AP Euro McKay's

Cartesian dualism

Descartes's idea that the world consisted of two fundamental entities- mind and matter

War of Austrian Succession

(1740-1748) greedy European powers all wanted Austrian land, forced Maria Theresa to give up most of Silesia Prussia, Prussia was now a European Great Power

Leni Riefenstahl

(1902-2003) woman, directed a documentary of propaganda - Triumph of the Will- about the 1934 Nazi Party rally at Nuremburg, combined stunning aerial photography with mass processions of young Nazi fanatics and images of joyful crowd welcoming Hitler, released in 1935, showed the rise of Nazism

Companionate Marriage

Marriage based on romantic love and middle-class family values that became increasingly dominant in the second half of the nineteenth century

Centralized bureaucracy

Napoleon created a strong centralized government and a bureaucracy of capable officials, people would receive jobs based on their talent

Louis Philippe

"Citizen king", favored the wealthy, supported upper-middle class, outlawed labor unions, lowered voting restrictions

Peter Paul Rubens

(1577-1640) most outstanding and representative of baroque painters, influenced by painters of the High Renaissance, style was sensuous and colorful, used animated figure, huge size and overdramatic contrasts, paintings glorified monarchs, devout Catholic (almost half his pictures have to do with Christianity), trademark was his fleshy nudes- Roman goddesses, water nymphs, saints and angels,

Edict of Nantes

(1598) created by Henry IV, said that Huguenots were allowed to worship in public in 150 towns

Ursulines

(1565) founded by Angela Merici, first religious order based on educating young girls

Johannes Kepler

(1571-1630) taught by Brahe, believed that that universe was built on mystical mathematical relationships and a musical harmony of the heavenly bodies, demonstrated that the orbits of the planets around the sun are elliptical rather than circular, demonstrated that the planets don't move at a uniform speed in their orbits, published first two laws in The New Astronomy (1609), third law- the time a planet takes to make its complete orbit is precisely related to its distance from the sun

Francisco Petrarch

(1304-1374) started humanism- people would study the way the ancient Romans wrote and use it to help them write and become smarter

Jan Van Eyk

(1366-1441) Flemish painter, just as good as Italian painters, one of the first people to make oil paints look good, painted mostly religious scenes and portraits, very realistic

Leonardo Bruni

(1374-1444) first to say history had three time periods (ancient, medieval and modern, liked republican government

Leon Battista Alberti

(1404-1472) wrote books and treatises, designed buildings and forts, made up secret codes to send messages "Renaissance man"

Lorenzo Valla

(1406-1457) humanist from Italy, On Pleasure, and On the False Donation of Constantine, which challenged the authority of the papacy, father of modern historical criticism

Savonarola

(1452- 1498) ruled Florence for a while and had many followers, but then set too many unfair rules and people decided they did not like him and he was tortured and burned at the same place he held his bonfires

Leonardo Da Vinci

(1452-1519) painter of the Mona Lisa (most famous piece of art), "genius", came up with plans for things that resembled the machine gun and the parachute, worked with light, perspective and the human body, "Renaissance man", painted The Last Supper

Pico Della Mirandola

(1463-1494) Ficino's best student, believed God was the ruler of the universe and humans were in the middle connecting material things to spiritual things (hierarchy), came up with 900 ideas (about magic, philosophy, religion) that he would argue with anyone, was arrested because of these ideas (pope didn't like them)

Desiderius Erasmus

(1466-1536) wrote The Education of a Christian Prince described the personality of a good ruler, Praise of Folly made fun of politics, religion, and society and included the New Testament in Latin with the old version (Greek), everything focused on learning about the Bible and how be a good, smart person and "the philosophy of Christ" good character instead of "Scholastic theology" (Ex. Pilgrimage), beliefs helped start Protestant Reformation

Sir Thomas More

(1478-1535) humanist, came up with the word Utopia (described it as an island where children learned about Greece and Rome and adults worked and studied and had a good government)

Titian

(1490-1576) able to paint with oil paints without sketching it out first, which caused him to be able to produce a painting faster (painted religious scenes, portraits, mythology) helped create "mannerism" (when artist would paint things wrong, make things too big or too small or brightly colored to be more dramatic)

Paracelsus

(1493-1541) Swiss physician, pioneered the use of chemicals and drugs to address what he saw as chemical imbalances instead of humoral imbalances (previously it was thought that illness came from humoral imbalances)

Treaty of Tordesillas

(1494) gave Spain everything to the west of an imaginary line drawn down the Atlantic and Portugal everything to the east

john knox

(1505-1572) wanted to make the Scottish church just like Calvin's church in Geneva, convinced the Scottish parliament to have presbyters or councils of ministers rule instead of popes or bishops

St. Teresa of Avila

(1515-1582), Carmelite nun, wanted to reform her convent, started new convents with very strict rules, believed God told her to do this, Spanish Church thought her rules were too strict so they investigated her, but eventually decided to end the investigation and she ended up starting new convents

Michel de Montaigne

(1533-1592), French, wrote a collection of short reflections called Essays (1580) about ancient texts, his experience as a government official, and his moral judgment, wrote it in French instead of Latin so that ordinary people could read it, wrote is a conversational style, essays quickly translated into other European languages and was one of the most widely read texts of early modern times, began an era of doubt

Institutes of Christian Religion

(1536) written by John Calvin, described his belief that God had all the power and humans are nothing compared to God, said that God already chose who will go to heaven and who will go to hell, no such thing as salvation

Sir Isaac Newton

(1642-1727) born in England, went to Cambridge University, religious, rejected the doctrine of the Trinity, fascinated by alchemy, left behind 30 years worth of journals recording experiments, studied natural world to understand it- not for it's own sake, discovered law of universal gravitation and concepts of centripetal force and acceleration, did not publish his ideas and began studying optics, while studying optics he created his outline for scientific inquiry, returned to physics in 1648, three ears later published Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, three laws of motion were written in it, took scientists and engineers 200 years to work out all the implications, key was the law of universal gravitation: every body in the universe attracts every other body in the universe, one of most important figures of history and science

The Dutch War

(1672-1678) Louis XIV's second war of conquest, wanted to take control of Spanish Netherlands

Jethro Tull

(1674-1741) English, tried to develop better methods of farming through empirical research, enthusiastic about using horses rather than oxen (moved slower) for plowing, advocated sowing seed with drilling equipment instead of scattering by hand, drilling would distribute seed in an even manner and at the proper depth

The Nine Years' War

(1689-1697) third war of Louis XIV, expansion plans were blocked off by England and their allies

Madame du Chatelet

(1706-1749) noblewoman with passion for science, Voltaire lived in her country house, studied physics and mathematics, published articled and translations, believed women's limited role in science was because of their unequal education

The British East India Company

(1716) intervened in local affairs and made alliances or waged war against Indian princes

Maria Theresa of Austria

(1717-1780) inherited Hapsburg territories after death of Charles VI, War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) forced her to cede almost all of Silesia to Prussia, wanted to reform her nation, devout Catholic, old fashioned absolutist, wanted to make the state stronger and more efficient after the war of Austrian Succession, first- reformed the church, limited influence of the papacy, eliminated many religious holidays, and reduced the amount of monasteries, second- administrative reforms, strengthened the bureaucracy, smoothed out provincial differences, changed the tax system (nobles now had to pay taxes), third- improve agricultural population, reduced power of lords over their serfs and peasants

Immanuel Kant

(1724-1804) from East Prussia, greatest German philosopher of his day, published pamphlet What is Enlightenment, said that if intellectuals were granted the freedom to exercise their reason publicly in print enlightenment would follow, said people must obey all laws no matter how unreasonable, tried to reconcile absolute monarchical authority and religious faith with a critical public sphere, thought about anthropology, geography, logic, metaphysics and moral philosophy, wrote his ideas in On the Differences of Man (1775)- said there were four human races, each derived from an original race, thought closest descendants of original race were white inhabitants of northern Germany

James Watt

(1736-1819) Scottish, 1763- he was called to repair a Newcomen engine and he saw that the engine's waste of energy could be reduced by adding a separate condenser, this was patented in 1769 and greatly increased the efficiency of the steam engine, in 1775 he partnered up with Mathew Boulton (a wealthy English industrialist) who provided Watt with money and skills in salesmanship, he also got help from mechanics who could install, regulate and repair his sophisticated engines, this support allowed him to create an effective vacuum in the condenser and regulate a complex engine, by the 1780s Watt and Boulton had made the steam engine a practical and commercial success in Britain, the coal burning steam engine of Watt and his followers was the Industrial Revolution's most fundamental advance in technology

Frederick II of Prussia

(1740-1786) known as Frederick the Great, embraced culture ad literature instead of militarism, invaded Silesia, Austria (ruled by Maria Theresa), led to European war of Austrian Succession, caused Prussia to double in population and become a European Great power, improved schools and allowed scholars to publish their findings, good legal system and bureaucracy, laws were simple, torture was not allowed, judges decided on cases impartially, officials were famous for their honestly, 1763 (after Seven Years' War) reconstruction of industry and agriculture, did not like serfdom but kept the serfs on his estate, extended privileges of nobility, used principles of cameralism (monarchy was best form of government)

Jean- Paul Marat

(1743-1793), French politician, journalist and physician, leader of the radical Mountain faction, assassinated in his bath by Charlotte Corday, wrote A Philosophical Essay on Man (1773) and The Chains of Slavery (1774)

Toussaint L'Ouverture

(1743-1803) freed slave who had joined the revolt and was named a Spanish officer, changed sides in the war- now his military and political skills and 4,000 well-trained soldiers supported the French, in 1796 he was named the commander of the western province of Saint-Domingue, in 1802 Leclerc landed on Saint-Domingue while he was on an expedition to crush the new regime, he ordered the arrest of L'Ouverture and his family, L'Ouverture was deported to France and died in 1803

Olympe de Gouges

(1748-1793) French, self taught woman, writer of the people, protested the evils of slavery and injustices imposed on women, September 1791- wrote the pamphlet Declaration of Rights of Women (echoed the Declaration of Rights of Man and of the Citizen), found little sympathy from the leaders of the revolution, sent to the guillotine in November 1793

The Seven Years' War

(1756-1763) Maria Theresa wanted to get Silesia back so she formed an alliance with rulers of France and Russia, resulted in Seven Years' war, goal of alliance was to conquer Prussia and divide up its territories, Peter III of Russia saved Frederick when he came to the throne in 1762 and called off the attack

Maximilian Robespierre

(1758-1794) lawyer and delegate, leader of the Mountain group of Jacobins (well-educated radical republicans), leader of the Committee of Public Safety, tried and executed thousands during the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), in 1794- executed by guillotine

Mary Wollstonecraft

(1759-1797) from London, published A Vindication of the Rights of Man (1790) and A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), demanded equal rights for women, advocated coeducation out of the belief that it would make women better wives and mothers, good citizens, and economically independent, her book (considered very radical at the time) became a founding text of the feminist movement

Henri de Saint-Simon

(1760-1825) French, said the key to progress was proper social organization that required the "parasites" (the court, the aristocracy, lawyers, and churchmen) to give way to the "doers" (leading scientists, engineers and industrialists) the doers would carefully plan the economy and guide it forward by undertaking vast public works projects and establishing investment banks, stressed that every social institution should have improved conditions for the poor as its main goal

Robert Owen

(1771- 1858) successful manufacturer in Scotland, testified in 1816 before an investigating committee on the basis of his experience, argued that employing children under 10 years of age as factory workers was bad, workers provided graphic testimony at such hearings as reformers pressed Parliament to pass corrective laws

Friedrich List

(1789-1846) strong proponent of government support for industrialization, in the 1820s and 1830s he spent several years in the United States observing the country's rapidly developing economy with great interest, he returned with the conviction that the growth of modern industry was very important, according to him manufacturing was a primary means of increasing people's well-being and relieving their poverty, he also thought that industrialization was essential to prevent the German States from falling behind the rest of the world, his practical policies focused on railroad building and the tariff, supported the formation of Zollverein, wanted a high protective tariff which could encourage infant industries allowing them to develop and eventually hold their own against their more advanced British counter-parts

