AP Euro Midterm Review

New Christians

A fourteenth-century term for Jews and Muslims who accepted Christianity;in many cases they included Christians whose families had converted centuries earlier.

Virtu

The quality of being able to shape the world according to one's own will.

Debt peonage

a form of serfdom that allowed a planter of rancher to keep his workers ir slaves in perpetual debt bondage by periodically advancing food, shelter, and a little money.

Philosophes

a group of French intellectuals who proclaimed they were bringing the light of knowledge to their fellow creatures in the Age of Enlightenment.

Girondists

led by Robespierre, the French National Convention's radical faction which seized legislative power in 1793.

Mountain

led by Robespierre, the French National Convention's radical faction which seized legislative power in 1793.

Courts

Magnificent households and palaces where signori and other rulers lived, conducted business, and supported the arts.

Catherine the Great of Russia

Catherine the Great of Russia (r. 1762-1796) was one of the most remarkable rulers of her age, and the French philosophes adored her. Catherine came to the throne after her husband Peter III was murdered by army officers who were unhappy about Peter's decision to withdraw Russian troops from the Seven Years' War. She set out to rule in an enlightened manner, Catherine worked hard to continue Peter the Great's effort to bring the culture of western Europe to Russia, importing Western architects, sculptors, musicians, and intellectuals. As an intellectual ruler, Catherine wrote plays and loved good talk, corresponded with Voltaire and Diderot, and set the tone for the entire Russian nobility. In the way of domestic reform, Catherine restricted the practice of torture, allowed limited religious toleration, and tried to improve education and strengthen local government. She appointed a special legislative commission to prepare a new law code, this project was never completed. After 1775 Catherine gave the nobles absolute control of their serfs, extending serfdom into new areas and formalizing the nobility's privileged position. She wanted territorial expansion.

The Declaration of Pillnitz

It was issued by Austria and Prussia. It declared a willingness on behalf of both countries to intervene in France if necessary. It was really just an effort to try to calm things down without really having to follow through. Prior to the declaration Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette tried to flee France but were caught at the border. They were spotted at the border and brought back and people didn't trust them as they tried to flee leaving France in chaos.

Absolutism

It is sovereignty is embodied in the person/ruler. Rulers claimed to rule by divine rule meaning they were appointed by God to serve the state and people. Unlike medieval times, they ruled by the grace of God. The monarch has all the power, they feel they have a sense of authority as God has chosen him and wanted to take power away from nobility. He was concerned about people having different religions. An Absolute ruler maintained standing armies, tried to control competing groups in their lands(religious sects). Created new state bureaucracies that worked to benefit himself, officials were only responsible to the king, state paid their salaries and collected taxes for the king. Absolute monarchs lacked the financial, military, and technological resources to exercise total control over society which meant it did not equal totalitarian state. France is credited with being the best model of absolute monarchy with Henry IV and Louis XIV.

Enlightenment

It took place in Great Britain(i think) and France(sure about this), developed the most in France. the influential intellectual and cultural movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries that introduced a new worldview based on the use of reason, the scientific method and progress. The most important and original idea was that the methods of natural science could and should be used to examine and understand all aspects of life. This was what intellectuals meant by reason. Nothing was to be accepted on faith; everything was to be submitted to rationalism, a secular critical way of thinking. A second concept was that the scientific method was capable of discovering the laws of human society as well as those of nature. Thus was social science was born. Its birth led to the third key idea that of progress. Armed with the proper method of discovering the laws of human existence, Enlightenment thinkers believed it was at least possible for human beings to create better societies and better people.

Cardinal Mazarin

Mazarin was the Cardinal to Louis the 14th. He continued Richileu policies. Mazarin's struggle to increase royal revenues to meet the costs of war led to the uprisings of 1648-1653 known as the Fronde.

Puritans

Members of a sixteenth and seventeenth-century reform movement within the church of England that advocated purifying it of Roman Catholic elements such as bishops, elaborate ceremonials and wedding rings.

Inca empire

The vast and sophisticated Peruvian empire centered at the capital city of Cuzco that was at its peak from 1438 until 1532.

Secularism

There was a concern for the material world and not worrying about religious purposes. There was a focus on the acquisition of material goods. In addition, the program of study designed by Italians that emphasized the critical study of Latin and Greek literature with the goal of understanding human nature. here was a focus or yearning for wealth and leisure and the arts. The church didn't really confront this movement and probably because they were as much a part of it as everybody else.

Raison d'etat

This means reason of state, what is done for the state is done for God. This statement is from Cardinal Richelieu of France. He established to strengthen the royal control. His goals were to promote total subordination of all groups to the Crown. He worked to break power of nobility( reshuffled the royal council, leveled castles and killed conspirators. He established the administrative system with the use of intendants. 32 generalities equals 1 intendant. The intendant is responsible for justice, police, finance, tax collection, army recruitment and economic regulation. Intendent is only responsible to the king. He is appointed to serve in a town other than their own, intendants helped to serve 2 purposes: enforced royal orders and weakened powers of nobility. Richelieu destroyed fortified Huguenot cities, but allowed them to practice their religion. He supported enemies of Habsburgs to help reduce their power and influence outside of France. He added lands from parts of German empire. He wrote Political Testament, a government needs money to enforce and build programs( money from taxes). God absolves of any crime if done for good of state.

Pilgrimage of Grace

This was a massive rebellion that proved the largest in English history. This rebellion occurred because of the political, social, religious and personal reasons for the Reformation in England. Henry VIII wanted an annulment from his wife Catherine because she did not produce a male heir. The pope refused to grant the annulment. Therefore Henry responded by forming three acts, The first act Act in Restraint of Appeals which states that the king was the supreme sovereign in England. The crown was the highest legal authority. The second Act for Submission of the Clergy said that the churchmen had to submit to king. All ecclesiastical laws needed royal permission. The Act of Supremacy said the king was now declared the head of the Church of England. The reaction to the new laws was that dissenters were punished. Henry got married again and 3 more times. Henry took control of monasteries and got rid of monks and nuns and not controlled the lands and the wealth. He kept most of the Catholic practices such as confession, celibacy and belief in transubstantiation remained. The religious changes caused by Henry caused people to be dissatisfied with the existing Christian church and Protestant literature was popular. Traditional Catholicism exerted a strong hold over the loyalty of the people. Most clergy and officials accepted Henry's moves, but all did not quietly acquiesce. In 1536 popular opposition in the north to the religious changes led to the Pilgrimage of Grace. There can be little doubt that some pilgrims were also angered at the thought of the Pope's position being eroded by the introduction of new reforms. Basic religious beliefs had been held since childhood and any attempt to change them must have seemed very threatening.The pilgrims accepted a truce, but their leaders were arrested, tried and executed. People rarely converted from Catholicism to Protestantism overnight.

English Bill of Rights

This was the protection of citizens as well as the members of the Parliament. The Bill of Rights states Laws were made by Parliament and there was no suspension of laws. Parliament had to be called at least once every three years. There were triennial meetings of Parliament and judges keep job without threat from crown. No standing army. Protestants could have weapons and Catholics could not. Monarch had to be Protestant and leader had to be Protestant. Additional legislation granted freedom of worship to Protestant dissenters but not to CAtholics.

Tycho Brahe

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) became passionately interested in astronomy as a young boy, and after studying abroad, he gained the support of the king of Denmark to build the most sophisticated observatory of his day. For twenty years Brahe meticulously observed the stars and planets with the naked eye, compiling much more complete and accurate data than ever before, but he died in 1601 before he could make much sense out of his mass of data. Brahe's young assistant, Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), examined Brahe's observations and from them developed new and revolutionary laws of planetary motion.

Enlightened despots

When the government of the 18th century followed Enlightenment thinking and ruled that way.They tended to allow religious toleration, freedom of speech and the press, and the right to hold private property. Most fostered the arts, sciences, and education. They ruled by divine right, given from God. AAn enlightened despot was a monarch during the 18th century who brought about political, religious, and social reforms that were considered of an enlightened nature. Their reforms benefited both the people and the monarchy.In the end, enlightened despotism can be seen as the final stage of absolute monarchy, but also started a new conception of government power as rule by and under public law. Interested in philosophical ideas, daily involvement in complex affairs of state made them naturally attracted to ideas from improving soceity without giving up their real power.

Constitutionalism

a form of government in which power is limited by law and balanced between the authority and power of the government on the one hand,and the rights and liberties of the subjects or citizens on the other hand; could include constitutional monarchies or republics. Constitutionalism is the limitation of government by law. A nation's constitution can be written or unwritten. Constitutional government can take form of monarchy or republican form. Leader acknowledges that they will follow rules. Constitutional govt is not the same as a democratic because not all people have the power to participate in govt and or the right to vote.

Republicanism

a form of government in which there is no monarch and power rests in the hands of the people as exercised through elected representatives.

