AP Euro Test: Chapters 10-17

Cuis region, eius religio

"Whose realm, his religion", meaning the religion of the ruler dictated the religion of the ruled.

Cavaliers

The name used by the Parlimentarians for the supporters of King Charles I and his son, Charles II during the English Civil War.

Maria Theresa of Austria

The only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg.

Congregationalists

The people who participated in Congregationalism, which is a division of Protestantism in which each church independently runs its own affairs.

Toleration

The practice of purposely allowing or permitting a thing of which one disapproves.

L'etat, c'est ,oi

"I am the State"

Popola minuto

"Little people." They composed of the lower economic classes.

Mercantilism

"the economic theory that trade generates wealth and is stimulated by the accumulation of profitable balances, which a government should encourage by means of protectionism." (Google)

Renaissance

(1375-1527, "rebirth") A time of transition from medieval to modern times. It was the revival of Greek and Roman teachings, including the development of Humanism. It was also a time of great development in the arts and social sciences.

Lorenzo the Magnificent

(Lorenzo de' Medici) Ruled Florence during the last quarter of the fifteenth century. He became a cautious and determined ruler after the assassination of his brother by the Pazzi, a rival family.

Pilgrim's Progress

A Christian allegory by John Bunyan, "The Pilgrim's Progress," is regarded as one of the most significant works of religious English literature. It has been translated in over 200 languages, and has never been out of print.

Johannes Vermeer

A Dutch painter who focused on middle-class life.

Spinoza

A Dutch philosopher who laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment of the 1700's.

Pieter Breughel the Elder

A Flemish Renaissance painter well-known for his landscapes and peasant scenes.

Montesquieu

A French Enlightenment philosopher. He is best known for his theory of separation of powers, which is nowadays implemented in many constitutions around the world.

Guise

A French ducal family that is partly responsible for the French religious wars. They were a Catholic family that wanted to end Calvinist influence.

Gaspard de Coligny

A French nobleman and admiral, but is best known for being a disciplined Huguenot leader.

Cardinal Richelieu

A French nobleman who ended up becoming a Secretary of State. He transformed France into a strong, centralized state and his chief foreign policy objective was to make sure France was dominant during the Thirty Years' War.

Jacquerie

A French peasant uprising after a raise in the Taille

Voltaire

A French philosopher and Enlightenment writer famous for his attacks on the Catholic church and his beliefs in freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state.

Diderot

A French philosopher and prominent figure during the Enlightenment. He is best known for being the co-founder and chief editor and contributor to the Encyclopédie.

Rousseau

A Genevan philosopher who's political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological, and educational thought.

Thomas a Kempis

A German canon regular who is the author of the Imitation of Christ, a book which proved to be influential for centuries.

John Knox

A Scottish clergyman who was a leader during the Protestant Reformation. He is believed to be the founder of the Presbyterian denomination in Scotland.

John Law

A Scottish economist who believed that money was the only means of exchange and that national wealth depended on trade.

Hume

A Scottish philosopher during the Enlightenment. He is regarded as one of the most important figures in the Scottish Enlightenment, as well as the philosopher who is "widely regarded as the greatest who has ever written in the English language."[

Michael Servetus

A Spanish man of much knowledge in many fields, Michael Servetus participated in the Protestant Reformation and later developed a nontrinitarian Christology. He was condemned by both Catholics and Protestants, and was eventually burned at the stake in Geneva as a heretic.

Duke of Alba

A Spanish title of nobility.

Peninsulares

A Spanish-born Spaniard residing in the New World or the Spanish East Indies.

Spanish Fury

A bloody pillage by Spanish soldiers of cities in the Low Countries.

Novum Organum

A book originally published in Latin by Francis Bacon. He detailed a new system of logic called the Baconian Method.

Grebel and Swiss Brethren

A branch of Anabaptists that reject baptism as an adult. Their branch started in Ulrich, Germany.

Escorial

A castle of the King of Spain. It still functions today as a monastery, royal palace, museum, and school.

Naples

A city-state in Italy. After Ludovico il Moro gained power in Milan, the peace between it and Naples had ceased. Ludovico told the French to come reclaim Naples, to take it down, but he did not realize that the French also had dynastic claims to Milan, as they did Naples.

