Helped with the economy

Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists

Vasari was a painter who wrote Lives of the Artists. Contributed to the idea of great artists being creative geniuses with a sort of divinity about them. Vasari deeply admired the greats, so he wrote brief biographies about each of them. Compiled, these biographies make up the Lives of the Artists. Importance: Vasari's writings helped contribute to the newfound image of divinity surrounding artists such as Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.

John Cabot

Venetian seaman, explored the New England coastline of the Americas under a license from King Henry VII of England. Importance: He is an example of one of the explorers who realized that Columbus had discovered a new frontier altogether, sponsored by the state.

Michelangelo

Very famous artist, painter, sculptor, and architect. Was very passionate about his work. Influenced by Neoplatonism, shown in his work in the Sistine Chapel. Commissioned to decorate the chapel ceiling in 1508 by Pope Julius II. Completed in 1512. Told the story of the Fall of Man by depicting nine scenes from the biblical book of Genesis. The Creation of Adam and David demonstrate the ideal human whose bodies are so beautiful that they are thought to be reflections of God and divine beauty. Importance: Michelangelo's works were the turning point of art in his century, he set new standards that oozed the affirmation of human power, the ongoing theme of that time.

Steamboats

Very useful in the early transportation of American goods. Mainly used on the Mississippi River to move products from the midwest to plantations in the south or markets in new orleans. However, steamboats were eventually replaced by trains and railroads after the American Civil War. Importance: A staple in American society for a long time for the transportation of goods, but they were eventually replaced by trains.

Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis

Viennese doctor. Put forth a series of theories that undermined optimism about the rational nature of the human mind. This added uncertainty to his age. In The Interpretation of Dreams, the foundation of psychoanalysis was established. Human behavior was strongly determined by the unconscious, by inner forces and earlier experiences of which people were largely oblivious. Relied on hypnosis and dreams. Repression was a process by which unsettling experiences were blotted from conscious awareness but still continued to influence behavior because they had become part of the unconscious.

Ireland's Easter Rebellion

Violence erupted in Ireland when members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood and Citizens Army occupied government buildings in Dublin on Easter Sunday in 1916. British forces crushed the Easter Rebellion and then condemned its leaders to death.

Henry Vlll's Wives

Wanted to divorce his first wife Catherine of Aragon because she had failed to produce a male heir. Fell in love with her lady-in-waiting, Anne Boleyn. Relied on Cardinal Wolsey, the highest-ranking English church official and lord chancellor to the king, to obtain from Pope Clement VII an annulment of the king's marriage. He then created his own church which allowed him to marry Anne Boleyn. In 1533, Anne had a child but it was a girl. Henry soon tried Anne and had her beheaded in 1536 on the charge of adultery. Married Jane Seymour, who produced a male son but died 12 days later. He then married Anne of Cleves but wasn't impressed with her appearance so he divorced her. After, he married Catherine Howard who he beheaded since she committed adultery. His last wife was Catherine Parr, who he married in 1543, and she outlived him. Importance: Created own church for personal gain, had six wives in total in hopes of producing a male heir.

Article 231

War Guilt Cause, declared Germany and Austria responsible for starting the war and ordered Germany to pay reparations for all the damage to which the Allied governments and their people were subjected as a result of the war.

"The Lost Generation"

War veterans became accustomed to the violence of the war and found it impossible to go back to normal life at home and to fit in society after all they had suffered not only physically but mentally and emotionally. In the war, extreme violence and brutality became a way of life and a social reality. These men were fiercely nationalistic and eager to restore the national interests they had felt been betrayed in the peace treaties.

"Total War"

Warfare in which all of a nation's resources, including civilians at home a well s soldiers on the field, are mobilized for the war effort. The need to organize masses of men and women and materials for years of combat led to increased centralization of government powers, economic regimentation, and manipulation of public opinion to keep the war effort going. Mass conscription was needed to mobilize tens of millions of young men for that elusive breakthrough to victory. To mobilize the entire resources of their nations for the war effort, European nations had moved toward planned economies directed by government agencies. All citizens constituted a national army dedicated to victory.