Law of inertia

a law formulated by Galileo that states that motion not rest is the natural state of an object, that an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force.

Estates General

a legislative body in prerevolutionary France made up of representatives of each of the 3 classes or estates; it was called into session in 1789 for the first time since 1614.

Mannerism

style in Italian in which artists sometimes distorted figures, exaggerated musculature and heightened color to express emotion/drama.

enlightened absolutism

term coined by historian to describe the rule of 18th century monarchs who without renouncing their own absolute authority adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress and tolerance.

Putting out system

the 18th century system of rural industry in which a merchant loaned raw materials to cottage workers who processed them and returned the finished products to the merchant.

Haskalah

the Jewish Enlightenment of the second half of the 18th century led by the Prussian philosopher Moses Mendelssohn.

Experimental method

the approach pioneered by Galileo that the proper way to explore the workings of the universe was through repeatable experiments rather than speculation.

Nuclear Family

A family consisting of just parents and children. This was the norm.

Pierre Bayle

A French Huguenot, examined the religious beliefs and persecutions of the past in his Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697), and he concluded that nothing can ever be known beyond all doubt, a view known as skepticism.

Caravel

A small, maneuverable, three mast sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the 15th century that gave the Portuguese a distinct advantage in exploration and trade.

Voltaire Francois Marie Arouet

He wrote various works praising England and popularizing English scientific progress. He wrote that Newton was the history's greatest man for he had used his genius for the benefit of humanity. Voltaire mixed the glorification of science and reason with an appeal for better individuals and institutions. He pessimistically concluded that the best one could hope for in the way of government was a good monarch since human beings are very rarely worthy to govern themselves. He praised Louix XIV in a biography and conducted an enthusiastic correspondence with Pruissain King Frederick the Great, whom he admired as an enlightened monarch. Organized religion was false, believed God was like a clockmaker who built an orderly system and then stepped aside and let it run. He hated all forms of religious intolerance, which he believed often led to fanaticism and savage. Simple piety and human kindness as embodied in Christs's great commandments to love God and your neighbor as yourself were religion enough. He challenged the Catholic Church and christian teachings.

Committee of Public Safety

It was formed by the National Convention in April 1793 to deal with threats from within and outside France. The leader was Robespierre.

Johannes Kepler

Kepler demonstrated that the orbits of the planets around the sun are elliptical rather than circular and that the planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits. Whereas Copernicus had speculated, Kepler proved mathematically the precise relations of a sun-centered (solar) system, uniting for the first time the theoretical cosmology of natural philosophy with mathematics. Kepler pioneered the field of optics: he was the first to explain the role of refraction within the eye in creating vision, and he invented an improved telescope. In contrast to his scientific achievements, Kepler also cast horoscopes as part of his duties as court mathematician; his own diary was based on astrological principles, an irony that exemplifies the complex interweaving of ideas and beliefs in the emerging science of his day.

Methodists

Members of a Protestant revival movement started by John Wesley, so called because they were so methodical in their devotion.

Individualism

The main idea was to impact the world. It stressed uniqueness, great personality and individual achievement. There was a thirst for fame and burning desire for success. There was a quest for glory. Virtu is the person's ability to shape world around them, have an impact(important ideals).

Edict of Restitution

This was issued during the second phase of the Thirty Years War called the Danish phase because of the leadership of the Protestant king Christian IV of Denmark. The king of Denmark witnessed additional Catholic victories. The Catholic imperial army led by Albert of Wallenstein swept through Silesia, north to the Baltic and east into Pomerania, scoring smashing victories. Habsburg power peaked in 1629. The emperor issued the Edict of Restitution whereby all Catholic properties lost to Protestants since 1552 were restored and only Catholics and Lutherans were allowed to practice their faiths.

Utopia

Utopia describes a community on an island somewhere beyond Europe where all children receive a good education, primarily in the Greco-Roman classics and adults divide their days between manual labor or business pursuits and intellectual activities. The problems that plagued More's fellow citizens such as poverty and hunger have been solved by a beneficent government. There is religious tolerance and order an reason prevail. Utopian institutions are perfect, however dissent and disagreement are not acceptable.

Cottage industry

a stage of industrial development in which rural workers used hand tools in their homes to manufacture goods on a large scale for sale in a market. Cottage industry which consisted of manufacturing with hand tools in peasant and work sheds, grew markedly in the 18th century and became a crucial feature of the European economy. Peasant communities had always made clothing, processed food and constructed housing for their own use. Medieval peasants did not produce many goods on a large scale for scale in a market. During the 18th century the measures of rural poverty led many poor villagers to seek additional work and far reaching changed for daily rural life were set in motion. This industry was organized through the putting out system. The 2 main participants the merchant capitalist and rural worker were involved.

Mercantilism

a system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state based on the belief that a nation's international power was based on its wealth, specifically its supply of gold and silver. Colbert rigorously applied mercantilist policies to France. Sell more than you buy. Only buy what you need from other countries. Industries were subsidized to promote production of goods and supplies. State inspections and regulations were set up. Manufacturing, textile and commercial groups were great and prospered.

Empiricism

a theory of inductive reasoning that calls for acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation rather than reason and speculation.

Wet nursing

common in France, women breast fed other womens babies. French women sent their babies to wet nurses due to a combination of cultural, socioeconomic and biological factors, wet nursing was a centuries old tradition in France so families were following that pattern. Migration to the cities, high prices and stagnant wages pushed more women into the workforce often into jobs outside the home where it was impossible to nurse their own babies. A few alternatives to breast milk existed. Population was rising due to wet nursing as babies got their nutrients from milk.

Angela Merici

founded the Ursuline order of Nuns. It was the first women's religious order which concentrated on teaching young girls and women in order to be better future wives and mothers. It provided great education for girls. Angela was the daughter of a country gentlemen, she worked for many years among the poor, sick and uneducated around her native Brescia in northern Italy. In 1535 she established the first women's religious order concentrating exclusively on teaching young girls with the goal of re-Christianizing society by training future wives and mothers. After receiving papal approval in 1565, the Ursulines rapidly spread out to France and the New World. The establishment of new religious orders within the church reveals a central feature of the Catholic Reformation. Most of these new orders developed in response to one crying need: to raise the moral and intellectual level of the clergy and people.

Agricultural revolution

new methods of the agricultural revolution originated in the Low Countries. the period in Europe from the mid 17th century through the mid 19th centuries during which great agricultural progress was made and the fallow or idling of a field to replenish nutrients was gradually eliminated. As grain crops exhaust the soil and make fallowing necessary, the secret to eliminating the fallow lies in alternative grain with nitrogen-storing crops. The most important of these land reviving crops are peas, beans, root crops such as turnips, potatoes and grasses. The number of crops that were systematically rotated grew in the 18th century. New patterns of organization allowed some farmers to develop increasingly sophisticated patterns of crop rotations to suit different kinds of soils. More animals meant more meat and better diets and more manure for fertilizer and therefore more grain for bread and porridge. Enclosure, a revolution in village life and organization was the movement to fence in fields

Anticlericalism

opposition to the clergy

Baroque

ornate style of art, music,literature and architecture that emerged in the 17th century. It emphasized power, complex emotion and energy in the art pieces. There was a lot of color involved in the paintings.This style had its origins in the desire of the Catholic Counter-Reformation thinkers to appeal to the common people with an emotional and awe-inspiring style. The baroque in architecture peaked in Italy after 1600 and then moved to Spain, Latin America, Poland and other places. Peter Paul Rubens was the epitome of the Baroque in painting. Johann Sebastian Bach epitomized the baroque style in music. This was after the Renaissance in Italy.

Rene Descartes

saw that there was a perfect correspondence between geometry and algebra and that geometrical spatial figures could be expressed as algebraic equations and vice versa. Descartes's discovery of analytic geometry provided scientists with an important new tool. All occurrences in nature could be analyzed as matter in motion and, according to Descartes, the total "quantity of motion" in the universe was constant. Descartes's greatest achievement was to develop his initial vision into a whole philosophy of knowledge and science; his reasoning ultimately reduced all substances to "matter" and "mind," a view of the world known as Cartesian dualism.

Pluralism

the clerical practice of holding more than one church benefice (or office) at the same time and enjoying the income from each. The religious leaders rarely attended office needs, instead they appointed a poor priest to do work at local church. Antoine dePrat-held office as archbishop, but first time in church was his own funeral. Many leaders held multiple positions, government and church; they had special privileges. Church leaders used wealth to promote their own families.

Janissary corps

the core of the sultan's army, composed of slave conscripts from non-Muslim parts of the empire; after 1683 it became a volunteer force.

Columbian exchange

the exchange of animals, plants, and diseases between the Old and the New Worlds.

Stadholder

the executive officer in each of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, a position often held by the princes of Orange.

Boyars

the highest ranking members of the Russian nobility.