Milan

A city-state in Italy. Around 1490, after the rise to power by despot Ludovico il Moro, hostilities between it and Naples resumed. Eventually, Ludovico asked for help from the French, starting the French invasions of Italy.

Venice

A city-state in Italy. It was relatively tranquil compared to the other four major city-states in Italy during the renaissance. It was never trusted by the other Papal States.

Don Quixote

A comedic book about a man who sets out to find chivalry with the assistance of a farmer.

Raison d'état

A country's ambitions, whether militarily, economically, or culturally. It is National Interest, but is often described in French.

Theodore Beza

A disciple of John Calvin who opposed absolute monarchy.

Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg

A dynasty of kings and dukes that ruled from 1415 until 1918.

Bourbon

A dynasty that first ruled Navarre and France. Currently, Spain and Luxembourg have Spanish monarchs.

Popish Plot

A fictitious conspiracy by Titus Oates that alleged an extensive Catholic conspiracy to assassinate Charles II.

Enlightened Absolutism

A form of absolute monarchy or despotism inspired by the Enlightenment.

Table of Ranks

A formal list of positions and ranks in the military, government, and court of Imperial Russia.

Kant

A german philosopher who is widely considered to be a central figure of modern philosophy. He argued that fundamental concepts structure human experience, and that reason is the source of morality.

Defenestration of Prague

A group of Protestants threw the two Catholic councilors and Philip Fabricus out of a palace window. This triggered the series of wars in Bohemia.

German pietists

A group of people in Germany who combined the aspects of Lutheranism with living a rigorous Christian life.

Anabaptists

A group of people who believe in baptism during adulthood. They were heavily persecuted during the Reformation and many were burned at the stake.

Spiritualists

A group of people who believe that the spirits of the dead have the ability and desire to communicate with the living.

Jansenists

A group of people who believed in original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination. Their beliefs were heavily criticized by the Jesuits.

Tories

A group of people who opposed the Whig-supported Exclusion Bill which set out to disinherit the future James II.

Antitrinitarians

A group of people who reject the idea of the Holy Trinity, the idea that God is three distinct persons who are co-eternal, co-equal, and indivisibly united in one being.

Jacob Burckhardt

A historian of art and culture. He was an influential figure of historiography in both these fields.

Ulrich Zwingli

A leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. He was influenced by the writings of Erasmus, and is the founder of Zwinglism. His beliefs were very similar to those of Martin Luther, but Zwingli did not believe that the bread and wine in the Eucharist became the body and blood of Christ.

Grand Remonstrance

A list of oppositions by Parliament of King Charles I. When he finally asked for help, Parliament responded with these 204 points of opposition, which they forced Charles I to resolve/address.

Petition of Right

A list of specific liberties that the king is prohibited from infringing.

Noble savage

A literary stock character that depicts human's innate goodness as a person who has not been corrupted by civilization or outside thought.

Society of Letters

A long-distance intellectual community in the late 1600's and 1700's in Europe and America. Members were called "philophes" in France. It was a self-proclaimed community of scholars and literary figures that stretched across national boundaries but respected differences in language and culture.

Florence

A major city-state in Italy during the Renaissance. Produced many famous works of art, and was practically ruled by the Medici family for its entire Renaissance existence. It had a very strong government under their rule, and was very wealthy as well.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572)

A massacre that began with a targeted group of assassinations against the Huguenots that was followed by a wave of Catholic mob violence. It was intended to eliminate several Huguenot leaders, but it ended up spreading out of Paris into the countryside where in total 5,000-30,000 people were killed.

Diet of Worms

A meeting in Worms, Germany in 1521 which addressed Martin Luther about the Protestant Reformation. He was excommunicated but escaped before he could be arrested.

Boyars

A member of the highest rank of certain feudal aristocracies, second only to the ruling princes.

Wallenstein

A military leader and politician who offered help to Ferdinand II during the Thirty Years' War.

Louis XIII

A monarch of the House of Bourbon that served as King of Navarre from 1610-1620 and King of France from 1610-1643. He is known for putting an end to the rise of the French nobility.