Charles Lyell

(1797-1875) discredited the long-standing view that the earth's surface had been formed by the short-lived cataclysms such as biblical floods and earthquakes, uniformitarianism- same geological processes that are work slowly formed the earth's surface over an immensely long time

Victor Hugo

(1802-1885) son of a Napoleonic general, wrote poetry, novels showed the romantic fascination with fantastic characters, exotic historical settings, and human emotion, 1831- The Hunchback of Notre Dame written about 15th century Paris, equated freedom in literature with liberty in politics in society

Guiseppe Garibaldi

(1807- 1882) romantic republican, led a corps of volunteers against Austria in 1859, emerged in in 1860 as an independent force, his band of 1,000 red shirts landed in Sicily in May 1860, Cavour feared that his radicalism and popular appeal, when Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel II rode together through Naples- they symbolically sealed the union of north and south (monarch and nation-state) , Cavour successfully controlled him and turned popular nationalism in a conservative direction, the kingdom of Italy expanded to include Venice (1866) and Rome (1870), parliamentary monarchy under Victor Emmanuel II- neither fully democratic or radical

Baron Georges Haussmann

(1809-1884) impatient, placed in charge of Paris by Napoleon III, was able to completely transform the city of Paris in twenty years, took down old building and built new boulevard and streets- better housing, traffic could flow freely

William Gladstone

(1809-1898) Liberal Prime Minister of Ireland, introduced bills to give Ireland self-government or home rule in 1886 and 1893, these failed but in 1913 Irish nationalists finally gained this bill

Emile Zola

(1840-1902) most famous for his seamy, animalistic view of working-class life wrote gripping carefully researched stories featuring the stock exchange, the big department store and the army, Zola sympathized with socialism

Claude Monet

(1840-1926) impressionist artist, looked at the world around him for his subject, painted colorful and atmospheric paintings of farmland haystacks, wanted to capture light, painted blurry images such as Water lilies

Vincent Van Gogh

(1853-1890) built on impressionism motifs of color and light but added a deep psychological element, paintings reflected the attempt to search within the self and reveal (express) deep inner feelings on the canvas

J.A Hobson

(1858-1940) wrote Imperialism, influenced Lenin and others, said that the rush to acquire colonies was due to the economic needs of unregulated capitalism- particularly the need of the rich to find outlets for their surplus capital, argued that imperial possessions did not pay off economically for the entire county, only unscrupulous special-interest groups profited from them at the expense of European tax payers and the natives, said the quest for empire diverted popular attention away from domestic reform and the need to reduce the great gap between the rich and the poor

Battle of Waterloo

Napoleon took command again after Louis XVIII fled in February of 1815, after the frantic period called the Hundred Days- the allies united against Napoleon crushed his forces at Waterloo on June 18th and imprisoned him on the island of St. Helena

Marie and Pierre Curie

(1867-1934) discovered that radium constantly emits subatomic particles and does not have a constant atomic weight

The compositions of Arnold Schoenberg

(1874-1951) Viennese, abandoned traditional harmony and tonality, musical notes in a given piece were no longer united and organized by a key- they were independent and unrelated, his twelve-tone music of the 1920s arranged all twelve notes of the scale in an abstract mathematical pattern (tone row), pattern sounded like no pattern at all to the ordinary listener, audiences were accustomed to the harmonies of classical and romantic music so they generally resisted atonal music, this type of music began to win acceptance after WWII

Gustav Stressmann

(1878-1929) assumed leadership of the German government in 1923, called off the passive resistance in the Ruhr, in October agreed in principle to pay reparations but asked for a re-examination of Germany's ability to pay, France accepted this

Pablo Picasso

(1881-1973) established cubism in Paris in 1907 along with other artists, this was a highly analytical approach to art concentrated on a complex geometry and zigzagging lines and sharply angled overlapping planes that exemplified the ongoing trend toward abstract nonrepresentational art

James Joyce

(1882-1941) Irish, wrote Ulysses (1922)- single day of the life or an ordinary man, weaves an extended ironic parallel between the aimless wanderings of his hero through the streets and pubs of Dublin and the adventures of Homer's hero Ulysses on his way home from Troy, one of the most disturbing novels of its generation, abandoned any sense of conventional plot, broke grammar rules, blended foreign words, puns, bits of knowledge, and scraps of memory together in bewildering confusion, intended to mirror modern life - a gigantic riddle impossible to unravel, banned until the early 1930s in Great Britain and the US because it was considered obscene

The Compositions of Igor Stravinsky

(1882-1971) Russian, wrote the ballet The Rite of Spring (1913)- first preformed in Paris, combined pulsating rhythms and dissonant sounds from the orchestra pit with earthy representations of lovemaking by the strangely dresses dancers on the stage, shocked the audiences (accustomed to traditional ballets)

John Maynard Keynes

(1883-1946) British economist, wrote The Economic Consequence of the Peace (1919)- denounced the Treat of Versailles, said astronomical reparations and harsh economic measures would impoverish Germany, encourage Bolshevism and increase economic hardship in all countries, only a complete revision of the treaty could save Germany and Europe, this created much public discussion and was very influential, created sympathy for Germany in English-speaking countries- often paralyzed English and American leaders in their relations with Germany over the next two decades

Enrico Fermi

(1901-1954) Italian physicist, work led to the splitting of the atom, helped in the Manhattan project- developed the atomic bomb

Wener Heisenberg

(1901-1976) in 1917- formulated the "uncertainty principle" which postulated that nature itself is ultimately unknowable and predictable, suggested that the universe lacked any absolute objective reality, everything was "relative"- dependent on the observer's frame of reference, these ideas caught on among ordinary people- found the unstable, relativistic world described by the new physicists strange and troubling, instead of Newton's dependable and rational laws there seemed to be only tendencies and probabilities in an extraordinarily complex and uncertain universe, physics no longer provided comforting truths about natural laws or optimistic answers about humanity's place in an understandable world

Jean- Paul Sartre

(1905-1980) French existentialists, "existence precedes essence"— no God-given, timeless truths outside or independent of individual existence, only after they are born do people struggle to define their essence entirely on their own, his intellectual partner Simone de Beauvoir and him believed that existence itself is absurd, believed human beings are terribly alone, no God to help them, they are left to confront the inevitable arrival of death, people are forced to create their own meaning- such individual freedom is frightening, concluded that most people try to escape it by structuring their lives around conventional social norms, said to escape is to live in "bad faith"- to hide from the hard truths of existence, to live authentically individuals must become "engaged" and choose their own actions in full awareness of their responsibility for their own behavior

Dietrich Bonhoeffer

(1906-1945) German Lutheran pastor, actively protested Nazi polocies in his country

The Dawes Plan

(1924), war reparations agreement that reduced Germany's yearly payments, made payment dependable on economic prosperity, granted large U.S. loans to promote recovery

The Spanish Civil War

(1936-1939) authoritarian Fascist rebels overthrew the democratically elected republican government, caused political disagreement in France- Communists demanded that the government support Spanish republicans, French conservatives wanted to help Spanish Fascists

Social Democratic Party in Germany

(SDP) German working-class political party founded in the 1870s, championed Marxism but in practice turned away from Marxist revolution and worked for social and workplace reforms in the German Parliament instead

Petrograd Soviet

(council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies) huge, fluctuating mass meeting of 2,000-3,000 workers, soldiers, and socialist intellectuals, modeled on the revolutionary soviets of 1905

Bolsheviks

(majority group) Lenin's (1870-1924) radical, revolutionary arm of the Russian party of Marxist socialism, successfully installed a dictatorial socialist regime in Russia, opponents were Mensheviks (minority group)

Kirstallnacht

(night of the broken glass) 1938, Nazi gangs smashed windows and looted over 7,000 Jewish-owned shops, destroyed many homes, burned down 200 synagogues and killed dozens of Jews, German Jews were rounded up and forced to pay for the damage

Giuseppe Mazzini

, wanted to unite Italy under one government, called for a centralized democratic government based on universal male suffrage and the will of the people,

Henry IV

(r.1589-1610) even though he was Protestant, he converted to Catholicism in order to save France (he was a politique), Created the Edict of Nantes, helped French absolutism become a possibility in the future and brought back peace within France

Franz Joseph II of Austria

(r.1848-1916) crowned emperor of Austria immediately after his 18th birthday in 1848, had to get Hungary under control

Czar Nicholas II

(r.1894-1917) replaced his father, ignored diplomatic protests, Japanese launched a surprise attack in February 1904 and Russia surrendered in September 1905, military disaster brought political upheaval, urban factory workers were organized in a radical (legal) labor movement, peasants gained little from the era of reforms and suffered from poverty and overpopulation, minorities (Poles, Ukrainians, Latvians) called for self-rule, discontent converged in the revolution of 1905, on Bloody Sunday (January 1905) a massive crowd of workers and their families converged peacefully on the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to present a petition to hi, troops suddenly opened fire and killed and wounded hundreds , produced a wave of general indignation that turned many against him, by summer of 1905 strikes and political rallies, peasant uprisings, revolts among minority nationalities, and mutinies by troops were sweeping the country, revolutionary surge culminated in October 1905 in a general strike that forced the government to capitulate, he issued the October Manifesto- granted full civil rights and promised popularly elected Duma (parliament) with real legislative power, in May of 1806- government issues the new constitution- The Fundamental Laws, the tsar retained great powers, The Suma could debate and pass laws but the tsar had an absolute veto, tsar appointed his ministries (did not need a majority vote in the Duma), middle-class liberals (largest group in the Duma) saw the Fundamental Laws as a step backward, cooperation with Nicholas II's ministers soon broke down and after months of deadlock he dismissed the Duma, rewrote the electoral law increasing the weight of the conservative propertied classes, when new elections were held he could not could not count on a loyal legislative majority, government pushed through important agrarian reforms designed to break down collective village ownership, in 1914 on the night of WWI Russia was partially modernized- a conservative constitutional monarchy with a peasant-based but industrial economy

"Protocols of the Elders of Zion"

falsified account of a secret meeting supposedly held at the first Zionists Congress in Basel in 1897, suggest that Jewish elders planned to dominate the globe, actually written by the Russian secret police

porcelain dishes

fancier dishes for people to eat off of

Edward Jenner

1749-1823) country doctor, starting point was the belief that dairymaids who got cowpox (not contagious) did not get smallpox, practiced a Baconian science for 18 years collecting data, 1796- preformed his first vaccination on a young boy, used matter taken from a milkmaid with cowpox, published his findings in 1798, this new method of treatment spread rapidly, smallpox soon disappeared

Rousseau's Emile

1762, said boys' education should include plenty of fresh air and exercise, they should be in practical craft skills and books learning, insisted the girls' education should focus on their future domestic responsibilities, according to Rousseau- women's "nature" destined them solely for a life of marriage of child-rearing, these ideas were adopted by elite women

Lidwig Von Beethoven

1770-1827, romantic composer, used contrasting themes and tones to produce dramatic conflict and inspiring resolutions, at the peak of his fame he began to loose hearing, considered suicide but eventually overcame his despair, continued to pour out immortal music even though his last years were spent in total deafness

Neils Bohr

1913- suggested electrons were in orbit around a nucleus

Gallipoli

1915, British forces tried and failed to take the Dardanelles and Constantinople from the Ottoman Turks, the invasion force was pinned down on the beaches, ten months long, cost Ottomans 300,000 and 265,000 British were killed wounded or missing

War of the Roses

1455-1471) Between York and Lancaster, called this because the symbol for york was a white rose and the symbol for Lancaster was a red rose, over control of the government (civil war), caused trade, industry, agriculture, and the monarchy decline, Edward IV (York) helped to beat the Lancastrians and save the monarchy

Niccolo Machiavelli

1469-1527) civic humanist, secretary in the government of Florence in charge of diplomacy and arranging the army later arrested and spent the remainder of his life writing, wrote The Prince which says the point of government is to supply "order and security", ruler should do what he has to do to keep the state in order as long as he doesn't lose support of the people