Junkers

the nobility of Brandenburg and Prussia, they were reluctant allies of Frederick William in his consolidation of the Prussian state.

Reading Revolution

the transition in Europe from a society where literacy consisted of patriarchal and communal reading of religious texts to a society where literacy was commonplace and reading material was broad and diverse. A series of institutions and practices encouraged the spread of Enlightenment ideas in the late 17th and the 18th centuries. First the European production and consumption of books grew significantly. In germany the number of new titles appearing annually rose from 600 in 1700 to 26 hundred in 1780. The types of books people read changed dramatically. The proportion of religious and devotional books published in Paris declined after 1750;history and law held constant;the arts and sciences surged. Reading more books on many more subjects the educated public of France and throughout Europe increasingly approached reading in a new way. The old style of reading in Europe had been centered on a core of sacred texts that taught earthly duty and obedience to God. Father used to read aloud, during the reading revolution reading became individual and silent.

Treaty of Paris

the treaty that ended the Seven Years War in Europe and the colonies in 1763 and ratified British victory on all colonial fronts.

Consumer Revolution

the wide ranging growth in consumption and new attitudes toward consumer goods that emerged in the cities of northwestern Europe in the second half of the 18th century.

Afro-Eurasian trade world

type of world economy that linked the products and people of Europe, Asia and Africa in the 15th century. Europe voyages desired to share in and control the wealth coming from the Indian Ocean. The Indian Ocean was the center of the Afro Eurasian trade world;its location made it a crossroads for commercial and cultural exchange between China, India, Middle East, Africa and Europe. Volume of trade increased gradually as more individuals participated. India was the center of trade,it was the crucial link between the Persian Gulf and the Southeast Asian and East Asian trade networks. Calicut and Quilon became thriving commercial centers. India was an important contributor of goods, the world's pepper was grown there and the Indian cotton textiles were highly prized. Africa had a few developed empires such as Cairo was a hub for Indian Ocean trade goods.

Indulgence

A document issued by the Catholic Church lessening penance or time in purgatory, widely believed to bring forgiveness of all sins.The three basic principles are that God is merciful and just, The Treasury of merits (through Christ/saints) and Church can give spiritual benefits from the Treasury of Merits. According to Catholic theology, individuals who sin could be reconciled to God by confessing their sins to a priest and by doing an assigned penance. Both earthly penance and time in purgatory ( a place where souls on their way to Heaven went to make further amends for their earthly sins) could be shortened by drawing on what was termed "the treasury of merits". This was a collection of all the virtuous acts that Christ, the apostles and the saints had done during their lives.

Humanism

A program of study designed by Italians that emphasized the critical study of Latin and Greek literature with the goal of understanding human nature. Focused on the revival of manuscripts, statues, and monuments. There was a profound interest in the Latin classics and studied the classics to reveal more about human nature. It rejected ideas opposed to Christianity.

Ptolemy's Geography

A second- century-C.E. work that synthesized the classical knowledge of geography and introduced the concepts of longitude and latitude. Reintroduced to Europeans in 1410 by Arab scholars, its ideas allowed cartographers to create more accurate maps. It provided significant improvements over medieval cartography showing the world as round and latitude and longitude were used to plot position accurately. It did contain some errors such as it was unaware of the Americas, it showed the world smaller and Asia appeared not very distant from Europe.

Peace of Utrecht

A series of treaties from 1713 to 1715 that ended the War of the Spanish Succession ended French expansion in Europe and marked the rise of the British Empire. It set limits on expansion. It marked the end to French expansion and France was on the verge of bankruptcy. Allowed Louis grandson Philip to remain king of Spain on the basis of understanding that French and Spanish crowns would never unite. France surrendered Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Hudson Bay territory to England. This treaty represented balance of power principle in operation, setting limits on power an expanding its lands.

Time of Troubles

After the death of Ivan and his successor, Russia entered a chaotic period known as the Time of Troubles. Close relatives plotted against each other for power. There was a struggle for who would obtain power. Cossacks fought to restore the true tsar and release of burdensome taxes. Ordinary people suffered drought, crop failure and plague leading to much suffering and death. Cossacks/peasants rebelled against nobles and officials demanding further treatment. Michael Romanov was elected as hereditary tsar. Michael's election was represented as a restoration of tsarist autocracy. He was elected by nobles and grandnephew of Ivan. Eased burdens on nobility and strengthened burdens on peasants. The lives of the common people did not improve. In 1649 a law extended serfdom to all peasants in the realm, giving lords restricted rights over the serfs and establishing penalties for runaways. Social and religious uprisings among the poor and oppressed continued through the 17th century.

Mexica Empire

Also known as the Aztec Empire, a large and complex Native American civilization in modern Mexico and Central America that possessed advanced mathematical, astronomical, and engineering technology.

Natural Philosophy

An early modern term for the study of the nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned; it encompassed what we would call science today

Pietism

Began in Germany, a Protestant revival movement in early 18th century Germany and Scandinavia that emphasised a warm and emotional religion, the priesthood of all believers, and the power of Christian rebirth in everyday affairs. Its 3 aspects helped explain its powerful appeal. It called for a warm, emotional religion that everyone would experience. Enthusiasm in prayer, in worship, in preaching, and in life itself was the key concept.It reasserted the earlier radical stress on the priesthood of all beleivers, thereby reducing the gulf between official clergy and Lutheran laity.

Chapbooks

Brochures that were printed out on cheap paper. They were often religious in theme but could also be a DIY pamphlet, fantasy story, or even comedy.

The Institutes of the Christian Religion

Calvin's formulation of Christian doctrine, which became a systematic theology for Protestantism. It discussed The absolute sovereignty of God and God had infinite power. Total weakness of humanity and predestination- god had determined who would achieve salvation. People were optimistic that they were chosen for salvation through their prayers, faith and beliefs.He imposed high moral standards for people who were going to live under John Calvin people can't go against his standards and rules.

Christopher Columbus

Columbus wanted the Italian (Venetian) to have complete control of Eastern trade. Columbus was very knowledgeable about the sea: He had worked as a mapmaker, was familiar with portolans and the use of the compass as a nautical instrument, and had gained experience from years at sea. Columbus was also a deeply religious man who understood Christianity as a missionary religion that should be carried to places where it did not exist. Columbus's object was to find a direct ocean trading route to Asia. When he landed in the Bahamas, which he christened San Salvador, on October 12, 1492, Columbus believed he had found some small islands off the east coast of Japan. Believing he was in the Indies, he called the native peoples "Indians," a name that was later applied to all inhabitants of the Americas, and he concluded that they would make good slaves and could quickly be converted to Christianity.From San Salvador, Columbus sailed southwest and landed on Cuba on October 28; convinced that he was on the Chinese mainland near the coastal city of Quinsay (now Hangzhou), he sent a small party inland to locate the great city. Disappointed at not finding Quinsay, but confident a source of gold would soon be found, he headed back to Spain to report on his discovery, where news of his voyage spread rapidly across Europe.

Declaration of the rights of Man and of the citizen

Created by the NAtional Assembly. Men are Born and remain free and equal in rights. The declaration also maintained that mankind's natural rights are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression and that every man is presumed innocent until he is proven guilty. As for law it is an expression of the general will; all citizens have the right to concur personally or through their representatives in its formation.

Debate about Women

Debate among writers and thinkers in the Renaissance about women's qualities and proper role in society.

Cartesian dualism

Descartes's view that all of reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter.

Popolo

Disenfranchised common people in Italian cities who resented their exclusion from power.

Desiderius Erasmus

Dutch humanist, his fame rested largely on his exceptional knowledge of Greek and the Bible. Erasmus's long list of publications included the Education of a Christian Prince. He wanted that everyone regardless of their class should read the Gospel and they should be translated into all languages so they could be read and understood by everyone. Two fundamental themes run through all of Erasmus's work. First education is the means to reform, the key to moral and intellectual improvement. The core of education ought to be study of the Bible and the classics. Second the essence of Erasmus's thought is in his own phrase , " the philosophy of Christ". He meant that Christianity is an inner attitude of the heart or spirit. Christianity is not formalism, special ceremonies or law. Christianity is Christ-his life and what he said and did, not what theologians have written.

Thomas More

English humanist began life as a lawyer, studied the classics and entered government service. This left him time to write and he became most famous for his controversial dialogue Utopia, a word More invented from the Greek words for nowhere.

Newton

English scientist Isaac Newton (1642-1727) united the experimental and theoretical-mathematical sides of modern science to explain the forces behind the movement of the planets and objects on Earth. Newton arrived at some of his most basic ideas about physics between 1664 and 1666, including his law of universal gravitation and the concepts of centripetal force and acceleration. In Philosophicae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Newton, using a set of mathematical laws that explain motion and mechanics, laid down his three laws of motion; these laws of dynamics are so complex that it took scientists and engineers two hundred years to work out all their implications. The key feature of the Newtonian synthesis was the law of universal gravitation: everybody in the universe attracts every other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship based on the objects' matter and the distance between them.