Popolo grosso

A newly rich merchant class, who's name literally translates to, "fat people." Towards the late thirteenth to early fourteenth centuries, they began to challenge the old rich, or "grandi," for political power.

Prince of Conde

A noble French dynasty that was descended from a single ancestor.

Junkers

A noble honorific, which means, "young lord."

Battle of Lepanto (1571)

A painting of the Battle of Lepanto by Juan Luna. He was one of the first Europeans to earn recognition around the world as a painter.

Age of Reason

A pamphlet written by Thomas Paine that challenges institutionalized religion and the validity of the Bible.

Short Parliament

A parliament of England that sat for three weeks during the reign of Charles I, hence the name, "Short" Parliament.

Taille

A peasantry tax which no peasants had say in. It was controlled by the privileged classes.

Golden Age of Spain (1516-1659)

A period of flourishing in the arts and literature of Spain, coinciding by the rise and decline of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty.

Whigs

A political party that originated from constitutional monarchy who opposed absolute rule.

American Revolution

A political rebellion against Britain by the Thirteen Colonies from 1765 to 1783. It was the birth of the United States of America.

French Academy

A pre-eminent French learned body on matters pertaining to the French language. It was suppressed during the French Revolution but was restored by Napoleon Bonaparte.

Baldassare Castiglione

A prominent Renaissance author who is most famous for The Book of the Courtier

Deism

A rejection of religious knowledge as a source of authority with the belief that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to determine the existence of a single creator of the universe.

Oliver Cromwell: Lord Protector

A relatively tolerant, but very religious Puritan, Oliver Cromwell played an important role in the New Model Army. His major defeats against the Cavaliers had him promoted from the leader of a single cavalry group to one of the principal commanders of the New Model Army.

Modern Devotion

A religious reform calling for apostolic renewal. However, it was shot down by the Protestant reformers during the Protestant Reformation.

Bill of Rights (1689)

A restatement of the Declaration of Right in statutory form. It invited William III and Mary II to be joint sovereigns of England.

Fronde

A series of civil wars in France from 1648-1653 occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish war. He confronted the combined opposition of the princes, the nobility, the law courts, and most of the French people, but won in the end.

Navigation Acts

A series of laws that prevented foreign trade in the Thirteen Colonies. They were formed in an effort to restrict relationships between foreign countries (other than Britain) and its colonies.

Test Act

A series of penal laws formed as a religious test for public office that imposed disabilities on Roman Catholics and Nonconformists.

Puritan Revolution (1642-49); English Civil War

A series of wars between the Parlimentarians ("Roundheads") against the Royalists ("Cavaliers") primarily over the principle of England's government.

Religious Wars

A series of wars from 1524 to 1648 following the onset of the Protestant Reformation. Not all of the wars were directly connected to changing religious views, however, if not directly connected, they were due to the conflict and rivalry that the change in views produced.

The Thirty Years' War

A series of wars in central Europe that turned out to be some of the most destructive in European history. In the beginning it was a war between the Catholic states and Protestant states of the Holy Roman Empire, but it ended up involving all of the major powers of Europe, becoming less about religion and more about the France-Habsburg rivalry for political power.

Revolt of the Netherlands (1573)

A successful revolt of the Protestant Low Countries against the Roman Catholic King Phillip II of Spain who had inherited Seven Provinces from the Duchy of Burgundy.

Stadtholder

A term for "steward" or "lieutenant" that developed into a rare type of de facto hereditary head of state.

Empiricism

A theory in which knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience.

Peace of Augsburg

A treaty between Charles V and Schmalkaldic League that made the division of Christendom legal in the Holy Roman Empire.

Wet nurses

A woman who breastfeeds an infant that is not her own.

Two Treatises of Government

A work of contract theory by John Locke. The first treatise refutes, sentence-by-sentence, Robert Filmer's Patriarcha, while the second outlines Locke's ideas for a more civilized society based on natural rights and contract theory.

Charles XII of Sweden

A young an inexperienced king, he went to war with his foes, and with the backing of the formidable Swedish army, he forced all of his foes into submission except Russia.

Transubstantiation

According to the Catholic Church, the change when the wine and bread of the Eucharist become the body and blood of Christ.