Andreas Vesalius

1516-1564) Flemish physician, studied anatomy by dissecting human bodies (often executed criminals), published On the Structure of the Human Body in 1543, its 200 precise drawings revolutionized the understanding of human anatomy

Peace of Augsburg

1555, put a stop to religious wars in Germany for a while, allowed territories to choose their religion (northern/ central German become Lutheran)

Cardinal Richelieu

1585-1642) chief advisor to king Louis XIII, First minister of the French Crown (1628) allowed monarchy to maintain power within Europe and within its own borders during thirty years' war, extended use of commissioners (intendants) in France's 32 districts- they were appointed by monarch, the recruited men for the army, supervised collective taxes, presided over administration of local law, checked on nobility and regulated economic activity, as their power increased so did the power of the centralized French state, French monarchy acted against Protestantism, many foreign policy goal was to wipe out Catholic Hapsburgs power over territories near France, supported enemies of Hapsburgs (including protestants), signed a treaty in 1631 with Gustavus Adolphus (Sweden) saying that France will work against Hapsburgs in the Thirty Years War

Jean Baptiste Colbert

1619-1683) controller general to Louis XIV, believed wealth and economy of France could serve the state, applied mercantilist policies in France, insisted that everything that the French people needed should be produced by French industry in order to decrease the purchase of goods outside of France, to increase exports- supported old industries and created new ones (especially focused on textiles), enacted ne production regulations, created guilds to produce quality standards, encouraged foreign craftsmen to immigrate to France, abolished domestics tariffs and raised taxes on foreign products to get people to buy French goods, founded company of East Indies (1644) to compete with Dutch for Asian trade, wanted to make Canada part of the French empire because of its minerals and agricultural land, sent colonists to Quebec, while he was controller general- Louis pursued his goals (such as building Versailles) without huge tax increases or created new offices

David Hume

1711-1776) Scottish, emphasized civic morality and religious skepticism, agreed with Locke that the human mind is a bundle of impressions that come from experiences and habits, reason can't tell us anything that can not be verified with an experiment (such as the existence of god), ended undermining the Enlightenment's faith in the power of reason

Prince Kelmens Von Metternich

1773-1859, most progressive/liberal thinkers did not like him because of his determined defense of the monarchial status quo, internationally oriented aristocrat, Austrian foreign minister from 1809-1848, pessimistic view of human nature- believed was prone to error, excess, and self-serving behavior, believed that liberalism (French/American revolutions) was responsible for the bloodshed caused by 25 years of war, blamed middle-class revolutionaries for stirring up the lower class, believed authoritarian governments were necessary to protect society from the improper elements of human behavior that were easily released in a democratic system, despised the anticlericalism of the Enlightenment and French Revolution, believed Christian morality was vital against radical change, defended his class and its rights, liberalism was a threat to him because it generally went with aspirations of national independence, idea of self-determination under constitutional government was repellent to him because it threatened to revolutionize central Europe and destroy the Austrian Empire

JMW Turner

1775-1851, fascinated by nature, depicted nature's power and terror- wild storms and sinking ships

Paine's Common Sense

1776 pamphlet, attacked the weight of customs and the evils and government against the natural society of men, sold 120,000 copies in the first months of publication, proof of working people's reception of Enlightenment ideas

Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes

1780s- wrote the famous pamphlet What Is the Third Estate? member of the first estate (clergy), argued that the nobility was a tiny and over privileged minority, said the third estate constituted the strength of the French nation

The Pale Settlement

1791, established by Catherine the Great (opposed the emancipation of Jews), territory including parts of modern-day Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Belarus, most Jews were required to live here, Pale was the only place Jews could live until the Russian Revolution

Sanitation problems caused by overpopulation

17th century, diseases such as typhus, smallpox, syphilis and the bubonic plague were spread, soldiers spread these diseases throughout the countryside

the Civil Code

1804, also called the Napoleonic Code, his most enduring legacy, includes (pro-French)- equality before the law, protection of property and seizure, and the right to choose one's profession, also include (ancient regime)- censoring of the press, regulating what was taught in schools, and the use of secret police and surprise arrests to suppress political dissidents

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon

1809- 1865) 1840- pamphlet What is Property?, self-educated printer, argues that "property is theft," claimed that property was profit that was stolen from the worker (the sources of all wealth), distrusted all authority and political systems, believes that states should be abolished and society should be organized in loose associations of working people

Friedrich Engels

1820-1893, from Germany, moved to England and was appalled by the conditions there, wrote books such as The Conditions of the Working Class in England , worked with Marx on the Communist Manifesto

Greek War for Independence

1821-1832, Greeks rebelled within the Ottoman Empire, resulted in the Greeks winning their independence

Decembrist Revolution in France

1825- Russian army officers led 3,000 soldiers to protest Nicholas I

Joseph Lister

1827-1912) English surgeon, grasped the connection between aerial bacteria and the problem of wound infection after Pasteur showed that the air was full of bacteria in 1865, he said that a chemical disinfectant should be applied to wounds to kill the bacteria, by the 1880s German surgeons developed a more sophisticated practice if sterilizing the wound and also other things such as instruments, hands and clothes before entering an operating room

July Revolution in France

1830- overthrow of Charles X, Louis-Philippe came into power, transition of power from Bourbon to Orleans

Zulu Resistance

1830s, Boers moved to the interior of South Africa, battles between Boers and Zulus continued throughout the 19th century- Zulu never really threatened, Zulu came into conflict with who were extending their control over Africa and invading the homeland of the Zulu, British strongly overpowered them

Edgar Degas

1834-1917) impressionist artist, many pastel drawings of ballerinas, exemplified way in which impressionists moved towards abstraction, wanted to capture light, painted blurry images

Friedrich Nietzsche

1844-1900) systematic philosopher, wrote more as a prophet in a provocative poetic style, in his Untimely Meditations (1873)- argued that ever since classical Athens the West had overemphasized rationality and stifled the authentic passions and animal instincts that drive human activity and true creativity, questioned the conventional values of Western society, believed that reason, progress and respectability were outworn social and physiological constructs that suffocated self-realization and excellence, rejected religion, On the Genealogy of Morals (1887)- claimed Christianity embodied a "slave morality" that glorified weakness, envy and mediocrity, lost his sanity in 1889, warned that Western society was entering a period of nihilism (philosophical idea that human life is entirely without meaning, truth, or purpose), asserted that all moral systems were invented lies, said liberalism, democracy, and socialism were corrupt systems designed to promote the weak at the expense of the strong, West was in decline- false values had triumphed, death of God left people disoriented and depressed, the only hope for the individual was to accept the meaninglessness of human existence and then make that meaninglessness a source of self-defined personal integrity and gain liberation, now at least a few superior individuals could free themselves from the dull thinking of the masses and become true heroes, works started to attract growing attention in the early twentieth century(after his death), artists and writers experimented with his ideas- these ideas were fundamental to the rise of philosophy and existentialism in the 1920s, still has large influence today

Sigmund Frued

1856-1939) concluded that human behavior was basically irrational, governed by the unconscious, a sort of mental reservoir that contained vital instinctual drives and powerful memories, even though the unconscious profoundly influenced people's behavior, it was unknowable to the conscious mind, leaving people unaware of the source or meaning of their actions, said there were three structures of self- id (unconscious, pleasure seeking), superego (conscience, strict, social control, irrational), and ego (rational self, mostly conscious, worked to negotiate between the demands of the id and superego), wrote Civilization and its Discontents (1930)- argued that civilization was possible inly when individuals renounced their irrational instincts in order to live peaceably in groups, his phycology and psychiatry became an international movement by 1910, received more attention after 1919 (especially in northern Europe and the United States), his ideas attained immense popularity after WWII

Max Planck

1858-1947) German physicist, showed in 1900 that subatomic energy is emitted in uneven little spurts (which he called "quanta") and not a steady stream as previously believed, this discovery called into question the sharp distinction between energy and matter- implication was that matter and energy might be different forms of the same thing

Henri Bergson

1859-1941) argued that immediate experience and institution were as important as rational and scientific thinking for understanding reality, said a religious experience or mystical poem was often more accessible to human comprehension than scientific law or a mathematical equation

Suez Canal

1869, connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, shortened transport time to another area on the globe considerably, Britain got control of it and now they did not have to go around Africa in order to get to Asia

Mustafa Kemal

1881-1938, directed successful Turkish defense against the British at the Battle of Gallipoli, nationalist, not religious, believed Turkey should modernize and secularize along Western lines, established a republic, elected president, created a one- party system (partly inspired by the Bolshevik example) to transform the country, most radical reforms had to do with religion and culture, set out to limit the place of religion and religious leaders in daily affairs, decreed a controversial separation of church and state, gave women rights, publicized law codes inspired by European models, established a secular public school system, by the time he died- implemented much of his revolutionary program and moved Turkey much closer to Europe

Virginia Woolf

1882-1941) English, wrote Jacob's Room (1922)- made up of a series of monologues in which she tried to capture the inner voice in prose, in her stories she portrayed characters whose ideas and emotions from different periods of their lives bubble up randomly

Franz Kafka

1883-1924), portrayed an incomprehensible, alienating world in his stories, The Trial (1925) and The Castle (1926) are stories about helpless individuals crushed by inexplicably hostile forces, famous novella The Metamorphosis (1915) - main character turns into a giant insect

Battle of Omdurman

1889, British (General Horatio H. Kitchener) beat and fought against the Sudanese Muslims, British defeated them because each time they tried to charge they would be cut down by the newly invented machine gun

The Sino- Japanese War

1894-1895) over Korea, Japanese defeated Chinese, treaty that ended it gave Korea and Taiwan to Japan

The Fashoda Crisis

1898, England and France almost went to war over Fashoda (in Sudan), area had no economic of political importance, incident showed dangers of imperialism- European nations were willing to fight over useless territory

The Spanish- American War

1898, brought the United States an informal protectorate over Cuba and the annexation of Puerto Rico, drove Spain completely out of the Western Hemisphere

China's Boxer Rebellion

1899, rebellion in Beijing- started by a secret society of Chinese who opposed the "foreign devils," rebellion ended by British troops

midwifery

18th century, trained by another woman practitioner, regulated by a guild in many cities, primarily assisted in labor and deliver of babies, also treated female problems

First Balkan War

1912- Serbia joined Greece and Bulgaria to attack the Ottoman Empire and then fought with Bulgaria over who got what from the victory

Second Balkan War

1913- Bulgaria attacked former allies, Austria intervened and forced Serbia to give up Albania- now nationalism had finally destroyed the Ottoman Empire, now Balkan nationalists increased their demands for freedom from Austria-Hungary `

Balfour declaraction

1917, written by Arthur Balfour (British foreign secretary), statement that declared British support of a National Home for the Jewish People in Palestine

New Economic Policy (NEP)

1921, Lenin's policy to re-establish limited economic freedom in an attempt to rebuild agriculture and industry in the face of economic disintegration, political and economic success, by 1926- industrial output surpassed prewar levels and agricultural production almost equaled prewar levels

Treaty of Lausanne

1923, recognized the territorial integrity of Turkey, abolished the hated capitulations that the European powers had imposed over the centuries to give their citizens special privileges in the Ottoman Empire

Mein Kampf

1924, written by Hitler, laid out his basic ideas on "racial purification" and territorial expansion that would define National Socialism, claimed that Germans were a "master race" that needed to defend its "pure blood" from groups he labeled "racial degenerates"- including Jews, Slavs, etc., said German race was destined to triumph and grow and needed "living space" (lebensraum)- this could be found to Germany's east which he said was inhabited by the "subhuman" Slavs and Jews, outlined a vision of war and conquest in which the German master race would colonize east and central Europe and ultimately replace "subhumans" living there, said the idea od a leader-dictator (Fuhrer) whose unlimited power would embody the people's will and lead Germany to victory, these ideas would ultimately propel the world into the Second World War

The Locarno Pact

1925, agreement that France would accept its common border, Britain and Italy agreed to fight either France or Germany if one invaded the other, Germany agreed to settle boundary disputes with Poland and Czechoslovakia peacefully but did not agree on permanent borders to Germany's east, France reaffirmed its pledge of military aid to those countries of Germany attacked them, gave some hope to those seeking international stability