Glorious Revolution

English throne offered to Mary and her husband William. William and Mary were Protestant. They accepted and moved to take over without any bloodshed at all. James II fled to France when he heard what had happened. Before William and MAry, James II had violated the Test Act, he had appointed Roman Catholics to positions in army, the universities and local government. When these actions were challenged in the courts the judges whom James had appointed decided in favor of king. The king was suspending the law at will and appeared to reviving the absolutism of his father and grandfather. attempting to broaden his base of support with Protestant dissenters and nonconformists, Hames granted religious freedom to all. Seeking to prevent the return of Catholic absolutism a group of people from the Parliament gave the throne to William and Mary. The Glorious Revolution represented the destruction of the idea of divine-right monarchy and the recognition of supremacy of Parliament. The revolution established the principle that sovereignty the ultimate power in the state was divided between king and Parliament and that the king ruled with the consent of the governed.

Patronage

Financial support of writers and artists by cities, groups, and individuals often to produce specific works or works in specific styles.

Foundlings or legalized infanticide and Infanticide

Foundling homes of orphanages first took hold in Italy, Spain and Portugal in the 17th century spreading to France in 1670. in 18th century England the government acted on a petition called for a foundling hospital to prevent the frequent murders of poor, miserable infants at birth and to suppress the inhuman custom of exposing newborn children to perish in the streets. As new homes were established and old ones expanded, the number of foundlings being cared for surged. Across Europe foundlings homes emerged as a favorite charity of the rich and powerful. They were a good example of Christian charity and social concern in an age of great poverty and inequality. Great numbers of babies entered foundling homes but few left. Even in the best of these hoes 50% of babies died within a year. 90% could not survive. So great were the losses that some contemporaries called the foundling hospitals Legalized Infanticide. It was hard for the nurses to take care of all the babies. and thus they died.

Great Elector

Frederick William of Prussia is known as the Great Elector. He wanted to unify his provinces and territories such as Brandenburg, Prussia and scattered lands. He wanted to add territories and lands as well. He established a standing army, the size increased tremendously by 10%. he dealth with the nobility and landowning classes called Junkers and finally issued taxes and had his way. He tripled reveue, increased in taxes. He was successful, due to the threat of war he was able to increase his power and get funds. He let nobles keep privileges. in 1660 he persuaded Junkers in the estates to accept taxation without consent in order to fund an army. Junkers agreed as an exchange for reconfirmation of their own privileges including authority over the serfs. With the support of Junkers king crushed potential opposition to his power from the towns.

Cossacks

Free groups and outlaw armies originally comprising runaway peasants living on the borders of Russian territory from the 14th century onward. By the end of the 16th century they had formed an alliance with the Russian state.

Napoleonic code

French civil code promulgated in 1804 that reasserted the 1789 principles of the equality of all male citizens before the law and the absolute security of wealth and private property as well as restricting rights accorded to women by previous revolutionary laws. Napoleon and the leading bankers of Paris established the privately owned Bank of France in 1800 which loyally served the interests of both the state and the financial oligarchy. Peasants were appeased when Napoleon defend the gains in land and status they had claimed during the Revolution. Order and unity had a price which was authorization rule. Women who had often participated in revolutionary politics without having legal equality , lost many of their gains they made in the 1790s. Under the New Napoleonic Code women were dependents of either their fathers or husbands and they could not make contracts or have bank accounts in their own names. Napoleon and his advisors aimed at reestablishing a family monarchy where the power of the husband and father was absolute over the wife and children as that of Napoleon over his subjects. Free speech and freedom of the press were violated and only 4 newspapers were left of about government propaganda.

Galileo

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) also challenged the old ideas about motion, using mathematics in examining motion and mechanics in a new way and formulating new laws such as the law of inertia. Galileo's great achievement was the elaboration and consolidation of the experimental method, which he applied to astronomy as well as to motion. After making his own telescope, Galileo quickly discovered the first four moons of Jupiter, which provided new evidence to support the Copernican theory. Galileo was a devout Catholic who sincerely believed that his theories did not detract from the perfection of God, but he silenced his beliefs until the publication in 1632 of his Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World, which defended the views of Copernicus. He was tried for heresy, imprisoned and threatened with torture, the aging Galileo recanted, "renouncing and cursing" his Copernican errors.

Signori

Government by one man rule in Italian cities such as Milan.

Ivan IV, the famous Ivan the Terrible

He ascended to the throne at age three and was orphaned at his mother's death when he was eight, leaving Ivan to suffer insults and neglect from the boyars, or nobles, at court. At age sixteen he pushed aside his hated advisers, and in an awe-inspiring ceremony Ivan majestically crowned himself tsar. Ivan successfully defeated the remnants of Mongol power, added vast new territories to the realm, and laid the foundations for the huge, multiethnic Russian empire. Ivan began a campaign of persecution against those he suspected of opposing him and created a new service nobility, whose loyalty Ivan guaranteed by portioning out to them the large estates seized from boyars. As landlords demanded more from the serfs, growing numbers of peasants fled toward the east and south and joined free groups and warrior bands known as Cossacks. In response, Ivan tied peasants even more firmly to the land, and he bound urban traders and artisans to their towns and jobs and imposed heavier taxes. After the death of Ivan and his successor, Russia entered a chaotic period known as the "Time of Troubles" (1598-1613), which was characterized by power struggles among Ivan's relatives and by the suffering and death of many ordinary people from drought, crop failure, and plague.

Cardinal Richelieu

He became first minister of the French crown and helped maintain the monarchy's power within Europe and within its own borders despite the turmoil of the Thirty Years' War. Cardinal Richelieu's political genius is best reflected in the administrative system he established and in his extension of the use of intendants, who were empowered to recruit men for the army, supervise the collection of taxes, preside over the administration of local law, check up on the local nobility, and regulate economic activities in their districts. The intendants were solely responsible to the monarch; thus, as their power increased under Richelieu, so did the power of the centralized French state. Although the French monarchy under Richelieu acted to repress Protestantism, its main foreign policy goal was to destroy the Catholic Habsburgs' grip on territories that surrounded France, which meant supporting Protestant enemies of the Habsburgs.

John Calvin

He believed that God had specifically chosen him to reform the church so in Geneva he established a Christian society. He believed in Predestination and that God was all knowing and all powerful. Men and women cannot actively work to achieve salvation; rather God had already decided at the beginning if time who would be saved and who damned. He also believed in the weakness of humanity.. He assisted in the reformation of the city of Geneva. He worked to establish a Christian society ruled by God through civil magistrates and reformed ministers. He wrote the Institutes of the Christian Religion, his belief was in the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and the total weakness of humanity.Before the infinite power of God, he asserted men and women are as insignificant as grains of sand. Calvin understood the importance of institutions and established the Genevan Consistory, a body of laymen and pastors to keep watch over every man's life and to admonish amiably those whom they see leading a disorderly life and provide medicine to turn sinners to the Lord. There were severe consequences for breaking law and doing activities that were not allowed like playing cards and absence from sermons. There were even more severe punishments for heresy, adultery, witchcraft and going against religious teachings. He wanted everyone to live a proper Christian life. He made the Geneva Catechism which was summary of the faith, guide for living and memorization of important questions and answers.

Oliver Cromwell

He captured the former king and then took power. In fact, the army that had defeated the king controlled the government, and Oliver Cromwell, who controlled the army, ruled England through the Protectorate (1653-1658), an arrangement that constituted military dictatorship. After repeated disputes, Cromwell dismissed Parliament in 1655, continued the standing army, and proclaimed quasi-martial law. Cromwell had long associated Catholicism in Ireland with sedition and heresy and led an army there to reconquer the country in August 1649. Cromwell adopted mercantilist policies and enforced a Navigation Act (1651) requiring that English goods be transported on English ships, which was a great boost to the development of an English merchant marine. The Protectorate collapsed when Cromwell died in 1658.He built an army called New Model Army. The new constitution called Instrument of Government gave executive power to the Lord Protector and had triennal parliaments and the palimants had sole power to tax. The Instrument of Gov gave all Christians exept Roman Catholics the right to practice their faith, Due to failure of this instrument he put england under quasi-marital law. Press was censored, theatrs closed, had mercentalist econmic policies and favored toleration though not widely accepted.

Michel de Montaigne

He developed a new literary genre, the essay, to express his thoughts and ideas, which were grounded in skepticism and cultural relativism.Reflecting on the impact of overseas discoveries, Montaigne, in his essay "On Cannibals," rejected the notion that one culture is superior to another. Few in Montaigne's time would have agreed with his challenge to ideas of European superiority, but the publication of his ideas contributed to a basic shift in attitudes, inaugurating an era of doubt.