Brunelleschi's dome

Was asked in 1417 to build a dome for the unfinished cathedral of Florence. Work didn't begin until 1420 because of his new building techniques and machinery that he was developing. Finished in 1436. Importance: Came up with new techniques for architecture that revolutionized it.

The Thirty Years War

Went from 1618 to 1648. Caused by secular, dynastic-nationalist considerations and religious reasons.- the struggle between militant Catholicism and militant Protestantism. Aka the "last of the religious wars". Conflict between the Habsburg dynasty and the Bourbon dynasty. Fighting mostly took place in the Germanic lands of the Holy Roman Empire. War was divided into four main phases: The Bohemian Phase, the Danish Phase, the Swedish Phase and the Franco-Swedish Phase. Importance: Began in the German states as Europe's major powers either backed the northern Protestant union or the southern Catholic League, but, by the end, these religious reasons were replaced by a dynastic struggle between the French Bourbons and the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs.

The Hohenzollerns

Were able to make Brandenburg-Prussia gain its power. Their leadership was the glue of the three territories that made up Brandenburg-Prussia.

Jacksonian Democracy

When Andrew Jackson became president, an era of mass democracy began. The electorate was expanded by dropping traditional property qualifications; by the 1830's, suffrage had been extended out to almost all adult white males. Americans developed detention schools for juvenile delinquents and new penal institutions, both motivated by the liberal belief that the right kind of environment could rehabilitate those in need of it.

"Peace for our Time"

When Chamberlain returned to England from Munich, he boasted that the Munich agreement meant "peace for our time." Hitler had promised Chamberlain that he had made his lat demand; all other European problems could be solved by negotiation.

Coal and Coke

When the steam engine was created, the need for coal to power these machines was increased. Steam engines became more and more prominent in almost every industry, and so coal was even more desired. Courke or coke also came into high demand at this time.This substance made iron ore melt at a faster rate than charcoal could. Importance: Coal and coke emerged as new sources of energy that revolutionized production rates and efficiency.

The Glorious Revolution

William of Orange invaded England. Almost no bloodshed. Issue over who would be the new monarch. Events of late 1688 set it into motion. Importance: The end to the struggle between the king and parliament.

Union of Utrecht

William of Orange turned Dutch speaking states into a Protestant union determined to oppose Spanish rule. Importance: This treaty was determined to oppose Spanish rule, helped unify the Netherlands.

Witches

Witchcraft trials were held in England, Scotland, Switzerland, Germany, France, and America. Not a new concept, but began to be viewed as sinister and dangerous when the medieval church began to connect witches to the activities of the devil, which transformed witchcraft into a heresy that needed to be wiped out. After the Inquisition, people were accused of being witches and were either burned at the stake of hung. There was an increased number of trials and executions in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 100,000 accused in Europe. Larger cities affected first, but spread to rural areas as well. Torture made many confess to witchcraft. Religious uncertainties, new Protestant territories, areas where Catholicism battled Protestantism, social conditions, and religious passions becoming inflamed all lead to why it became so widespread. Women were more often accused of witchcraft due to people's prejudices against them, they thought they were weaker and therefore more susceptible. Declined in the mid seventeenth century. Caused by the destruction caused by religious wars and the stabilization of governments. Importance: People were able to accuse thousands of innocents, especially women, of witchcraft in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries all across Europe and have them tortured and killed.

Second Battle of the Marne

With the withdrawal of Russia from the war, the Germans had hope for victory. They decided to make a grand offensive in the west to break the military stalemate. The German attack lasted from March to July. The German forces succeeded in advancing 40 miles the the Marne River, 35 miles from Paris. Allied attacked led by French General Ferdinand Foch and supported by the arrival of 140,000 American troops defeated the Germans at the Second Battle of the Marne on July 18. Ludendorff had used of the rest of the German reserves. Defeat was now inevitable for the Germans.

Germany's War Raw Materials Board

Would allocate strategic raw materials to produce the goods that were most needed. Made it possible for the German war machine to be well supplied.