The Kellogg-Briand Pact

1928, signed by fifteen countries, created by French prime minister Briand and U.S. secretary of state Kellogg, signers agreed to settle disputes peacefully and renounce war, made no provisions for action in case war actually occurred and could not have prevented WWII, in the late 1920s- fostered cautious optimism and encouraged the hope that the U.S would accept its responsibilities as a great world power by contributing to European stability

The Lateran Agreement

1929, agreement that recognized the Vatican as an independent state, Mussolini agreed to give the church heavy financial support in return for public support from the pope

Italian invasion of Ethiopia

1935, Mussolini wanted to build an African empire, invaded Ethiopia, could not stop him because Ethiopia was such a weak nation- did not have strong army or supply of ammunition

Nuremberg Laws

1935, said anyone who had three or more Jewish grandparents was classified as Jewish, outlawed marriages and sexual relations between Jews and those defined as Germans, deprived Jews of all rights of citizenship, said converting to Christianity wouldn't make a difference

Remilitarization of the Rhineland

1936, violated the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler rebuilt the German army, occupied the area between France and Germany (Rhineland)

Secret Police (NKVD)

1937- arrested a mass of lesser party officials and newer members, used torture to extract confessions and causing more show trials

The Munich Agreement

1938, agreement between Chamberlain and Hitler that Germany would not claim any more land and if it did Britain would declare war

Nazi-Soviet non-agression pact

1939, Hitler and Stalin agreed not to attack each other, Hitler could now use force against Poland without Society involvement (split it) , Germany did not keep their promise and later attacked the Soviet Union

Vichy Regime

1940, new French government formed by Petain, adopted many aspects of National socialist ideology and willingly placed the Jews in the hands of the Nazis

Wannsee Conference

1942, meeting in which the "Final Solution" and use of concentration camps were decided

Chartists

19th century English reformers who advocated better social and economic conditions for working people

surrealism

20th century movement of artist (Salvador Dali) and writers, developed from Dadaism, used imaginary images, represented unconscious thoughts and dreams

War of Spanish Succession

: King Charles II died (1700) and he gave the crown to Philip of Anjou (Louis XIV's grandson), this violated a previous treaty that said that European powers had to divide Spanish possessions between the king of France and the Holy Roman emperor (both brothers-in-law to Charles II), Louis accepted the will that said the crown goes to Philip of Anjou and this started the war, Dutch, English, Austrians and Prussians formed the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV, the war went on until 1713

Dadaism

: began in Zurich in 1916 by Richard Huelsenbeck and others, artistic movement of the 1920s and 1930s that attacked all accepted standards of art and behavior and delighted in outrageous conduct, war had shown that life was meaningless- argued that art should also be meaningless

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Berlin Conference of 1884-1885

A meeting of European leaders in order to lay down some basic rules for imperialist competition in sub-Saharan Africa

Anti-Corn Law league

successful political movement in Great Britain, aimed at the abolition of the Corn Laws which protected land owners' interests by leaving taxes on imported wheat- raised the price of bread at a time when factory owners were trying to cut wages

the Fronde in France

successor of Richelieu was Mazarin, could not increase revenues enough to cover costs of war, caused a series of uprisings from 1648-1653 called the Fronde, frondeur became a term used for individuals who opposed the policies of the government

Limitation of women's rights

America- liberty did not mean equal rights for women, did not receive the right to vote in the Constitution, France- women could no longer ask the church for help because of the debt, 7,000 women invaded the National Assembly on October 5th and killed royal body guards in search for the queen, constitution of 1791 did not allow them to hold political office or vote, people like Gouges (France) and Wollstonecraft (England) founded the feminist movement, Jacobins took actions to suppress women's participation in political debate- perceived as disorderly and a distraction from women's proper place in the home, lost many of the gains they made in the 1790s during Napoleon's time, under the Napoleonic code women were dependents of their husbands or fathers and could not make contracts or have bank accounts in their own names, Napoleon and his advisers aimed at reestablishing a family monarchy- power of father and husband was absolute over the wife and the children (just like the relationship between Napoleon and his subjects)

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

August 24, 1572, Marriage of Margaret of Valois and Henry of Navarre (protestant), supposed to help bring Catholics and Huguenots together, instead thousands of Huguenots were killed

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

August 27, 1789- issued by the National Assembly, call of liberal revolutionary ideas, guaranteed equality before the law, representative government for a sovereign people, and individual freedom, only two pages long, disseminated throughout France, Europe and around the world

The Dual Monarchy of 1867

Austrian empire was divided in two and the Magyars gained virtual independence for Hungary, each half of the empire dealt with its own ethnic minorities, two states still shared the same monarch and common ministries for finance, defense and foreign affairs

Kulturkampf

Bismarck's attack on the Catholic Church within Germany from 1870-1878, resulting from Pius IX's declaration of papal infallibility

Spain under the Hapsburgs

Began with Frederick III and ended with Charles I (V), also included Philip II, during Spain's expansion period

Arab revolt against the Turks

British bargained with Arab leader Hussein ibn- Ali (1856-1931), in 1915 Hussein managed to win vague British commitments for a n independent Arab kingdom, in 1916 Hussein rebelled against the Turks and proclaimed himself king of the Arabs, aided by the British officer T.E. Lawrence, Lawrence also helped lead Arab soldiers in successful guerrilla war against the Turks on the Arabian Peninsula in 1917

Cecil Rhodes

British colonial financer and statesmen, made a fortune in gold and Diamond mining in South Africa, helped colonize territory known as Zimbabwe

Combination Acts

British laws passed in 1799 that outlawed unions and strikes favoring capitalist business people over skilled artisans, bitterly resented and widely disregarded by many craft guilds, repealed by Parliament in 1824, unions were tolerated but not fully legal until 1867

T.E Lawrence

British liaison officer, 1916- aided Hussein when he rebelled against the Turks for Arab independence, 1917- helped Arab soldiers in a successful guerrilla war against the Turks on the Arabian Peninsula

The Lusitania

British passenger ship, sunk by German submarine May 1915, 1,000 people died (139 U.S citizens), caused President Woodrow Wilson to protest and use the tragedy to incite American public opinion against Germans

appeasement

British policy toward Germany prior to WWII that aimed at granting Hitler whatever he wanted (including western Czechoslovakia) in order to avoid war

Cabelleros and hidalgos in Spain

Caballeros- Spanish knights, hidalgo- Spanish royalty or someone who works in the government

Sewage and water systems

Chadwick believed that waste from public outhouses should be carried off by water through sewers, the cheap iron pipes would provide running water and sewerage for all sections of town (not just the wealthy parts), in 1848 after the cholera epidemic broke out throughout Britain these ideas became the basis of Great Britain's first public health law, this law created a national health board cities broad authority to build modern sanitary systems

saint's day festivities

Christians would celebrate saints (like holidays)

The Committee of Public Safety

Convention formed this in April 1793, purpose was to deal with threats from within and outside France, led by Robespierre, held dictatorial power- it could use whatever force necessary to defend the Revolution, tried and executed thousands during the Reign of Terror (1793-1794)

Emelian Pugachev

Cossack soldier, 1773 sparked an uprising with serfs, proclaimed himself the true tsar and issued orders to abolish serfdom, taxes and army service, thousands joined him, captured and executed by the government, put an end to intentions Catherine had about reforming the system, showed peasants were dangerous and the empire relied on the support of nobility

Mines Act of 1842

English law prohibiting underground work for all women and girls and boys under 10

Mulato

European mixed with African

The Opium Wars

First- (1839-1841) Britain occupied several coastal cities and forced China to surrender, second- (1856-1860) China forced to open six ports to British and French trade indefinitely, China forced to accept trade and investment of unfavorable terms for the foreseeable future

popular fronts in France and Spain

France- communists, socialists and radicals united against fascists to win 1936 election, in Spain- republicans, socialists, and anarchists united against conservatives to win 1936 election, launched a far-reaching program for social reform

Huguenots

French Calvinists, about one tenth of the population of France

steamships

French engineers created the first steam ships in the 1770s and the first commercial steam ships come into use in North America several decades later, the Clermont began to travel the waters of the Hudson river in New York state in 1807 shortly followed by ships belonging to brewer John Molson on the St. Lawrence River

Honore de Balzac

French realists novelist, remembered for his series of 91 interconnected novels, novels picture urban society as amoral and brutal characterized by a Darwinian struggle for power

John Cabot

Genoese merchant who lived in London, took a journey to Brazil in 1497 and discovered Newfoundland

Frankfurt Parliament of 1848

German parliament tried to create a German state during the 1848 revolutions, consisted of middle class civil servants, lawyers, and intellectuals who wanted liberal reform, offered the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm but he refused in 1849 and then the Frankfurt parliament ended

boyars

Highest-ranking nobles, their loyalty helped Muscovite princes consolidate their power

Annexation of Austria

Hitler forced the Austrian chancellor to put Nazis in control of the Austrian government in 1938, next day in the annexation (Anschluss)- German armies moved in unopposed and Austria became two provinces of Germany

Charles I/V

Holy Roman Emperor, ordered Martin Luther to come in front of an assembly of clergy, nobility, and cities of the Holy Roman Empire in Worms (Germany), grandson of Maximilian (Hapsburgs), against protestants, called a diet in 1530 Augsburg, did not accept Confession of Augsburg and said all Protestants had to go back to the Catholic Church, had to fight for his empire and religion in religious wars, agreed to Peace of Augsburg in 1555, stepped down from the crown in 1556 and gave his power and money to his brother and his son and then became a monk

India's Sepoy Mutiny

In 1857 the British government issued Enfield Rifles that used cartridges that came in wax paper made of animal fat, soldiers feared braking their religious beleifs because the wax might be made of cows (Hindus feared this) or pigs (Muslims feared this), large uprising due to this controversy, threatened British rule over India, last serious uprising from the British oppressors, after Britain crushed them they had full control over Indians

The Bastille

July 14, 1789- several hundred people stormed the Bastille (royal prison) to get weapons for the city's defense, Louis announced reinstatement of his finance officer and withdrew troops fro Paris, now the National Assembly could continue its work

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

July 1790- established a national church with priests chosen by voters

The Tennis Court Oath

June 20, 1789, delegates of the National Assembly (third estate) moved into a large in-door tennis court and pledged not to disband until they had been recognized as a national assembly and had written a new constitution

Normandy Invasion (D-Day)

June 6, 1944- American and British forces (under Eisenhower) landed on the beaches of Normandy (France), 100 days, more than 2 million men and almost half a million vehicles broke through German lines and pushed inland, Eisenhower rejected proposals to strike straight at Berlin in a massive attack, moved forward cautiously on a broad front, March 1945- American troops crossed the Rhine and entered Germany, by spring 1945- Allies had finally forced the Germans out of the Italian Peninsula

James I

King of England from 1603- 1625, succeeded Elizabeth I, was previously king of Scotland fir 35 years, believed in divine right of kings (monarchs have divine right to their authority and are responsible only to God), opposite to English ide that a person's property cannot be taken away without due process of law, considered these ideas intolerable and threatening to their divine right, arguments began between the House of Commons and the Crown

Anesthesia and antiseptics

Lister was the first person to use antiseptics in his surgeries, anesthesia was invented by William Morton

Locke's Second Treatise of Civil Government

Locke (1632-1704) said that a government that does not serve its function- to preserve natural rights (basic rights to all men) of life, liberty, and property- is a tyranny, under a tyrannical government people have the natural right to rebel, said voting should be limited to property owners, ideas especially popular in colonial America, said Native Americans had no property rights because they did not cultivate the land (also meant they had no political rights since they couldn't have property),

Madame de Pompadour

Louis XV's favorite mistress, from 1745-1750- exercised tremendous influence that continued even after the love affair ended, played a key role in bringing about France's break with Prussia and its new alliance with Austria in the mid-1750s, low birth and political influence generated a stream of libelous pamphlets, Louis was being stripped of the sacred aura of God's anointed earth and being reinvented as a degenerate