Ignatius Loyola

He founded the Society of Jesus or Jesuits, members of the Society of Jesus whose goal was the spread of the Roman Catholic faith in 1540. They wanted help as many souls as possible. It was successful in spreading the faith around the world.

John Locke

He is a political philosopher who wrote Second Treatise of Civil Government, which had the concepts of representative government. He believed that a government that oversteps its proper function-protecting the natural rights of liberty, life and property-becomes a tyranny. By natural rights he meant rights basic to all men because all have the ability to reason. His idea that there are natural or universal rights equally valid for all peoples and societies was especially popular in colonial America. Under a tyrannical government the people have the natural right to rebellion. On the basis of this link, he justified limiting the vote to property owners. American colonists also appreciated his argument that Native Americans had no property rights since they did not cultivate the land and by extension no political rights because they possessed no property. He recognized private property with political free. He wrote another piece called Essay Concerning Human Understanding which was viewed as the first major text of the Enlightenment. In this work Locke brilliantly set forth a new theory about human beings learn and form their ideas. Locke insisted that all ideas are derived from experience. the human mind at birth is like a blank tablet on which the environment writes the individual's understanding and beliefs. Human development is therefore determined by education and social institutions for good or evil.

Adam Smith

He is the best known critics of government regulation of trade or industry. He was a professor of philosophy and a leading figure of the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith developed the general idea of freedom of enterprise and established the basis for modern economics in his groundbreaking work, Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. He criticized guilds or corporations for their stifling and outmoded restrictions, a critique he extended to all state approved monopolies and privileged companies. Far preferable was free competition, which would best protect consumers from price gouging and give all citizens a fair and equal right to do what they are best at. Smith argued that government should limit itself to only three duties: it should provide a defense against foreign invasion, maintain civil order with courts and police protection and sponsor certain indispensable public works and institutions that could never adequately profit private investors.He believed that the pursuit of self-interest in a competitive market would be sufficient to improve the living conditions of citizens, a view that quickly emerged as the classic argument for economic liberalism.

John wesley

He organized a holy club for similarly minded students who were known as Methodists because they were so methodical in their devotion. He was very concerned about the government;s use of church for jobs. The government used the church of England to provide favorites with high paying jobs. Both church and state officials failed to respond to the spiritual needs of the people, abandoning the construction of new churches while the population grew and in many parishes there was a shortage of pews. Services and sermons had settled into an uninspiring routine. John believed that anyone could have a conversion and feel Christ's warmth.

Vasco de Gama

He rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1497 with a fleet of four ships. With the help of an Indian guide, da Gama reached the port of Calicut in India and then returned to Lisbon loaded with spices and samples of Indian cloth. He had failed to forge any trading alliances with local powers, and Portuguese arrogance ensured the future hostility of Muslim merchants who dominated the trading system.

Francesco Petrarch

He spent long hours searching for classical Latin manuscripts in libraries and wandered around the ruins of the Roman empire. He became obsessed with the classical past and felt that the writers and artists of ancient Rome had reached a level of perfection in their work that had never since been duplicated. He felt that writers of his day should follow these ancient models and should ignore the thousand-year period between his own time and that of Rome which he called Dark Ages. He believed that the recovery of classical texts would bring about a new golden age of intellectual achievement, an idea that many others came to share. Founded Liberal Studies.

Robespierre

He was a lawyer and used the Sans Coulettes to gain power. He was the leader of the Committee of Public Safety. He was later beheaded.

Book of Common Prayer

In the short reign of Henry's sickly son, Edward VI, Protestant ideas exerted a significant influence on the religious life of the country. Archbishop Thomas Cranmer simplified the liturgy, invited Protestant theologians to England, and prepared the first Book of Common Prayer, which was later approved by Parliament. In stately and dignified English, the Book of Common Prayer included the order for all services and prayers of the Church of England.

Thomas Hobbes

He was a philosopher that held a pessimistic view of human nature and believed that, left to themselves, humans would compete violently for power and wealth. His solution, outlined in his 1651 treatise Leviathan, was a social contract in which all members of society placed themselves under the absolute rule of a monarch, who would maintain peace and order. His solution, outlined in his 1651 treatise Leviathan, was a social contract in which all members of society placed themselves under the absolute rule of a monarch, who would maintain peace and order. Deeply shocked by Charles's execution, Hobbes utterly denied the right of subjects to rebellion and longed for a benevolent absolute monarch.

Prince Henry the Navigator

He was a portuguese prince that supported the study of geography and navigation and for the annual expeditions. He sponsored down the western coast of Africa. His support for exploration was vindicated by thriving sugar plantations on the Atlantic islands, the first arrival of enslaved Africans in Portugal and new access to African gold.

Martin Luther

He was from Germany. His understanding of Christian doctrine is described as "faith alone, grace alone and Scripture alone". He believed that salvation and justification come through faith. Faith is a free gift of God's grace not the result of human effort. God's word is revealed only in Scripture not in the traditions of the church. He was against the church selling indulgences and issued the 95 Theses on the Power of Indulgences , which stated the problems of the church, purpose of document was to start debate at indulgences. He explained that indulgences undermined the seriousness of the sacrament of penance, competed with the preaching of the Gospel and downplayed the importance of charity in Christian life. He appeared at the Diet of Worms held by Charles V . Luther refused to give in to demands to take back his ideas. Due to his statement, an even broader audience for reform emerged throughout central Europe other individuals began to preach and publish against the existing doctrines and practices of the church calling for change. He believed that Christ is really present in the consecrated bread and wine, but this is because of God's mystery not the actions of a priest.

Baldassare Castiglione

He wrote a book on education which had a great influence called The Courtier (1528). This treatise sought to train, discipline and fashion the young man into the courtly ideal, the gentlemen. the educated man should have a broad background in many academic subjects and his spiritual and physical as well as intellectual capabilities should be trained. He included discussion of the perfect court lady, who like the courtier

Magellan

In 1519 Charles V of Spain commissioned the Portuguese mariner Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521) to find a direct sea route to the spices of the Moluccas off the southeast coast of Asia. Magellan sailed across the Atlantic, along the coast of Brazil, through the treacherous straits that now bear his name, into a new ocean he dubbed the Pacific, and then west toward the Malay Archipelago. Terrible storms, disease, starvation, and violence haunted the expedition, which had begun with five ships and about 270 men; a single ship with only eighteen men aboard returned to Spain from the east around the Cape of Good Hope, having taken nearly three years to circumnavigate the globe. This voyage revolutionized Europeans' understanding of the world by demonstrating that the earth was clearly much larger than Columbus had believed.

Maria Theresa

In 1774 the Habsburg ruler Maria Theresa issued her own compulsory education edict, imposing five hours of school, five days a week, for all children aged six to twelve.

Edmund Burke

In 1790, in reaction to the events of the French Revolution, British statesman (1729-1797) published Reflections on the Revolution in France,which defended inherited privileges of monarchy and aristocracy. work sparked much debate, including a passionate rebuttal from a young writer in London, Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), in a blistering and widely read attack: A Vindication of the Rights of Man (1790).

Conquest of Smallpox

It was the greatest medical triumph. 60 million died due to smallpox in the 18th century and 80% of population had it at some point. English aristocrat helped pave the way to bring smallpox inoculation to England. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu gave people a small dose of illness to prevent future break out, she learned it from the Muslims. The inoculation was risky 1 in 50 died. Edward Jenner in 1796 used cowpox to prevent smallpox when he realized that dairy maids who had cowpox did not get smallpox. His findings were in 1798. For 18 years, Jenner practiced a kind of Baconian science carefully collecting data. In 1796 he performed his first vaccination on a young boy using matter taken from a milkmaid with cowpox. The new method of treatment spread rapidly and smallpox declined to the point of disappearance in Europe and then throughout the world.

Test Act

Legislation, passed by the English parliament in 1673 to secure the position of the Anglican church by stripping Puritans, Catholics, and other dissenters of the right to vote, preach, assemble, hold public office and attend or teach at the universities.

Louis XIV

Louis XIV assumed personal rule of the largest and most populous country in western Europe in 1661 at the age of twenty-three, at a time when the twin evils of noble rebellion and popular riots had left the French wishing for peace and for a strong monarch to reimpose order. He was an absolutist ruler, Louis was taught the doctrine of the divine right of kings, which meant that he was answerable to God alone but had to obey God's laws and rule for the good of the people. Louis worked very hard at the business of governing, ruling his realm through several councils of state, whose members were selected from the upper middle class, and taking a personal role in many of the councils' decisions. Despite increasing financial problems, Louis never called a meeting of the Estates General, leaving the nobility without a means of united expression or action. The result was the departure of some of his most loyal and industrially skilled subjects. Despite his claims to absolute authority, Louis was obliged to rule in a way that seemed consistent with virtue and benevolent authority and to uphold the laws issued by his royal predecessors. In 1682 Louis moved his court and government to the newly renovated palace at Versailles, which quickly became the center of political, social, and cultural life. The king required all great nobles to spend at least part of the year in attendance on him at Versailles, where he could keep an eye on their activities. Daily life at the glorious palace, with its sumptuous interiors and extensive formal gardens, was in reality often less than glamorous: Versailles served as government offices for royal bureaucrats, as living quarters for the royal family and nobles, and as a place of work for hundreds of domestic servants, and it could be crowded, noisy, and smelly. Louis established elaborate etiquette rituals to mark every moment of his day, from waking up to retiring at night, and he required nobles to serve him in these rituals. Although seemingly absurd, these rituals controlled a system of patronage through which Louis gained cooperation from powerful nobles.