Beccaria

An Italian criminologist, jurist, philosopher, and politician who is best known for his condemnation of torture and the death penalty in his treatise "On Crimes and Punishments."

Smith

Adam Smith was a Scottish philosopher during the Enlightenment best known for his works of "The Theory of Moral Sentiments" (1759), and "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776).

Rebellion in Ireland

After a failed attempt for a coup d'état against the Catholic government in England, the Irish Catholics and Scottish Protestants started attacking each other.

Print Culture

All forms of printed text and printed forms of visual communication.

Toleration Act (1689)

Allowed freedom of worship to Nonconformists who pledged oaths of Allegiance and Supremacy and rejected transubstantiation.

Peasants' Revolt (1525)

Also called the German Peasants' War, the Peasants' Revolt of 1525 was a popular uprising by peasants in German-speaking countries in central Europe, but failed due to the intense opposition of the aristocracies.

Ptolemaic system

Also called the geocentric model, the Ptolemaic system is a description of the universe in which Earth is the orbital center.

Seven Years War

Also known as the French and Indian War, the Seven Years War involved most of the great powers at the time and affected Europe, North America, Central America, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. It started when Great Britain attacked French land in North America and seized hundreds of French ships.

Rococo

An 18th century artistic movement and style, developed in the early eighteenth century in Paris, France as a response to the grandeur of the Baroque style, namely the Palace of Versailles.

Incas

An Empire in the New World. They dominated Andean South America.

Aztecs

An Empire in the New World. They dominated Mesoamerica and believed that Hernan Cortes was a god who had promised to return centuries before.

Locke (1690)

An English philosopher and physician who is regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and is known as, "The Father of Classical Liberalism."

Milton

An English poet best known for his text, Areopagitica; a defense of free speech and freedom of the press. He is also well known for his epic poem, Paradise Lost.

Gian Bernini

An Italian artist and architect who was popular in Rome, Gian is credited with developing the Baroque style of sculpture.

Mazarin

An Italian cardinal, diplomat, and politician who served as the chief minister of France from 1642 until his death. He succeeded cardinal Richelieu.

Montmorency-Chatillions

One of the oldest and most distinguished noble families in France.

Catherine de Medici

An Italian noblewoman who became Queen of France. She was the mother of three sons who became kings during her lifetime, so it is speculated about how much political and influential power she had on France.

Titian

An Italian painter as well as the most important member of the sixteenth-century Venetian School.

Marsilius of Padua

An Italian scholar who was trained in medicine. His political treatise Defensor pacis is regarded as one of the most revolutionary political treatise written in the latter Middle Ages.

Stamp Act

An act by the British Parliament that imposed a direct tax on many printed materials that the British Colonies produced. They were to be printed on a special stamped paper that was produced in London.

Golden Bull

An agreement between Emperor Charles IV and the major German territorial rulers to establish a seven member electoral college that also functioned as an administrative body.

Pacification of Ghent (1576)

An alliance of the Habsburg Netherlands to drive out Spanish troops. It was also written to promote a peace treaty between the rebelling provinces of Holland and Zeeland.

Parisian salons

An annual or biannual art exhibition at the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris, France that was the greatest in the world between 1748 and 1890.

New Model Army

An army that was established by the Parlimentarians during the English Civil War. It was different from other armies in that it was liable for service in any part of Ireland, Scotland, or England, instead of a specific part/area.

Donatello

An early Renaissance sculptor who developed advancements in perspective illusionism in the 15th-century.

Capitalism

An economic system in which trade, industry, and the means of production are largely or entirely privately owned and operated for profit.

Laissez Faire

An economic system in which transactions between private parties are free from intrusive government restrictions, tariffs, and subsidies, with only enough regulations to protect property rights.

Plantation System

An economy based on agricultural mass production, usually made up of a few products grown on large farms called plantations.

Pragmatic Sanction

An edict by Charles VI insuring that the Habsburg dominions could be inherited by a daughter.

Physiocrats

An enlightened theory developed in the 1700's by French economists that believed that the wealth of nations was solely derived from the value of land agriculture and that agricultural products should be highly priced.