The Black Shirts

Mussolini's private militia that destroyed socialist newspapers, union halls, and Socialist Party headquarters, eventually pushed Socialists out of the city governments of northern Italy

Mestizo

Native Americans mixed with Europeans

The Dreyfus Affair

a divisive case in which Alfred Dreyfus (Jewish captain in the French army) was falsely accused and convicted of treason, Catholic Church sided with the anti-Semites against him, after he was declared innocent the French government severed all its ties between the state and the church

The March on Rome

October 1922, band of armed Fascists marched on Rome to threaten the king and force him to appoint Mussolini prime minister of England, Victor Emmanuel II told Mussolini to take over the government and form a new cabinet, after violence and a threat of an armed uprising- Mussolini took control using the legal framework of the Italian constitution

Public whipping and branding

People would be humiliated by being tortured in public, form of punishment

Eugenics

a pseudoscientific doctrine that maintains that the selective breeding of human beings can improve the general characteristics of a national population, which helped inspire Nazi ideas about "race and space" and ultimately contributed to the Holocaust

Nativism

Policies and beliefs, often influenced by nationalism, scientific racism, and mass migration, gave preferential treatment to established inhabitants over immigrant

Heliocentric theory

Proposed by Copernicus, said that planets in the order of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn move around the sun, instead of the geocentric theory saying that all planets move around the Earth

Ferdinand and Isabella

Rulers of Spain in the late 1400s, had landowners and law professionals serve on the royal council instead of nobles, got the right to choose the bishops in Spain and Spanish ruled countries, made all practicing Jews leave Spain

Czar Nicholas I

Russian monarch, changed from a conservative to a reactionary after Decembrist Revolt- did not want another revolt

Totalitarianism

a radical dictatorship that exercises "total claims" over the beliefs and behavior of its citizens by taking control of the economic, social, intellectual, and cultural aspects of society, used during the 1920s and 1930s

Plantation economies

Slaves would work on plantations and produce crops, crops (such as sugar or wheat) would be traded, 10 million Africans between 1518-1800 were moved across the Atlantic to work on plantations, a lot of slaves meant a lot of crops, which meant a lot of trade

Triangle Trade

Slaves, crops and goods were traded between American colonies, the Africa and Europe

Warsaw Uprising

Soviets reached the outskirts od Warsaw by august 1944, Polish underground Home Army ordered and uprising (anticipating German defeat) so that the Poles can take the city on their own and establish independence from the Soviets, uprising was a tragic miscalculations- Red army refused the enter the city because of military pressure, Stalin and Soviet leaders allowed Germans to destroy Polish insurgents, Home Army surrendered and Red army continued its advance, Warsaw was in ruins- between 150,000 and 200,000 Poles (mostly civilians) died

Sergei Kirov

Stalin's number-two man, mysteriously killed in 1934, Stalin (probably ordered the murder) blamed it on the "Fascist agents" in the party, used this incident to launch a reign of terror that purged the Communist Party of supposed traitors and solidified his own control

The Grand Empire

The empire over which Napoleon and his allies ruled, encompassing almost all of Europe, three parts, first part- core, ever-expanding France, by 1810 included present day Belgium and the Netherlands, parts of northern Italy, and German territories on the east bank of the Rhine, second part- number of dependent satellite kingdoms, Napoleon place member of his family n the thrones of these kingdoms, third part- independent but allied states of Austria, Prussia and Russia

hair

armpit

dadaism

artistic movement of the 1920s and 1930s, attacked all accepted standards of art and behavior and delighted in outrageous conduct

Global mass migration

The mass movement of people from Europe in the nineteenth century, one reason that the West's impact on the world was so powerful and many-sided

baroque

in Portuguese mean "odd-shaped, imperfect pearl", high point in history of Western culture, early development began with the revitalization of the Catholic church in the late 16th century, patrons wanted artists to go beyond Renaissance, got its sense of drama and motion from the Catholic reformation

Separate Spheres

The nineteenth century gendered division of labor and lifestyles that cast men as wage earners and women as home makers

crime

in overpopulated cities people would commit crimes such as stealing and be punished

Alchemy

magical process, preceded chemistry, used to explain things before scientific revolution

Jules Verne's literature of exploration

Verne-father of science fiction, wrote "Five Weeks in a Balloon"- sold so well that he was given a contract to write for a magazine

Debt Peonage

a form of serfdom that allowed a planter or rancher to keep his workers or slaves in perpetual debt bondage by periodically advancing food, shelter and a little money

Catherine de' Medici

Wife of Henry II (Queen of France) and mother of his three sons, against three rival families- Guise (Catholic), Bourbon (Huguenots), Montmorresy (Catholic)

Social Darwinism

a body of thought drawn from the ideas of Charles Darwin that applied the theory of biological evolution to human affairs and saw the human race as driven by unending economic struggle that would determine the survival of the fittest

Thermodynamics

a branch of physics built on Newton's laws of mechanics that investigated the relationship between heat and mechanical energy

Book of Common prayer

Written by Cranmer (1549) included all the prayers for the English church, Parliament accepted it

Audiencias

a board of 12 to 15 judges that served as the advisor council of the viceroy and the court of appeal, viceroy presided over them

Tariff protection

a government's way of supporting and aiding its own economy by laying high taxes on imported goods from other countries as when the French responded to cheaper British goods in 1815 flooding their country by imposing high tariffs on some imported products

Modernism

a label given to the artistic and cultural movements of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, included radical experimentation that challenged traditional forms of artistic expression

Suffrage movement

a militant movement for women's right to vote led by middle-class British women around 1900

politique

a person who believed a strong monarchy could help the country to survive, sacrificed their own beliefs for the good of the country

Spinning Jenny

a simple, inexpensive, hand-powered spinning machine created by James Hargreaves in 1765

Water Frame

a spinning machine created by Richard Arkwright that had a capacity of several hundred spindles that used waterpower; it therefore required a larger an more specialized mill- a factory

Cottage industry

a stage of industrial development in which rural workers used hand tools in their homes to manufacture goods on a large scale for sale in a market

Double Entry Bookkeeping

a system in which clerks could not make mistakes, everything entered twice

Bessemer process

a way to refine and manufacture steel cheaper

Local Positivism

accepted in English-speaking countries, philosophy that sees meaning in only those beliefs that can be empirically proven, rejects most of the concerns of traditional philosophy (existence of God, meaning of happiness, etc.) as nonsense, what we know about human life must be based on rational facts and direct observation, most often associated with Australian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951)

Existentialism

accepted in countries that did not speak English, philosophy that stresses the meaninglessness of existence and importance of the individual in searching for moral values in an uncertain world, forerunners included- Nietzsche, Kierkegaard (Danish), Sartre (French) and Dostoyevsky (Russian), this philosophy gained recognition in Germany in the 1920s when philosophers Martin Heidegger and Karl Jaspers found a sympathetic audience among disillusioned postwar university students, most existential thinkers of the 20th century were atheists- did not believe that a supreme being had established humanity's fundamental nature and given life its meaning, also recognized that humans must act in the world- believe individuals are forced to create their own meaning and define themselves through their actions, epitomized the modern intellectual crisis- the shattering beliefs in God, reason, and progress, it had important precedents in the late 19th and early 20th centuries- really came of age in France during and immediately after WWII, terrible conditions of the war reinforced the existential view of and approach to life, after the war existentialists like Sartre became enormously influential- offered powerful but unsettling answers to the profound moral issues and crises of the first half of the 20th century

viceroyalties

administrative divisions (Spain), included New Spain, Peru, New Granada and La Plata, rules by an imperial governor called a viceroy who would use broad military and civil authority as a direct representative of Spain, also included the audencia (advisors and court) and corregidores (local judicial/ administration power)

Urban redesign

after 1870 in many cities public authorities mounted a coordinated attack on many of the problems of the urban environment, in Paris- public health improved by better water supply and waste disposal which often went hand in hand with new boulevard construction, other cities such as Vienna took down old buildings and built new office buildings, town halls, theaters, opera houses, and museums, the new roads and boulevards radiated outward from the city's center and eased movement and encouraged urban expansion, zoning expropriation laws - allowed a majority of the owners od land in a given quarter of the city to impose major street or sanitation improvements on a reluctant minority

National government in Britain

after 1931- conservatives dominated the government and followed an orthodox economic theory, budget was balanced, spending was tightly controlled, unemployed workers barely received enough welfare to live, economy recovered considerably after 1932, protective tariffs were established in 1932, England went off the gold standard in 1931, now concentrated on the national market

The Ruhr Occupation

after Germany sad they couldn't pay French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr district (biggest area of German industry) in 1923, created the most serious international crisis of the 1920s

Battle of Britain

air battle fought in 1940 between German air force and British air force (Royal Air Force), Germans bombed British cities, British defeated Germans

Triple Alliance

alliance of Austria, Germany and Italy- Italy left the alliance in 1914 (when war started) because Austria had launched a war of aggression

Virtu

an ability to create a world around you that focuses on your desire to succeed

The Holy Alliance

an alliance formed by the conservative rulers of Austria, Prussia and Russia in September 1815 that became a symbol of the repression of liberal and revolutionary movements all over Europe

The Crystal Palace at the Great Exhibition of 1851

an architectural masterpiece made of entirely glass and iron (which were cheap and abundant), sponsored by the British royal family, celebrated the new era of industrial technology and the kingdom's role as world economic leader

The stadtholder

an executive officer in each province of he Netherlands, carried out ceremonial functions, responsible for military defense, chosen by the Estates, after William of Orange) became king of England- Dutch republic went without stadtholder for many decades

Marxism

an influential political program based on the socialist ideas of German radical Karl Marx, called for a working class revolution to overthrow capitalist society and establish a Communist state

Congress of Berlin 1878

assembly of representatives from Germany, Russia, Hungary, Britain, France, Italy and the Ottoman Empire, purpose was to reorganize the countries of the Balkans, Germany and Austria forced Russia to give up the Treaty of San Stefano and sign the Treaty of Berlin- split Bulgaria into three parts and brought Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian military occupation, basically canceled out Russia's victory in the Russo-Turkish War

German Social Democratic Party

based on Marxist theories but also competed in the election for seats in the German Parliament, tried to pass legislation to improve conditions of the working class

Radio

became a full-blown mass medium in the 1920s, experimental radio sets were first available in the 1880s, work of Italian inventor Marconi around 1900 and the invention of the vacuum tube in 1904 made possible primitive transmissions of speech and music, first major public broadcast of news and special events occurred in 1920 in Great Britain and The Unites States, every major country quickly established national broadcasting networks, many were directly controlled by the government, in Great Britain- Parliament set up an independent public corporation- The British Broadcasting Company (BBC), by the late 1930s more than three out of every four households had at least one radio, used for political propaganda and manipulation, dictators (Hitler, Mussolini, etc.) controlled the airwaves and could reach enormous national audiences with their dramatic speeches, also used in democratic companies- United States (Roosevelt) and Britain (prime minister Stanley Baldwin) used it to increase their popularity

Louis XIII

became king when he was nine years old, cardinal Richelieu was his chief advisor

Napoleon's invasion of Russia

began June 12, 1812, force of 600,000 (only 1/3 French), nationals of all the satellites and allies were drafted, original plan was to attack the Russians in the city of Smolensk but Napoleon pressed on toward Moscow, Battle of Borodino followed and ended in a draw, Alexander I ordered the evacuation of Moscow which the Russians partly burned but Napoleon they wouldn't leave, after five weeks in the city Napoleon ordered a retreat - one of the greatest military disasters in history, Russian army combined with starvation cut Napoleon's army to pieces, by the time the remnants arrived in Poland and Prussia in December 370,000 men had dies and 200,00 were prisoners

Kulaks

better-off peasants who were stripped of land and livestock under Stalin and were generally not permitted to join collective farms- many of them starved or were deported to forced labor camps for "re-education"