War of Spanish Succession

Louis XIV goal was to expand France to what he considered its natural borders. His armies manages to extend its borders in the Spanish Netherlands and Flanders as well. Louis's last war was endured by the French people suffered with high taxes, crop failure and widespread malnutrition and death. In 1700 the childless Spanish king Charles II died opening a struggle for control of Spain and its colonies. His will bequeathed the Spanish crown and its empire to Philip of Anjou, Louis's grandson, The will violated a prior treaty by which the European powers had agreed to divide the Spanish possessions between the king of France and the Holy Roman emperor, both brother in law of Charles II. Claiming that he was following both Spanish and French interests, Louis broke with the treaty and accepted the will, thereby triggering the War of the Spanish Succession. The war broke out because the Grand Alliance didn't want France to be too powerful, this would break the balance of power.

Jean- Baptiste Colbert

Louis's controller general, proved himself a financial genius and rigorously applied mercantilist policies in pursuing his central belief that the wealth and the economy of France should serve the state. To decrease the purchase of goods outside France, Colbert insisted that French industry should produce everything needed by the French people. To increase exports, Colbert supported old industries and created new ones, enacted new production regulations, created guilds to boost quality standards, and encouraged foreign craftsmen to immigrate to France; he also abolished many domestic tariffs and raised tariffs on foreign products. Colbert sent four thousand colonists to Quebec in hopes of making Canada part of a vast French empire.

Jesuits

Members of the Society of Jesus founded by Ignatius Loyola whose goal was the spread of the Roman Catholic faith. The first Jesuits recruited primarily from wealthy merchant and professional families, saw the Reformation as a pastoral problem and its causes and cures related not to doctrinal issues but to people' spiritual condition. The Society of Jesus developed into a highly centralized, tightly knit organization. In addition to the traditional vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, professed members vowed special obedience to the pope. Flexibility and the willingness to respond to the needs of time and circumstance formed the Jesuit tradition, which proved attractive to many young men. They carried Christianity to India and Japan before 1550 and to Brazil, North America and the Congo in the 17th century.

Battle at Trafalgar

Napoleon's Mediterranean fleet was destroyed by Lord Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar on October 21, 1805, making an invasion of England impossible.

Law of universal gravitation

Newton's law that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the object's quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Peace of Augsburg

Peace of Augsburg had no mention of calvinists, increasing number of bishops-lutheran and catholics became uneasy. The power of emperor was greatly reduced, only as of title. There was abdication and division of Spanish and Hapsburg Empires. Philip-Spain and Ferdinand-Habsburg The emergence of 2 groups, Catholic Union and Protestant League, both wanted to increase their numbers and sought to prevent the other from gaining ground. Initially it began as a religious war but as time went on it was both political and religious in nature.

Council of Trent

Pope Paul III also called a general council which met at Trent.This was a meeting that met between years (1545-1563). The purpose was to reform the church and wanted people who had left the Catholic Church. Wanted to reconcile with the Protestants. The achievements were spiritual renewal such as Validity was given to scripture and tradition as sources of religious authority.The 7 Sacraments were reaffirmed including transubstantiation. It issued Tridentine Decrees- bishops had to live in diocese or districts. Forbid the sale of indulgences and suppressed pluralism. Ordered regular visitation of offices and ordered a seminary in every diocese and new training programs for priests, wanted the leader to be trained or educated. There was a selection of priests according to vocations or callings, emphasized the importance of preaching. Ended secret marriages, marriage was a sacrament, for a marriage to be valid had to be witnessed by priest and others and consent should be given. Reform wasn't immediate and took time. The ideas of Luther and Calvin were rejected.

Salons

Regular social gatherings held by talented and rich Parisian women in their homes where philosophes and their followers met to discuss literature, science and philosophy. Salons were basically conversations and discussions held in private homes where the group formed their own public opinion. The meetings were held in elegant rooms of the house"salon". The discussions encouraged witty conversation hosted by women. Hostesses also taught other young women how to host and be proper. Often diverse groups of people attended, classes intermingled. Madame Geoffrin had a famous salon and gave aid to philosophes for Enclypoedia. Would not allow attacks on religion/Christianity in her home, talked about government and experiences to improve life style.

Protestant Reformation

Religious radicals were often pacifists and refused to hold office or swear oaths, and both Protestant and Catholic authorities felt threatened by the social, political, and economic implications of their religious ideas, and by their rejection of a state church. Crop failures in 1523 and 1524 aggravated the poor economic condition of many German peasants who, aggrieved by nobles' burdensome rents, made demands they believed conformed to the Scriptures, citing Luther and other radical thinkers. Although Luther initially sided with the peasants, his aim of freedom from Roman church authority did not include opposition to legally established secular powers. Convinced that rebellion would hasten the end of civilized society, Luther wrote the tract Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of the Peasants. More than seventy-five thousand peasants were killed as the nobility ferociously crushed the revolt of the German Peasants' War of 1525 and strengthened their own authority. The Protestant Reformation clearly had a positive impact on marriage, but its impact on women was more mixed. To halt the spread of religious division, Charles V called an Imperial Diet in 1530, where the Protestant princes presented the Lutheran statement of faith, later called the Augsburg Confession, to the emperor. When Charles refused to accept it and ordered all Protestants to return to the Catholic Church, the Protestant territories in the empire formed a military alliance. At first the emperor could not respond militarily because he was in the midst of a series of wars with the French: the Habsburg-Valois wars (1521-1559). When fighting did begin in 1546, Charles was initially successful, which alarmed both France and the pope, who did not want Charles to become more powerful. Finally, in 1555 Charles agreed to the Peace of Augsburg, which permitted the political authority in each territory to decide whether the territory would be Catholic or Lutheran.

Conquistador

Spanish for "conqueror"; Spanish soldier- explorers, such as Hernando Cortes and Francisco Pizarro, who sought to conquer the New World for the Spanish crown.

Ulrich Zwingli

Swiss humanist, great admirer if Erasmus. He announced that he would preach not from the church's prescribed readings but relying on Erasmus's New Testament "from A to Z" that is from Matthew to Revelation. Zwingli was convinced that Christian life rested on the Scriptures, which were the pure words of God and the sole basis of religious truth. He was against vows against celibacy was against human nature and marriage brought spiritual advantages. Zwingli understood the Eucharist as a memorial in which Christ was present in spirit among the faithful, but not in the bread and wine.

Communes

Sworn associations of free men in Italian cities led by merchant guilds that sought political and economic independence from local nobles.

Treaty of Tordesillas

The 1494 agreement giving Spain everything to the west of an imaginary line drawn the Atlantic and giving Portugal everything to the east. The goal was to settle conflicts and disputes between Spain And Portugal regarding new Atlantic discoveries.

Protectorate

The English military dictatorship established Oliver Cromwell following the execution of Charles I.

Francis Bacon

The English politician and writer(1561-1626) was the greatest early propagandist for the new experimental method. Bacon argued that new knowledge had to be pursued through empirical research and set about formalizing the empirical method into the general theory of inductive reasoning known as empiricism.

Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges

The Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, issued by King Charles VII of France, on July 7, 1438, required a General Church Council, with authority superior to that of the papacy, to be held every ten years, required election rather than appointment to ecclesiastical offices, prohibited the pope from bestowing, and profiting from, benefices, and limited appeals to Rome. The king accepted many of the decrees of the Council of Basel without endorsing its efforts to coerce Pope Eugene IV. The popes, especially Pius II lobbied for the repeal of the Pragmatic Sanction; and the French crown used promises of repeal as an inducement to the papacy to embrace policies favoring its interests. The Pragmatic Sanction eventually was superseded by agreements made between the French crown and Rome, especially the 1516 Concordat of Bologna.