Paradise Lost

An epic poem written in blank verse by John Milton. His purpose for writing it is stated in Book I, "[to] justify the ways of God to men".

New Atlantis

An incomplete utopian novel by Francis Bacon that detailed his vision of human discovery and knowledge.

Magyars

Another word for "Hungarians."

William Laud

Archbishop of Canturbury during Charles I's rule from 1633. He was autocratic, and was executed in 1645.

Rise of nation-states

As feudal society continued its downward spiral, nation-states, similar to countries today, developed, and were comprised of united city-states.

Francis II

Ascended to the throne at age 15 after accidental death of his father. He oversaw a great loss of French territory, and was unable to ease the tensions between Catholics and Protestants.

Astronomy

Astronomy is the study of the universe.

Machiavelli

Author of The Prince. He was an avid student of Ancient Rome, and was impressed by the way they defended their homeland. He also watched Italy be invaded by its neighboring nation-states, which is why he wrote The Prince as a book of advice on how to govern. It primarily used Ancient Roman philosophy.

Baroque art and music

Baroque art is easily described as gaudy.

Baroque Art

Baroque art is the type of art that is very gaudy; great attention to detail is combined with a sense of darkness.

Humanism

Belief that all people have the ability to contribute to the betterment of society.

Hobbes

Believed in absolutism, and developed some of the fundamental ideas of European liberal thought. He is the author of Leviathan.

Charles I

Believed in the Divine Right of Kings which caused him to quarrel with Parliament. He was the king of Scotland, Ireland, and England until his execution in 1649. His rule seemed similar to Catholic beliefs, while ruling a Protestant kingdom, and eventually his marriage to a Roman Catholic sealed his death amongst the other religious groups in his kingdom.

Economy of exploitation

Black slavery was the final mode of forced labor. It had worked in the past with the Spanish and Portuguese, and it worked in the New World.

Stuarts (common traits)

Both James I and Charles I of England were of the House of Stuart. They were both unfavored monarchs, with no religious tolerance, with Charles I even being executed in 1649.

Bacon

Called the father of empiricism. He developed the Baconian Method, now known as the Scientific Method.

Calvinism

Calvinism is a major branch of Protestantism. It is very similar to Lutheranism, except it does not teach that the bread and wine in the Eucharist become the body and blood of Christ.

Jansenists

Catholics whose beliefs resembled some aspects of Protestantism. They hated the Jesuits. Louis XIV shut them down.

Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo da Vinci was a true master of many skills. He is most famous for his painting the Mona Lisa, for his ability to convey complex inner moods in art.

Louis XI

Charles VII's successor. He was ruthless, but with the assistance of a permanent professional army, a strong economy, diplomatic corps, and national administration, he had the ability to make France a great power.

Columbus

Christopher Columbus was the first person to discover the Americas.

Rise of towns

City-states were comprised of towns. They were much more organized and advanced, as well as efficient.

Leviathan

Comparably ranked to The Prince by Machiavelli, Leviathan established social-contract theory, which is the foundation of most Western political philosophy.

Charles III

Considered a proponent of enlightened absolutism, Charles III was the King of Spain and the Spanish Indies from 1759 to 1788. He ruled Spain during much of the American Revolution and Europe's overseas expansion.

Edward VI

Crowned at age 9, King Henry VI was England's first Protestant monarch. Due to his age, England was governed by a Regency Council. His reign marked economical problems and much political and social unrest.

Ivan the Terrible

Crowned first Tsar of All Russians. Historical sources give different accounts on him, some say he was a great ruler that made it through many political changes, while others say he was plagued by mental illness.

Witch Hunts

During the Scientific Revolution, over six-thousand women were executed as witches. The most famous witch hunt was during the summer of 1692, in Salem, MA.

France

During the religious wars, France's wars consisted primarily of French Catholics fighting the Huguenots, which were Protestant.

Spain

During the religious wars, Spain always remained Catholic. Their major war was the Spanish Armada's attack against England; Spain was defeated, and this lead England to decide to improve their navy to be hegemonic. Spain's defeat also ended up to be a blow against the Counter-Reformation.

England

During the religious wars, at some points Protestants did rise up successfully, but they could not grasp a firm foothold and Catholics always ended up winning.