The Partition of Poland

between 1768 and 1772, the armies of Catherine the Great scored victories against the Ottomans and threatened to disturb the balance of power between Russia and Austria in eastern Europe, Frederick came up with an idea to let Turkey go and then Prussia, Russia and Austria would compensate themselves by taking a piece of Poland (which had a weak government), Catherine agreed- first partition took place in 1772, partitions in 1793 and 1795 gave the rest of the Polish territory away

Contagious Diseases

between 1864 and 1886, special policemen required prostitutes to undergo biweekly medical exams, if diseases were found they were forced to go to a hospital to get treatment, controversial from the start, campaign led by Josephine Butler proclaimed that the acts physically abused poor women, violated their constitutional rights, Parliament repealed the acts in 1886

William Shakespeare

born in 1564, became a Renaissance man, appreciated classical culture individualism and humanism, wrote comedies and historical plays, tragedies such as Hamlet, Othello, and Macbeth are his best works, tragedies describe human problems and can be interpreted in many ways, Othello references Moors and people who have "black" skin, The Tempest shows race issues

Poland

by 1500, Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania were ruled by a king, senate and parliament, but had separate judicial systems, armies and forms of citizenship, Poland now became the biggest European polity even though the population was only 7.5 million, Poland's population consisted of Germans, Italians, Tartars and Jews (and Poles and Lithuanians), all groups spoke their own language, but all educated people could speak Latin

total war

war in which distinctions between the soldiers on the battlefield and civilians at home are blurred, where the government plans and controls economic and social life in order to supply the armies at the front with supplies and weapons

Charles II

came to power during restoration, ruled England from 1660-1685, son of Charles I, did not work well with Parliament, decided Parliament did not grant him enough income, 1670 Charles made a secret agreement with Louis XIV (his cousin, Louis would give him 200,000 euros every year if Charles relaxed laws over Catholics and gradually re-catholicize England, also had to convert to Catholicism, when people found out about this agreement a large amount of anti-Catholic feeling broke out in England

Frederick William "The Great Elector" of Prussia

came to power in 1640, determined to unify the three provinces and enlarge his holdings, provinces were Brandenburg; Prussia (inherited in 1618) and scattered territories along the Rhine inherited in 1614, profited from ongoing European war and threat of invasion from Russia, argued that they needed a permanent standing army, 1660 persuaded Junkers to accept taxation without consent in order to fund an army, they agreed in return for reconfirmation of their own privileges such as authority over serfs , crushed potential opposition to his power from the towns, Prussian cities were eliminated from estates and their taxation increased, estates' power declined and Great Elector had financial independence and superior force, tripled state revenue during his reign and expanded army

Jeremy Bentham

came up with utilitarianism- the idea that social policies should promote the "greatest good for the greatest number"

The Mayflower

carried Pilgrims to Plymouth and they founded Massachusetts (1620)

Censorship

censoring of the press included in the Napoleonic code (ancient regime)

Mercantilism

collection of governmental policies for the regulation of economic activities by and for the sate, comes from idea that a nation's international power comes from its wealth (especially its supply of gold and silver), in order to become wealthy a country had to sell more goods abroad than it bought

Popular Front policies in France

communist, socialists, and Radicals formed an alliance (against Fascists), won the election of 1936, socialists led by Leon Blum became the strongest party in France (146 seats in Parliament), encouraged the union movement and launched a far-reaching program for social reform

Leon Blum

communists, socialists and radical united against fascists in 1836 election, led the socialists after they won the election, now strongest party in France, popular front government made the first attempt to deal with social and economic problems in France, encouraged the unions movement and launched a far-reaching program of social reform- paid vacations, forty hour workweeks, etc., supported by workers and lower middle class, reforms were quickly ruined by inflation and accusations of revolution from the Fascists and conservatives, wealthy people snaked their money out of the country, labor unrest grew, France entered sever financial crisis, forced to announce a "breathing spell" in social reform , forced to resign in 1937 because of extreme opposition between political parties, popular front quickly collapsed

Cubism

concentrates on a complex geometry of zigzagging lines and sharply angled overlapping planes, created by Picasso and Georges Braque between 1907 and 1914

The Boer War

conflict lasting from 1899-1902, Boers and British fought for control of territory in South Africa

Three Emperor's League

conservative alliance that linked the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia against radical movements

Benjamin Disraeli

conservative prime minister of England, in 1867- passed a bill that extended the vote to all middle-class males and best-paid workers in order to broaden their base of support beyond the landowning class, bought controlling interest in the Suez canal

Ulster

countries of northern Ireland that have a conflict between Catholics and protestants

Breech-loading Rifle

created by Prussians, better than Austrian guns

the encomienda system

created by Spanish, the Crown gave conquerors the right to make Native Americans work as laborers or force them to give tribute in return for food and shelter, harsh- close to slavery, Spanish were actually supposed to take care of the Natives and convert them to Christianity

Zollverein

customs union among separate states, this came into being in 1818 and spread to most of the German states by 1834, allowed goods to move between member states without tariffs while creating a single uniform tariff against other nations

charivari

degrading public rituals used by village communities to police personal behavior and maintain moral standards, young men would gang up on their victim (spouse-beater or adulterous couple) and force him to sit with her on a donkey facing backward and holding its tail, they would parade around the village and loudly proclaim the offenders' misdeeds

poland

democracy failed after WWI, authoritarian dictator took power, invaded by Germany- England and France declared war after that

Goya's Third of May

depicts the day after Napoleon announces that his brother Joseph will be the new Spanish king, shows the French executing an innocent Spanish guerrilla fighter, shows Spanish are innocent- propaganda

Enlightened absolutism

describes the rule of the 18th century monarchs who adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress and tolerance without renouncing their own absolute ability, most influential was in Prussia, also happen in France after the French revolution

electricity

discovered by Benjamin Franklin in 1759, helped improve the industrial revolution

quinine

discovered in the Amazon forest by the European explorers during the 16th century, by 19th century- found out this can cure malaria

Laissez faire

doctrine of economic liberalism that calls for unrestricted private enterprise and no government interference in the economy

King Cholera

drawing from 1852, shows the unhealthy living conditions of the urban poor, children are playing with a dead rat, cheap rooming houses provide shelter for the overcrowded population, these conditions contaminated water and spread deadly cholera epidemics throughout Europe

Nobles in Poland

drawn to the ideas of John Calvin because of his focus on church elders, also liked it because it began in France instead of Germany, were not able to bring everyone together against Catholicism because of the differences between Calvinism, Lutheranism and other forms of Protestantism

Essay Concerning Human Understanding

written by John Locke (1690), said human beings learn from their ideas, ideas are derived from experience, human development is determined by education and social institutions, one of the most dominant works in the Enlightenment

Anne Robert Jaques Turgot

economics minister of France, 1776- issued a law abolishing all French guilds

Horses

enabled Spanish conquerors and native people to travel faster and farther and transport heavy items

Treaty of Paris (1763)

ended the Seven Years' war in Britain and the colonies, ratified British victory in all colonial fronts

Peace of Utrecht

ended the Spanish War of Successions, allowed Louis's grandson Philip to become the king and said that the French and Spanish crowns would never be united, France surrendered Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay territory to England, England also got Gibraltar, Minorca and control of the African slave trade from Spain, represents balance of power principle, set limits on the extent to which any one power (France) could expand, marked the end of the French expansion

Blood sports

events such bullbaiting (ferocious dogs attacking bulls) and cockfighting (roosters fighting each other) that involved inflicting violence and bloodshed on animals that were popular with eh 18th century masses

The young turks

fervent patriots who seized power in a 1908 coup in the Ottoman Empire, forced the conservative sultan to implement reforms

Sergei Witte

finance minister of Russia from 1892-1903, led economic industrialization and modernization, inspired by the writings of Fredrich List, believed industrial backwardness threatened Russia's greatness, under his leadership- the government doubled the network of state-owned railways to 35000 miles, established high protective tariffs to support Russian industry, put the country on the gold standard to strengthen Russia's finances, greatest innovation was to use Westerners to catch up with the West- encouraged foreigners to build factories in Russia (especially successful in southern Russia), foreign entrepreneurs and engineers built enormous and very modern steel and coal industry, by 1900 peasants still constituted the great majority of the people but Russia was catching up with the more industrialized West

Constitution of 1791

first in French history, created a constitutional monarchy- signed by Louis, broadened women's rights to seek divorce, inherit property, and obtain financial support illegitimate children from fathers, excluded women from political office and voting, this decision was attacked by a small number of men and women who believed that this rights of man should be extended to all French citizens

The British Labor Party

first won seats in the election of 1906, goals were not socialist but they became more militant as the government became more active in mediating disputes

Collectivization

forcible consolidation of individual peasant farms into large state-controlled enterprises in the Soviet Union under Stalin, caused millions to die by 1938 because things such as starvation- but government representatives had also moved 93 percent of peasant households onto collective farms (neutralizing them as a political threat) by 1938

Union of Utrecht

formed by seven northern provinces in the north of the Netherlands in 1581, said they were independent form Spain

British Women's Social and Political Union

founded by Emmeline Pankhurst in 1903 and fought for women's right to vote

Emmeline Pankhurst

founded the Women's Social and Political Union in 1903 in order to give women the right to vote

Factory Act of 1833

from 1802 to 1833 that progressively limited the workday of child laborers and set minimum hygiene and safety requirements, installed a system of full-time professional inspectors to enforce the provisions of previous acts, children between the ages of 9 and 13 could work a maximum of eight hours per day (not including two hours that that must be devoted to education), teenagers aged 14 to 18 could work up to 12 hours, children under 9 were banned from employment, Factory Acts constituted a major victory in preventing the exploitation of children especially those without families to protect them at the worksite, restrictions on child labor broke the patters of whole families working together in the factory, after 1833 the number of children employed in industry declined rapidly

Great Purges

from 1936-1938, series of spectacular public show trials in which false evidence (often gathered using torture) was used to convict party administrators and Red Army leaders

Charles Dickens

from England, wrote 15 novels- many dealt with social reform issues

The Grimm Brothers

from Germany, collected fairytales and published them

philosophes

group of intellectuals who said that they were bringing the light of reason to their ignorant fellow humans, French for philosopher

Armenian genocide

heavy fighting between the Ottomans and the Russians enveloped the Armenians- lived on both sides of the border and had an experienced brutal repression by the Ottomans in 1909, in 1915 some Armenians welcomed Russian armies as liberators, the Ottoman government (with German support) ordered a mass deportation of its Armenian citizens from their homeland, early example of modern ethnic cleansing, about 1 million Armenians died from murder, starvation, and disease

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Labor aristocracy

highly skilled workers (factory foremen, construction bosses), made up about 15 percent of the working classes from about 1850 to 1914

Gosplan

huge State Planning Commission, created to set production goals and control deliveries of raw and finished material, difficult task- production often slowed down, Stalinist planning favored heavy industry over the production of consumer goods- led to shortages of basic necessities, despite these problems Soviet industry produced four times as much in 1937 as it did in 1928

The Spanish inquisition

in the 1560s (a few years after Philip II became ruler) Spain wanted to decrease the amount of Calvinists so they raised taxes and then people became upset and attacked Catholic churches, Philip sent 20,000 Spanish troops to shut down the rebellion in the Low Countries, also created the "Council of Blood" (March 3, 1568) and executed 1500 people, showed Calvinists that Spanish rule should end because it did not follow the rules of God

Rudyard Kipling's The White Man's Burden

idea that Europeans could and should civilize more primitive nonwhite peoples and that imperialism would eventually provide nonwhites with modern achievements and higher standards of living

Louis Pastuer's germ theory of disease

idea that disease was caused by the spread of living organisms that could be controlled, Pasteur used a microscope to develop a simple test, by 1870 his work along with others demonstrated the general connection between germs and disease

The Continental System

imposed by Napoleon, a blockade in which no ship coming from Britain or her colonies could dock at a port controlled by the French, intended to halt all trade between Britain and continental Europe-destroying the British economy and its military force, ended up failing, provoked Britain to set up a counter blockade which created hard times in France

Educational System

improved by Napoleon during his time ruling

The Little Entente

in 1921 France signed a mutual defense pact with Poland and associated itself closely with an alliance that joined Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia against Hungary