Descartes: Discourse on Method

Written by Rene Descartes. Dictated his ideas on how one should go about discovering the truth. Based off the principle of "doubt everything." Believed that without sound reasoning to prove his accuracy, an idea (as well as other things) should not be trusted. An example of this was Descartes first realization of "I think, therefore I am." Each step in an argument should be as sharp and well founded as a mathematical proof. Importance: Human reason was the basis for which truths should be compared to, reflected Descartes's own outlook on life.

"Genius of Christianity"

Written by the Frenchman Francois-René de Chateaubriand in 1802. The "Bible of Romanticism." DEfense on Catholicism was based upon Romantic sentiment. Catholicism echoed the harmony of all things. Its cathedrals brought one at the very presence of God. Importance: One of the most popular expressions of Romantic revival of Catholicism.

Vindication of the Rights of Women

Written in 1792. Points out two contradictions in the views of women held by such Enlightenment thinkers such as Rousseau. To argue that women must obey men, she said, was contrary to the beliefs of the same individuals that a system based on arbitrary power of monarchs over their subjects or slave owners over their slaves was wrong. The subjection of women to men was equally wrong. In addition, she argued, the Enlightenment was based on the ideal that reason is innate in all human beings. If women have reason, then they are entitled to the same rights that men have. Women should have equal rights with men in education and in economic and political life as well. Importance: Argued for the equality of women to men, intellectually, economically and politically & used science to back her up.

Ninety-Five Thesis

Written in response to the sale of indulgences. It is unsure if he nailed his thesis to the church door or simply mailed them to his ecclesiastical superior. Thesis were an indictment of the abuses in the sale of indulgences. If Pope Leo X had clarified the use of indulgences, the controversy may have ended there.Thesis were quickly translated to German and received sympathetically there. Importance: Thesis sparked a rebellion against the abuses inside the church.

Machiavelli's The Prince

Wrote The Prince in 1513 when he was sent into exile and forced to give up politics, so he wrote about them instead. One of the most famous treatises on political power in the Western world. Machiavelli believed a prince's attitude towards power must be based on an understanding of human nature. Importance: Machiavelli basically believed that to acquire and maintain political power, one had to be ruthless and intense and that those qualities were worth more than morality, but also that the people's support is just as important

Charles Darwin "On the Origin of Species"

Wrote this work when he returned to Britain. In this, he formulated in explanation for evolution in the principle of natural selection. Discussed plant and animal species only. Animals had evolved over a long period of time. Organic evolution. Survival of the fittest. Natural selection. The fit who survived propagated and passed on the variations that enabled them to survive until a new species emerged.

Antiwar protests and Kent State

Youthful European protesters were very opposed to the US war in Vietnam. Viewed as an act of aggression and imperialism. In 1968, demonstrations broke out in Italy, France, and Britain. In London, 30,000 demonstrators marched as a reaction against this. Those who favored order went against these protests. Protests divided Americans. There were teach-ins, sit-ins, and the occupation of buildings at some universities but these soon led to more violent measures. Four students were killed at Kent State University in 1970 by the Ohio National Guard. This caused antiwar movements to decline.

Condottiere

a leader or a member of a troop of mercenaries. When not actively engaged in battle,they looted and blackmailed the townspeople. They sold the services of the bands to the highest bidder. Many were foreigners. Importance: Francesco Sforza was a leading condottiere, they helped govern the land.

Nazi Party

aka National Socialist German Worker's Party. Nazi party for short. Developed into a mass political party through the use of flags, badges, uniforms, its own newspaper, and its own militia, the Sturmabteilung. By 1923 the party had grown from hundreds to 55,000 plus the 15,000in the SA. Tried to have a staged uprising but failed.

Hegel's Dialectic

everything evolves, and a change in history is the result of conflicts between antagonistic elements. Marx disagreed with Hegel in his belief that history is determined by ideas manifesting themselves and historical forces, instead Marx thought the course of history is determined by material forces.