Education and Literacy

Education and Literacy rapidly improved during the Reformation due to the expansion of the printing press.

Civic Humanism

Education should promote individual virtue and public service.

Elizabeth I

Elizabeth I set out to rule by good counsel. She established an English Protestant church, and became famous for not producing an heir to her throne. She had religious tolerance, and overall was well loved by her people.

Maximilian I

Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire from 1508 to 1519. However, he was never crowned as Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope.

Treaty of Aix la Chapelle

Ended the War of Devolution between France and Spain.

Huguenots

Essentially French Calvinists.

Long Parliament

Established in 1640 to pass financial bills.

Humanism's affect on the Reformation

Humanism changed the lens people viewed life with, which weakened the Catholic Church. This gave the people more power, which gave them the confidence to speak against the Catholic Church and to come up with their own beliefs.

Changing family life

Family became much more centered and important. The role of women changed dramatically as a result of the gaining importance of family.

League of Augsburg

Founded in 1686 to halt Louis XIV's expansive rule.

Francis I vs. Charles V (1515-1559)

Francis I of France and Charles V of the Holy Roman empire fought tremendously during the religious reformation. They both ruled very large territories that extended into the New World, and their fighting during the Italian Wars is believed to have lead to the development of the first modern professional army in Europe.

Frederick II the Great of Prussia

Frederick is best known for his military victories, his reorganization of Prussian armies, his support of the Enlightenment in Prussia, and his success in the Seven Years' War

Galileo

Galileo Galilei made many accomplishments throughout his lifetime. He made advancements to the telescope, and is considered the father of modern physics. His support of a heliocentric universe during a time in which people believed in either geocentricism or the Tychonic System caused him to be put on house arrest for the rest of his life, which is where he made his most important discoveries and wrote his most important works.

Giotto

Giotto was a painter and architect during the Late Middle Ages in Florence. He is the first great painter to contribute to the Renaissance.

Indulgences

Given out by the Catholic Church to relieve people of their sins or to lessen their sentence in Purgatory. Originally given to soldiers who fought in the Crusades due to the inability for a Priest to perform the person's Last Rites, indulgences ended up being sold for money during the Reformation.

Great Britain v. France

Great Britain and France were enemies during the time of overseas expansion; they both were in competition to be the largest empire in the world. They both had great amounts of land in the New World, and during the Seven Years War, both were opposing coalitions.

Louis XIV

He believed in the Divine Right of Kings, and continued to work for a centralized state governed from a capital. He worked to eliminate the remnants of feudal society from rural areas and France, and pacified the aristocracy by compelling many nobles to inhabit his Palace of Versailles.

Lorenzo Valla

He exposed the fraud of Donation, written in the eighth century. However, he did not intend his exposure to have the devastating power that the Protestants later attributed to it.

Benvenuto Cellini

He is famous for writing an autobiography and being an artist of Mannerism.

Michelangelo

He is one of the most renowned Renaissance painters. He is most famous for his eighteen foot tall statue of David, which was completed without a model, to symbolize the Renaissance thought of the "perfect man."

Pope Julius II

He succeeded Alexander VI as Pope. He suppressed the Borgia family and put Romagna under Papal Jurisdiction. He also raised the Renaissance papacy to its peak power, which earned him the nickname, "warrior pope."

Richard III

He unsurped the English throne from King Edward IV's son.

James I

James I was uniquely positioned to inherit both the throne of Scotland and the throne of England. He felt strongly for both kingdoms to be ruled under a single Parliament, and witnessed the start of the British colonization of the Americas.

El Greco

One of the supreme representatives of mannerism.

Copernicus

He was a Renaissance mathematician and scientist that came up with the idea of a heliocentric universe; the idea that the sun is the orbital center, rather than the earth.

Boccaccio

He wrote Decameron and On Famous Women. He was a Renaissance Humanist.

Mississippi Bubble Company

Held a business monopoly in French colonies in North America and the West Indies. It became one of the earliest examples of an economic bubble.

Henry VIII

Henry VIII separated the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. He dissoluted the monasteries, and proclaimed himself as the Supreme Head of the Church of England.