The Labour Party under Ramsay MacDonald

in 1924 and 1929-1931, governed the country with the support of the smaller Liberal party, over time moved toward socialism democratically so that they would not antagonize the middle class

The Protestant Esthetic

written by Max Weber in 1890, argued that the rise of capitalism was directly linked to Protestantism in northern Europe

public transportation

in the 1870s many Europe cities authorized private companies to operate horse-drawn streetcars (developed in the U.S) to carry riders, in the 1890s European cities adopted the horse-drawn car (also developed in the U.S) that ran on the power of electricity, streetcars were cheaper, faster, more dependable, cleaner and more comfortable than horse-drawn cars, by 1910 electric streetcars in Austria-Hungary, France, Germany and Great Britain were carrying 6.7 billion people, in the 1860 and 1870s horse-drawn streetcars and new boulevards facilitated a middle-class move to better and more spacious housing, after 1890 electric streetcars meant even people of low income could access improved housing, cities expanded became less congested, in the early 20th century city governments build electric streetcar systems that provided transportation to new public and private housing developments for the working classes beyond the city limits- created suburban communities

Secret Police

included in the Napoleonic (Civil) Code, used along with surprise arrests to suppress political dissidents (ancient regime)

Bauhaus

interdisciplinary school of fine and applied arts that brought together many leading modern architects, designers, and theatrical innovators

streetcars

invented by Andrew Hallidie in 1873, cars were drawn by an endless cable running in a slot between the rails and passing over a steam-driven shaft in the powerhouse

Ster-post rudder

invented by Chinese, made the caravel (ship) easy to maneuver

guns and gunpowder

invented by Chinese, new war technology, used by Europeans, gave them advantage

Telegraph

invented by Samuel Morse in 1837, transmitted messaged from a distance using a wire

Machine gun

invented in 1884, used along with hand grenades, poisonous gas, and airplanes, and other technology during WWI, new technology led more casualties, favored defense, and revolutionized practice of war

poisonous gas

invented in 1915 used along with machine guns, tanks, airplanes and hand grenades during WWI, led to more casualties and made war different

tank

invented in September 1916, new technology that came about during WWI, changes the way wars were fought, caused more deaths

John Kay

invented the flying shuttle, enabled the weaver to throw the shuttle back and forth between threads with one hand

sans culottes

laboring poor of Paris, called this because the men wore trousers instead of knee breeches of the aristocracy and middle-class, came to refer to the militant radicals of the city, demanded radical political action to defend the revolution, the Mountain joined with them, June 2, 1793- invaded the Convention and forced its deputies to arrest 29 Girondist deputies for treason, all the power passed to the Mountain

New Imperialism

late nineteenth century drive by European countries to create vast political empires abroad

Robert Wapole

lead the cabinet in the English government from 1721-1742, cabinet was responsible for House of Commons, came to be called the "prime" (king's first) minister

Oliver Cromwell

leader of the New Model (parliament) Army in the English Civil War, member of House of Commons, his forces captures the king (Charles I) and dismissed all members of parliament who were against him,

Christian Social Party in Germany

led by Karl Lueger, won striking electoral victories in Vienna in the early 1890s

The Mountain

led by Robespierre, group of Jacobins, French National Convention's radical faction- seized legislative power in 1793, had a majority and convicted Louis XVI of treason, executed Louis by guillotine on January 21, 1793

Georges Danton

led the Mountain with Robespierre and Marat

Vladimir Lenin

led to Communist (Bolshevik) Revolution in 1917, led communists to victory in the Civil War, ruled until his death in 1924, influenced by Hobson

Ten Hours Act of 1847

limited the labor of women and children in all industrial establishments to 10 hours per day, criticized by John Bright because he believed in laissez-faire

Index of Forbidden Books

list of books that people were not allowed to read, made up by the Pope

Corregidores

local officials who held administrative and judicial power

Jaques Cartier

looking for the Northwest Passage, sailed down the St. Lawrence river and discovered Quebec

Netherlands

made up of provinces that were self-governing, collected their own taxes and made their own laws, united because they were all ruled by the emperor, people made money by trade and industry, protestant ideas became popular because people realized the Church was corrupt, in 1560s the majority of the protestant population in the Netherlands were Calvinists, from 1568 to 1578 there was civil war in the Netherlands (Catholics vs. Protestant) and then the south came under control of the Hapsburgs (Spain), in 1581 seven northern provinces formed their own union called the Union of Utrecht

The Catalan Revolts in Spain

many Spanish territories protested foot shortages, government paid for bread, which attracted starving peasants, Madrid ordered an end to this, so they government lightened the loaf instead of raising prices, women led bread riots, rebels wanted to get rid of large taxes and participation in municipal government

Karl Lueger

mayor of Vienna from 1897-1910, combined fierce anti-Semitic rhetoric with municipal ownership of basic services, appealed especially to the German-speaking lower middle class (and an unsuccessful artist named Adolph Hitler)

employment

most people worked in textiles, used handloom weaving, all members of the family helped work, operating the loom was the man's job, women and children did auxiliary tasks such as preparing threads and putting them on the loom, the work or five spinners was needed to keep one weaver steadily employed, weaver's family usually could not produce enough thread- so merchants hired the wives and daughters of agricultural workers

illegitimacy explosion

mostly in England, France, Germany, and Scandinavia, sharp increase in out-of-wedlock births that occurred in Europe between 1750 and 1850, caused by low wages and the breakdown of community controls

Fascism

movement characterized by extreme, often expansionist nationalism, antisocialism, a dynamic and violent leader, and glorification of war and the military, included Hitler and Mussolini in the 1930s

Louis Napoleon

nephew of Napoleon, changed his name to Napoleon III, in power from 1852- 1870, in the 1850s- policies led to economic growth, gov. promoted new investment banks and massive railroad construction (industrial revolution),also participated in public works programs, the urban workers supported him until the mid-1860s- he granted workers the right to form unions and he right to strike, restricted but did not abolish the Assembly- members were elected by universal male suffrage every 6 years, tried to convince notable people (even people who opposed the regime) to stand as government candidates to expand the base of support, the government would use its officials and mayors to spread the word that the election of the government's candidates and the defeat of opposition would provide roads, tax rebates and other local benefits, this system worked in 1857 and 1863 and produced overwhelming electoral votes for government-backed candidates,

junkers

nobility and landowning classes who dominated the estates of Brandenburg and Prussia

"Civilizing Mission"

notion that colonialism/ imperialism was a duty for Europeans and a benefit for the colonized

Bloody Sunday

on a Sunday in January 1905, massacre of peaceful protesters at the Winter Palace triggering a revolution that overturned absolute tsarist rule and made Russia into a conservative constitutional monarchy,

The Guild System

organization of artisanal production into trade based associations (guilds), each received a monopoly over its trade and the right to train apprentices

Pieter Bruegel the Elder

painted pictures of middle class such as The Peasant Wedding

Jean-Francois Millet

painted scenes of rural life (especially peasants laboring in fields), most famous work is "The Gleaners"- shows peasant women gathering grain in a field

El Greco

painter originally from Greece, but lived in Spain, greatest Spanish painter, mannerism

three crop field rotation

peasants staggered rotation of crops, now some wheat, legumes and pastureland were always available, three year system, important because cash crops could be grown in two years out of three instead of one year out of two

Public health projects

people began to accept their overcrowded unsanitary conditions in the middle of the nineteenth century, Edwin Chadwick (commissioner) emerged as a powerful voice for reform, Chadwick used the ideas of Jeremy Bentham and soon became convinced that disease and death actually caused poverty, Chadwick believed the government could help prevent disease by cleaning up the urban environment, he collected detailed reports from the local Poor Law official and published what he found in 1842- this proved that disease was related to filthy environmental conditions which were caused by lack of drainage, sewers, and garbage collection, public health movement won supporters in the United States, France and Germany form the 1840s on, governments accepted some responsibility for the health of citizens, by the 1860s and 1870s Europeans were making real progress toward adequate water supplies and sewer systems

Puritans

people dissatisfied with the Church of England, believed Protestant reformation should have gone farther, wanted to "purify" the Anglican church of Roman Catholic elements (elaborate ceremonies, bishops, giving/wearing of wedding rings)

Auschwitz and other death camps

people in the east who survived the ghettos were taken to death camps, Auschwitz was best known- over 1 million (mostly Jews) were murdered in gas chambers, few were put to work as expendable laborers, German Jews and Jews from western and central parts of Europe that were occupied were also rounded up, put on trains, and sent to the camps, even when it was clear Germany was going to lose the war- killing continued

Creoles

people of French or European descent born in the colonies

Physiocrats

people who believed in natural economic laws, governed society with the idea that land is the source of wealth, liked supply and demand, did not like mercantilism

Public housing

people who had low income were provided with housing

theaters and opera houses

people would gather and watch shows for entertainment

stocks

piece of wood, criminals would put their head and hands through holes and they would be trapped

taverns

places where men would drink and talk with buddies

Five Year Plan

plan launched by Stalin in 1928, called "the revolution from above", aimed at modernizing the Soviet Union and creating new attitudes, new loyalties, and a new socialist humanity

Russification

policy imposing Russian customs and traditions on other people

Pius IX

pontificate 1846-1878) cautiously supported the unification of Italy, gave way to hostility after her was temporarily driven out of Rome during the upheavals of 1848, for a while the papacy opposed national unification and most modern trends, 1864- the Syllabus of Errors- pope denounced rationalism, socialism, separation of church and state, and religious liberty

Restricted use of the village commons

poor peasants used to use the land to graze livestock and used marsh land or forests as a source of foraged goods, could make he difference between survival and famine, enclosures did not allow them to do this anymore, small landowners an village poor became allies with the noble landowners, nobles didn't like enclosures because they required large investments in purchasing and fencing land

Sweated Industry

poorly paid handicraft production, often carried out by married women paid by the piece and working at home

Rococo

popular style in the eighteenth century known for soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry-eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids

A Doll's House

written by a Scandinavian writer Henrik Ibsen, protagonist had a husband who refuses to tolerate independence of character or thought on her part and then she finally leaves him

Parliamentary sovereignty

power shared between Parliament and the king, kings James I and Charles didn't want this because they believed in divine right of kings, Parliament made up of House of Lords (inherited) and House of Commons (elected), Parliament and monarch went to war (English Civil War) and Parliament led by Thomas Cromwell defeated the monarch and later got dual sovereignty through the English Bill of Rights

potosi

present day Bolivia) 1545 the Spanish discovered silver here, part of the Inca empire, within half a century it's population grew to 160,000

Saint-Domingue

present day Haiti, before 1789- most profitable of all European colonies, gained even more social tensions than France- groups mistrusted each other, area where the slave revolt took place

Liberalism

principal ideas- liberty and equality, demanded a representative government and equality before the law, wanted individual freedoms- freedom of speech, press, assembly, worship and freedom from arbitrary arrest

Mass production

production of large amounts of standardized products products often using an assembly line

The Duma

promised by Nicholas II in the October Manifesto, Russian parliament, opened in 1906, elected indirectly by universal male suffrage, after 1907- controlled by the tsar and conservative classes

The New Deal

proposed by FDR- won presidency in 1932, goal was to reform capitalism in order to preserve it, Roosevelt reject socialism and government ownership of industry, advocated forceful government intervention in the economy, instituted a broad range of government-supported social designed to stimulate to economy and provide jobs, took USA off gold standard and devalued the dollar, wanted to save farmers- Agricultural Adjustment Act (1933)- aimed at raising prices (farm income) by limiting agricultural production, National Recovery Administration- intended to reduce competition among industries by setting minimum prices and wages, declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1835, set up organizations such as the WPA in 1935- created to undertake a vast range of projects- constructing public building, bridges and highways- enormously popular, National Relations Act 1935- declared collective bargaining to be a policy of the US- union membership more than doubles, New Deal only partly successful- height of recovery- 7 million workers still unemployed, never pulled U.S out of Great Depression

methodism

protestant revival movement led by John Wesley, called this because they were methodical in their devotion