Union of Utrecht

The alliance of seven northern provinces (led by Holland) that declared its independence from Spain and formed the United Provinces of the Netherlands. Between 1568 and 1578 civil war raged in the Netherlands between Catholics and Protestants and between the seventeen provinces and Spain. Eventually the ten southern provinces, the Spanish Netherlands came under the control of the Spanish Habsburg forces. The seven northern provinces led By holland formed the Union of Utrecht and in 1581 declared their independence from Spain. The north was Protestant; the south remained Catholic. Philip did not accept this and war continued. England was even drawn into the conflict, supplying money and troops to the northern United Provinces. Spain launched an unsuccessful invasion of England in response. Hostilities ended in 1609 when Spain agreed to a truce that recognized the independence of the United Provinces.

Agrarian

The economy of Europe was agrarian (based on agriculture). There was just enough production to survive in the good years, but never an abundance. Eighty percent of people made livelihood from agriculture, the percentage was even higher in eastern Europe as conditions there were worse and peasants had an even tougher time there. In the eastern part the peasants were not free from serfdom and they didn't own land. The problems that arose with harvests was too little or too much rain, bad harvests and complete crop failure often every 8-9 years due to climatic conditions. In west part of Europe they could own land and pass it to their children. People could survive by cutting back for only 1 year and couldn't go any longer.The famine foods were chestnuts, grass, bark and dandelions. People were not getting enough nutrients due to the foods they ate and they were more susceptible to illness and couldn't fight them because of malnutrition.

Merchant Capitalist

The merchants viewpoint for giving low wages was that maintaining the lowest possible wages to force the idle poor into productive labor. They also lobbied for and obtained new police powers over workers. Merchants were concerned with controlling the workers as they were scattered across the countryside, cottage workers were difficult to supervise and direct. Merchants depended on their ability to meet orders on time, bitterly resented their lack of control over rural labor. They accused workers especially female spinners of laziness, drunkenness and immorality. If workers failed to produce enough thread, they reasoned it must be the wages were too high and they had little incentive to work.

Niccolo Machiavelli

The most famous civic humanist and political theorist of his time. He wrote The Prince (1513) this showcased examples on how rulers whether it be contemporary or classic, agree that the function of the government is to retain order and security of the nation by any means necessary. Weakness would only lead to disorder which might end civil war or conquest by an outsider. To preserve the state, a ruler should use whatever means he needs brutality, lying, manipulation-but should not do anything that would make the populace turns against him; stealing or cruel actions done for a ruler's own pleasure would lead to resentment and destroy the popular support needed for a strong, stable realm. He also argued that governments should be judged by how well they provided security, order, and safety to their populace, and that a ruler's moral code in maintaining these was not the same as a private individual's.

Holy Office

The official Roman Catholic agency founded in 1542 to combat international doctrine heresy. Pope Paul III established this, with jurisdiction over the Roman Inquisition, a powerful instrument of the Catholic Reformation. The Roman Inquisition was a committee of six cardinals with judicial authority over all Catholics and the power to arrest, imprison and execute suspected heretics. The Holy Office published the Index of Prohibited Books, a catalogue of forbidden readings that included works by Christian humanists such as Erasmus as well as by Protestants. Within the Papal States, the Inquisition effectively destroyed heresy, but outside the papal territories, its influence was slight.

Predestination

The teaching that God has determined the salvation or damnation of individuals based on his will and purpose not on their merit or works. God had specifically chosen him to reform the church so in Geneva he established a Christian society. He believed in Predestination and that God was all knowing and all powerful. Men and women cannot actively work to achieve salvation; rather God had already decided at the beginning if time who would be saved and who damned. He also believed in the weakness of humanity. God had the ultimate power.

Renaissance

a French word meaning "Rebirth", The magnificent art and new ways of thinking in the Renaissance rest on economic and political developments in the city states of northern Italy. Economic growth laid the material basis for the Italian Renaissance and ambitious merchants gained political power. The renaissance was characterized by self-conscious awareness among educated Italians that they were living in a new era. Through reflecting on the classics, Renaissance thinkers developed new notions of human nature, new plans for education and new concepts of political rule.There were 3 hallmarks.Began in Italy.

Economic liberalism

a belief in free trade and competition based on Adam Smith's argument that the invisible hand of free competition would benefit all individuals rich and poor.

Continental System

a blockade imposed by Napoleon to halt all trade between continental Europe and Britain, thereby weakening the British economy and military

Education of a Christian Prince

a book combining idealistic and practical suggestions for the formation of a ruler's character through the careful study of Aristotle, Cicero and Plato.

Pizzaro

a conquistador of modest Spanish origins, ambushed the Incas in 1532 and captured their ruler Atahualpa, collected an enormous ransom in gold, and then executed Atahualpa in 1533 on trumped-up charges. In 1533 the Incan capital of Cuzco fell to the Spanish, who plundered its immense riches in gold and silver; that defeat set off decades of violence and resistance.

Edict of Nantes

a document issued by Henry IV of France in 1598 granting liberty of conscience and of public worship to Calvinists which helped restore peace in France.

Community controls

a pattern of cooperation and common action in a traditional village that sought to uphold the economic, social, and moral stability of the closely knit community. Having full community support was necessary to keep the village or town moving forward. If a couple or person was going to do something that would be detrimental to town, the leaders would do everything to stop it. The concerns of the village and the family weighed heavily on couple's lives after marriage as well. The village leaders took the situation public, for example they harassed the coupe by forcing to ride donkey backwards, had vegetables thrown at them and yelled, taunted and teased them for their mistake. These punishments epitomized the community's effort to police personal behavior and maintain moral standards. The idea of an unwed mother with an illegitimate child, a condition inevitably viewed as a grave threat to the economic, social and moral stability of the community. The idea was to keep the community in order, the lives of others should not affect the community or be harmful in any way.

Jacobin club

a political club in revolutionary France whose members were well-educated radical republicans.

Rococo

a popular style in Europe in the 18th century known for its soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry-eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids.

Jansenism

a sect of Catholicism originating with Cornelius Jansen that emphasized the heavy weight of original sin and accepted the doctrine of predestination; it was outlawed as heresy by the pope.

Rationalism

a secular, critical way of thinking in which nothing was to be accepted on faith and everything was to be submitted to reason.

Navigation Acts-

a series of English laws that controlled the import of goods to Britain and British colonies.

Fronde

a series of violent uprisings during the early reign of Louis XIV triggered by growing royal control and oppressive taxation. Cardinal Mazarin continued Richelieu's policies. His struggle to increase royal revenues to meet the costs of war led to the uprisings, Fronde. This term came to be applied to the many individuals and groups who opposed the policies of the government. In Paris, magistrates of the Parlement of Paris, the nation's most important court were outraged by the Crown's autocratic measures, These so called robe nobles named for the robes they wore in court encouraged violent protest by the common people.Civil wars between the monarchy and frondeurs continued for years. High taxes was the main issue. The violence of the Fronde had significant results for the future. The twin evils of noble rebellion and popular riots left the French wishing for peace and for a strong monarch to reimpose order. The impacts of this event were government had to recognize need for compromise with bureaucrats who controlled local institutions. The economy was disturbed and it would take years to recover and there was huge impact on Louis XIv only way to avoid anarchy is absolute monarchy.

Millet system

a system used by the Ottomans whereby subjects were divided into religious communities with each millet (nation) enjoying autonomous self-government under its religious leaders.

Encomienda system

a system whereby the Spanish crown granted the conquerors the right to forcibly employ groups of Indians; it was a disguised form of slavery. The crown granted the conquerors the right to employ groups of Native Americans as laborers or to demand tribute from them in exchange for providing food and shelter. Theoretically, the Spanish were forbidden to enslave the natives; in actuality the encomiendas were a legalized form of slavery. The new conditions and hardships imposed by conquest and colonization resulted in enormous native population losses. The major cause of death was disease. Having little or no resistance to diseases brought from the Old World, the inhabitants of the New World fell victim to smallpox, typhus, influenza, and other illnesses. Another factor was overwork, unaccustomed to forced labor especially in the heat of tropical cane fields or in dangerous mines.

Public sphere

an idealized intellectual space that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment where the public came together to discuss important issues relating to society, economics and politics.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

believing that women's "nature" destined them for a life of marriage and child rearing, insisted that girls' education focus on their future domestic responsibilities. It called for greater love and tenderness and fondness needed for kids. Mothers should nurse their own babies. Encouraged mothers to take a personal interest in raising children instead of leaving them with wet nurses. Ideas of Rousseaus were enthusiastically adopted by elite women who did not adopt universal nursing but did at least supervise their own wet nurses carefully. The general will is not necessarily the will of the majority, however. At times the general will may be the authentic, long-term needs of the people as correctly interpreted by a farseeing minority.

Montesquieu

brilliantly pioneered this approach in The Persian Letters, a social satire published in 1721 and consisting of amusing letters supposedly written by two Persian travelers, through which Montesquieu offered up a criticism of European customs and beliefs. Taking inspiration from the example of the physical sciences, Montesquieu set out to apply the critical method to the problem of government in The Spirit of Laws (1748). Montesquieu's argument for a separation of powers in government had a great impact on the constitutions of the young United States in 1789 and of France in 1791.