Alexander II

r. 1855-1881), liberal, brought rapid social change and modernization, abolished serfdom in 1861- about 22 million emancipated peasants received citizenship rights and the chance to purchase land, most of his later reforms were half-way measures, in 1884- government established a new institution of local government called zemstvo, members of this assembly were elected by a three-class system of townspeople, peasant villagers, and noble landowner, liberals hoped this would lea to an elected national parliament but it didn't, changes to the legal system established independent courts and equality before the law, government relaxed but still did not remove censorship, somewhat liberalized policies toward Russian Jews, transportation and industry (vital to the military) were transformed, 1860- government encouraged and subsidized private railway companies, enabled Russia to export grain and earn money to finance further development, industrial development and the growing proletariat class helped spread Marxist thought and spurred the transformation of the Russian revolutionary movement after 1890, Russia began seizing territories- far eastern Siberia (border with China), central Asia (north of Afghanistan), Islamic islands of the Caucasus, rapid expansion excited Russian nationalists, suppressed nationalist movements among Poles, Ukrainians, and Baltic peoples on the western borders of the empire, assassinated in 1881 by a member of the People's Will (anarchist group)

Victor Emmanuel III

r. 1900-1946, did not like the liberal regime, asked Mussolini to take over the government and form a new cabinet, Mussolini then seized power using the legal framework of the Italian constitution

King Leopold II Belgium

r.1865-1909) wanted to help develop commercial ventures and establish a colony called the Congo Free State in the basin of the Congo River

railroads

rails reduced friction and allowed a human or a horse to pull a much heavier load so once a rail capable of supporting a heavy locomotive was developed in 1816 all sorts of experiments with steam engines on rails went forward, fist steam locomotive was built by Richard Trevithick and was followed by George Stephenson's Rocket, railroads dramatically reduced the cost and uncertainty of shipping freight over land, also had economic consequences- before markets were small and local, now markets became larger due to the lower transportation costs, larger markets encouraged larger factories with more sophisticated machinery in a growing number of industries, these factories could make goods more cheaply and gradually subjected most cottage workers and many urban artisans to severe competitive pressure, railroads also created a strong demand for unskilled labor and contributed to a growth of a class of urban workers

Thermidorian reaction

reaction to the violence of the Reign of Terror in1794, resulted in the execution of Robespierre and the loosening of economic controls

Minnie Ball

rifle bullet, developed by Claude Minié, came into use during the American Civil War and Crimean War

St. Helena

rocky island off the western coast of Africa, place where Napoleon was imprisoned after he was defeated at Waterloo on June 18th, 1815

Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus

ruled from 1594-1632, arrived in Germany during the Swedish phase (1630-1635) of the Thirty Years' War, best administrator of the time, devout Lutheran, intervened to support the empire's protestant, won two important battles and died in combat

Philip IV

ruled from 1621-1655, king of Spain during revolts, had to crush many revolts, chief advisor Count- Duke of Olivares managed his several kingdoms

Peter the Great of Russia

ruled from 1682 to 1725 (tsar), wanted to build the army and continue Russian territorial expansion, wanted to gain support against Ottomans, led a group of 250 officials and nobles on an 18 month tour of western European capitals, met foreign kings, toured sites, learned shipbuilding and other technical skills from local artisans and experts, impressed by Dutch and English economy, created secret alliance with Denmark and Poland against Sweden to secure access to the Baltic Sea and opportunities for western expansion, wanted to increase state power, strengthen his army and defeat Sweden, schools and universities requires 5 years of education away from home, established a military-civilian bureaucracy with fourteen ranks and everyone had to start from the bottom, allowed non-nobles to rise to high positions, increased service requirement for commoners, established a standing army of over 200,000 peasants soldiers commanded by noble officers, to fund the army taxes on peasants increased, able to defeat Sweden in using a new war machine, conflict with Sweden ended in 1721, Estonia and Latvia (present-day) came under Russian control, wanted to build a new western style capital called St. Petersburg, Westerners and western ideas spread to Russia, required nobles to shave their beards, wear western clothing (previously banned), and attend parties where men and women would mix together and choose their own spouses, a new elite class of western oriented Russians began to form, nobles did not like the imposition of unigeniture (inheritance of land by one son alone), divide between peasantry and nobility grew larger , paved the way for Russia to move closer to mainstream Europe

Joseph II of Austria

ruled from 1780-1790, Enlightened monarch, drew on English ideals and earned the title of "Revolutionary emperor", abolished serfdom in 1781, in 1789 said that peasants could pay landlords in cash instead of through labor, the nobles didn't like this and neither did the peasants because they did not have cash, combined absolutism (old fashioned) with culture and critical thinking of the Enlightenment, allowed freedom of press, granted religious freedom to non-Catholics, created a legal system based on equality, abolished torture and capital punishment, created first public parks, did not take part in any wars

Mandate system

written in the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916, plan to allow Britain and France to administer former Ottoman territories, put into place after the end of WWI

Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness

said Europeans were selfish and disgusting because they civilized Africa, accused Europeans of a double standard and failure to live up to their own noble ideals

Quadrant and astrolabe

series of concentric circles that align with the stars, useful to captains, learn to use this in navigation schools, invented by Chinese

Neo-Europeans

settled colonies with established populations of Europeans- North America, Australia, New Zealand Latin American, etc., Europe found outlets for population growth, most profitable investment opportunities in the nineteenth century

Concordat of 1801

signed by Napoleon and Pope Pius VII, pope obtained the rights for French Catholics to practice their religion freely, but Napoleon gained political power-his government now nominated bishops, paid the clergy, and exerted great influence over the clergy

English Bill of Rights

signed by William III (William of Orange) and Mary, gave Parliament dual sovereignty

The People's Will

small anarchists group, a member assassinated Alexander II because he introduced political reforms that outraged reactionaries but never went far enough for liberals and radicals, the era of reform now came to an abrupt end

Philip II

son of Charles V, wanted his marriage to bring England and the Catholic church back together, in 1588 ordered the Spanish Armada to fight the English navy and lost

Theodore Herzl

started Zionism, said there should be a place where all Jews could be together (no Israel yet), since the Jews were all spread out they were an easy target

The Dutch East Company

started in 1602 by the Dutch, goal was to capture spice trade from the Europeans

Irish Potato Famine

starting in 1820 deficiencies and diseases occurred in the potato crop occurred with disturbing frequency, in 1845, 1846, 1848, and 1851- the potato crop failed in Ireland, peasants experienced widespread starvation and sickness

Christine de Pisa

stood up for women in the late 1400s because they were thought of as "devious, domineering, and demanding", also wanted to figure out why women were not equal to men, Ex. All the most successful people (philosophers, poets, etc.) were all men

Baldassare Castiglione

wrote The Courtier (1528) which described a perfect gentleman as being very versatile (sing, write poetry, make speeches) also described a perfect women as smart, artistic and beautiful- made an impact on society

gulags

system of prison camps that stretched from Moscow to Siberia, held millions of prisoners under lethal conditions, prisoners aided the economy by doing every kind of work from digging canals to building apartment buildings, about 1 million died annually as a result of the conditions- insufficient food, inadequate housing, 12 to 16 hour days of physical labor, regular beating and murders

Industrial Revolution

term coined in 1799, describes the burst of major inventions and economic expansions that began in Britain in the late eighteenth century

putting out system

the 18th century system of rural industry in which a merchant loaned raw materials to cottage workers who processed them and returned the finished products to the merchants, grew because it had competitive advantages- unemployed labor was abundant, poor peasants and landless workers would work for low wages

War Communism

the application of centralized state control during the Russian civil war, Bolsheviks seized grain from peasants, introduced rationing, nationalized all banks and industry, and required everyone to work

carnival

the few days of revelry in Catholic countries the preceded Lent, included drinking, masquerading, dancing, and rowdy spectacles that upset established order

Enclosure movement

the movement to fence in fields in order to farm more effectively, at the expense of poor peasants who relied on common fields for farming and pasture

The Rocket

the name given to George Stephenson's effective locomotive that was first tested in 1829 on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway at 24 miles per hour

The Great Famine

the result of four years of potato crop failure in the late 1840s in Ireland, a country that had grown dependent on potatoes as a dietary staple, shattered the pattern of Irish population growth

Einstein's theory of relativity

theory that time and space are relative to the observer and only the speed of light remains constant, stated that matter and energy are interchangeable- even a particle of matter contains enormous levels of potential energy, proved that Newton's laws of motion and mechanics were quite limited

Charles Fourier

thought of a socialist utopia of mathematically precise, self-sufficient communities called "phalanxes," each made up of 1620 people, early proponent of the total emancipation of women, he believed that young single women were shamelessly "sold" to their future husbands for dowries and other financial considerations, called for the abolition of marriage and sexual freedom and free unions based only on love

Compass

tool used by captains of ships, has a magnet that is attracted, told them what direction they were going in and where they were, learned to use them in navigation school

Reinsurance treaty

treaty that Bismarck made with Russia in 1887- Germany would not have to fight on two fronts, Bismarck was fired by Wilhelm II and removed the treaty, now Russia allied with France

Henry VII

tried not to take part in expensive wars, focused more on diplomacy, met with the Parliament regularly when he first started ruling, chose small landowners and people from cities who were knowledgeable in law instead of nobles to serve on the royal council, created peace within and outside England , father of Henry VIII, beginning of Tudor dynasty

February/March revolution

unplanned uprisings accompanied by violent street demonstrations begun in March 1917 (February on Russian calendar) in Petrograd (Russia), led to the abdication of the tsar and the establishment of a provisional government- equality before the law, freedom of religion, speech, and assembly, right of unions to organize strike

Young prostitutes

used a second income or to get through a period of unemployment, services lower-class men, soldiers and sailors, offered them some measure of financial independence but the work was also dangerous, among the working class it was thought of as more or less acceptable, by the 1860s prostitution began to develop great concern among social reformers

Empiricism

used by Brahe and Galileo, formalized by Bacon, general theory of inductive reasoning, calls for acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation rather than deductive reasoning and speculation

Machine gun

used in trench warfare, gave British an advantage over opponents, Maxim gun was first automatic machine gun (1884)

barbed wire

used in trench warfare, sometimes would hold attackers in place and make them easy targets

cotton linens for home decor

used to decorate homes

Pan-slavists

wanted to promote the independence of Slav people, supported by Russia, began around the time of the Congress of Prague, ideas led to the Russo-Turkish War of 1877

charles X

wanted to restore the absolute monarchy, tried to repay nobles for lands lost during the revolution, liberals in the legislature opposed him, issue July Ordinances

canals

way of transportation by water of goods and people, connects two larger bodies of water, one of the reasons that the Industrial Revolution began in England

Natural Philosophy

what people called science, focused on fundamental questions about the nature of universe, its purpose and how it functioned, until scientific revolution- based in ideas of Aristotle,

the agricultural revolution

when Europeans advanced in farming, different types including: crop rotation and enclosure

Jamestown

where Virginia was founded by investors in 1607, English undermined cooperation with the Powhatan Confederacy, disease/ war against English caused Powhatans to decrease in population, good for growing tobacco

coffeehouses

where people would hang out- in France these were salons during the Enlightenment

Consumer revolution

wide-ranging growth in consumption and new attitudes toward consumer goods that emerged in the cities of northwestern Europe in the second half of the 18th century

wet nursing

widespread and flourishing business in the 18th century in which women were paid to breast-feed other women's babies

Proletarianization

workers entering into a wage economy, gradual loss of ownership of the tools and equipment used for production and the control over their own trade

The Great Depression

worldwide economic depression from 1929-1939, unique in its severity and duration, slow and uneven recovery- disappeared in most countries when WWII began, caused mass unemployment, farms failed, governments instituted a variety of social welfare programs intended to manage the crisis, democratic government weakened- authoritarian Fascist parties gained power across Europe

bankers and merchants

would become wealthy by investing- funding explores' journeys, this was the beginning of the stock market

The Condition of the Working Class in England

written by Fredrich Engels in 1844, said the new poverty of industrial workers was worse than the old poverty of cottage workers and agricultural laborers, the reason for this was capitalism and its relentless competition and technological change