Peter the Great of Russia and St. Petersburg

determined to build and improve the army and to continue the tsarist tradition of territorial expansion. He was greatly interested in military power. He was impressed with the growing power of the Dutch and the English and believed Russia could profit from their example. All nobility had to serve in military or civil administrative. He increased service requirements for commoners. He set up regular standing army and set up special forces foreigners and Cossacks. He required 5 years compulsory education for young men. Table of ranks was 14 levels and basically you worked your way up to a higher position. He looked to west for modern technology and ideas to improve Russia and traveled to the West. He promoted the idea of serving the state by doing for the common good. After the victory in Ukraine at Poltava, Russia became a dominant power in the Baltic and very much a European great power. Peter channeled enormous resources into building a new Western style capital on the Baltic to rival the great cities of Europe. Originally a desolate and swampy Swedish outpost the magnificent city of St. Petersburg was designed to reflect modern urban planning with wide straight avenues, building set in a uniform line and large parks. Peter the Great dictated that all in society realize his vision. Just as the government drafted the peasants for the armies, it drafted 25 thousand to forty thousands men each summer to labor in St Petersburg. Many peasant construction workers died from hunger, sickness and accidents. Nobles were ordered to build costly stone houses and palaces in St Petersburg and to live in them most of the year. Merchants and artisans were also commanded to settle and build in the new capital. These nobles and merchants were then required to pay for the city's infrastructure. The building of St. Petersburg was an enormous direct tax levied on the wealthy with the peasantry forced to do the manual labor.

Copernicus

felt that Ptolemy's cumbersome and occasionally inaccurate rules of astronomy detracted from the majesty of a perfect creator. Copernicus theorized that the stars and planets, including the earth, revolved around a fixed sun, but he did not publish his On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres until 1543, the year of his death; it depicted his heliocentric view of universe. He had the Copernican hypothesis that the sun not the earth was at the center of the universe. UNiverse is large and the Earthly world is different from the heavenly world.

Mary Wollstonecraft

he is a young writer in London that wrote the Vindication of Rights of Men and The Vindication of Rights of Woman. She was angered by Burke's piece. Determined to be independent in a society that expected women of her class to become obedient wives.

Open-field system

is the system of dividing the land to be cultivated into several large fields and then cut up into several narrow strips. There were no barriers between the fields, open fields. The whole peasant village followed the same pattern of plowing, sowing and harvesting. Fields were farmed as a community. Each family plowed, sowed and harvested in accordance with tradition and the village leaders. Crops were rotated and some fields were left empty. Other fields were set aside for hay or pasture. The major problem was soil exhaustion due to loss of nitrogen and lack of fertilizer or manure. Wheat was planted year after year in a field will deplete nitrogen in the soil, the supply of manure for fertilizer was limited. The only way for the land to recover was to lie fallow or empty for a period of time. Peasants had a tough time getting enough to feed family and handle other obligations.

The Renaissance Artist

it was a great way to improve status. Their social status was on the rise(great lives). They worked for commision. Generally were respected and rewarded and could live quite nicely off their talents. Often signed their works and sometimes even put themselves in paintings. Michelangelos(David) nudity that is part of the Renaissance.

Blood sports

popular with the 18th century European masses, events such as bull baiting and cockfighting that involved inflicting violence and bloodshed on animals.

Olympe De Gouges

published her "Declaration of the Rights of Woman," a direct challenge to revolutionaries to respect the ideals of the great 1789 declaration. Her arguments found little sympathy among the Revolution's leaders, as the vast majority of legislators and ordinary Frenchmen believed that women should focus on their domestic duties.

Great Fear

the fear of noble reprisals against peasant uprisings that seized the French countryside and led to further revolt. Peasants began to rise in insurrection against their lords, ransacking manor houses and burning feudal documents that recorded their obligations. In some areas peasants reinstated traditional village practices, undoing recent enclosures and reoccupying old commonlands. They seized forests and taxes went unpaid. People feared outlaws and marauders. People didn't pay taxes and stole grain. Liberal nobles and middle class delegates at Versailles responded to peasant demands with a surprise maneuver on the night of August 4, 1789 because they were afraid to call on the king to restore order. The duke of Aiguillon urged equality in taxation and the elimination of feudal dues. All noble privileges ended. French peasantry achieved an unprecedented victory in the early days of revolutionary upheaval.

Carnival

the few days of revelry in Catholic countries that preceded Lent and that included drinking, masquerading, dancing and rowdy spectacles that turned the established order upside down.

National Assembly

the first French revolutionary legislature, made up primarily of representatives of the third estate and a few from the nobility and clergy, in session from 1789 to 1791.

Atlantic slave trade

the forced migration of Africans across the Atlantic for slave labor on plantations and in other industries; the trade reached its peak in the 18th century and ultimately involved more than 12 million Africans.

Just price

the idea that prices should be fair protecting both consumers and producers and that they should be imposed by government decree if necessary.

Copernican hypothesis

the idea that the sun, not the earth was the center of the universe.

Enclosure

the movement to fence in fields in order to farm more effectively at the expense of poor peasants who relied on common fields for farming and pasture. That price seemed too high too many poor rural people who had small, inadequate holdings or very little land at all. Traditional rights were precious to these poor peasants who used commonly held pastureland to graze livestock and marshlands or forest outside the village as a source for foraged goods that could make the difference between survival and famine in harsh times. Throughout the end of the 18th century,the new system was extensively adopted only in the Low Countries and England.

Viceroyalties

the name for the four administrative units of Spanish possessions in the Americas: New Spain, Peru, New Granada and La Plata.

Peace of Westphalia and Thirty Years War

the name of a series of treaties that concluded the Thirty Year's War in 1648 and marked the end of large-scale religious violence in Europe. Conflicts fought over religious faith receded. The treaties recognized the independent authority of more than three hundred German princes, reconfirming the emperor's severely limited authority. It legalized Calvinism. It was the end of large scale religious violence in Europe. The Holy Roman Empire was a confederation of hundreds of principalities independent cities, duchies and other polities loosely united under an elected emperor. United Provinces of NEtherlands were officially acknowledged as independent. Essentially HRE was now non-existent. Papacy denied the right to intervene with religious affairs of German princes. The uneasy truce between Catholics and Protestants created by the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 deteriorated as the faiths of various areas shifted. Peace of Augsburg had no mention of calvinists, increasing number of bishops-lutheran and catholics became uneasy. Lutheran princes of German states felt compelled to form the Protestant union and Catholics retaliated with the Catholic League. Each alliance was determined that the other should make no religious or territorial advances. The Augsburg agreement of 1555 became permanent, adding calvinism to catholicism and lutheranism as legally permissible creeds. The north German states remained Protestant and the south German states catholic.

Guild System

the organization of artisanal production into trade based associations or guilds each of which received a monopoly over its trade and the right to train apprentices and hire workers.

Reign of Terror

the period from 1793 to 1794 during which Robespierre's Committee of Public Safety tried and executed thousands suspected of treason and a new revolutionary culture was imposed. 40 thousand French men and women were executed or died in prison. 3 Hundred thousand suspects were arrested. It was presented as a necessary measure to save the republic, the Terror was a political weapon directed against all suspected of opposing the revolutionary government. The terror wasn't directed at any specific class. In addition the program of the terror also included the efforts to transform French citizens into true republican patriots by bringing the Revolutional into all aspects of everyday life. The government sponsored revolutionary art and songs as well as a new series of secular holidays and open festivals to celebrate republican virtue and a love of nations. They attempted to rationalize French daily life by adopting the decimal system for weights and measures and a new calendar based on ten day weeks. An important element of the cultural revolution was the campaign of dechristianization, which aimed to eliminate Catholic symbols and beliefs. Many churches were sold, clerics were humiliated and persecuted and religious images were destroyed. Fearful of the hostility aroused in rural France, Robespierre called for a halt to dechristianization measures in mid 1794.

Sultan

the ruler of the Ottoman Empire; he owned all the agricultural land of the empire and was served by an army and bureaucracy composed of highly trained slaves.

Illegitimacy explosion

the sharp increase in out-of wedlock births that occurred in Europe between 1750 and 1850, caused by low wages and the breakdown of community controls.

Industrious revolution

the shift that occurred as families in northwestern Europe focused on earning wages instead of producing goods for household consumption; this reduced their economic self-sufficiency but increased their ability to purchase consumer goods.

Proletarianization

the transformation of large numbers of small peasant farmers into landless rural wage earners.

Cameralism

view that monarchy was the best form of government that all elements if society should serve the monarch and that in turn the state should use its resources and authority to increase the public good.

Sans-culottes

were the peasants of france. They were nicknamed this because the poor wore pants instead of capris which is what culottes are. Robespierre used them to his advantage to gain popularity.