Leopold I Habsburg

Holy Roman Emperor, King of Hungary and Croatia and King of Bohemia from 1658-1705.

Principia Mathematica

In Principia Mathematics, Sir Isaac Newton formulated his three laws of motion and his laws on universal gravitation. It laid the foundations for classical mechanics.

Religious Humanism

Integration of humanist philosophy with religious rituals and beliefs regarding human nature.

Edict of Nantes (1598)

Issued by Henry IV of France, the Edict of Nantes granted substantial rights to Calvinist Protestants in a mostly Catholic nation.

Women in the Enlightenment

It is debated how much women were oppressed during the Enlightenment. It is known that Middle Class and Noble women had a higher chance of participating in the public sphere, but it is unknown if they played little to no role or if they had some power in the background.

John Tetzel

Johann Tetzel became the Grand Commissioner for indulgences in Germany, and it was speculated that he gave them out in exchange for money.

Kepler

Johannes Kepler was a key figure during the Scientific Revolution. He is best known for his laws of planetary motion.

Bunyan (1628-1688)

John Bunyan was an English Christian writer and preacher. He is best known for "The Pilgrim's Progress," one of the most famous published Christian allegories.

John Calvin

John Calvin was an influential French theologian who broke from the Roman Catholic Church to join the religious reform. He is the founder of Calvinism.

Locke

John Locke also was a major contributor to the Scientific Revolution, and his belief in empiricism and social contract theory influenced many Enlightenment thinkers and American revolutionaries. His ideas are highlighted in the Constitution.

Mary II

Joint regnant of England with William III from 1689 until her death. Both were Protestant.

Philip V

King of Spain from 1700- January 1724, when he abdicated in favour of his son Louis, and from September 1724, when he assumed the throne again upon his son's death, to his own death.

Locke

Known as the "Father of Classical Liberalism," John Locke followed the ideas of Francis Bacon and is equally as important to social-contract theory. His ideas were so influential that they are reflected in the Declaration of Independence.

William Pitt

Leader of the British Cabinet during the Seven Years War. He devoted himself to victory over France, which upon occurrence, solidified British dominance over world affairs.

Revocation of Edict of Nantes

Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685 in order to shut down the Protestants. He was Catholic, and did not want Protestants practicing in his land.

War of Devolution

Louis XIV's army overran the Spanish-controlled Netherlands and France-Comte, but was forced to give most of it back by a Triple Alliance of England, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic.

Maria Theresa

Maria Theresa carried out lasting reforms, establishing elementary schools, breaking the Jesuit monopoly on education, and removing universities from Church control, though she did oppose religious tolerance.

Women in the Reformation

Martin Luther believed that Christian women should want to be good people in society. Lots of the time, older women were accused of practicing witchcraft. The Protestant Reformation reduced access to convents, which changed the role of women during the 1500's.

Martin Luther

Martin Luther was a Catholic priest in Germany and a leader of the Protestant Reformation. He is the founder of Lutheranism. He wrote the 95 Theses. He translated the Bible into the Vernacular. He is considered the founder of the Reformation.

Wollstonecraft

Mary Wollstonecraft was an eighteenth-century English writer, philosopher, and advocate for women's rights. She is best known for "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" which asserts that women are not naturally inferior to men but appear to be because they lack education.

Condottieri

Military brokers. They sold mercenary armies to despots because despots could not trust the loyalty of a divided populace.

Mary I

Often called "Bloody Mary" because of her brutal executions of Protestants in England. She ultimately restored England to be Roman Catholic, but it was short lived; it was reversed after her death when Elizabeth I came to power.

Descartes

Often called the father of modern philosophy, his writings are still studied closely today. He is also known for the development of the Cartesian Plane, which is the modern day coordinate system used throughout modern mathematics.

Joseph II

Oldest son of Maria Theresa and brother of Marie Antoinette. He was named one of the three great Enlightenment monarchs. Dying without an heir, his brother, Leopold I, succeeded him to the Habsburg throne.

Boston Tea Party

On December 16, 1773, the Sons of Liberty dumped an entire shipment of tea from the East India Company into Boston Harbor in defiance of the Tea Act.

Dante Alighieri

One of the "Fathers of Humanism." He is the author of The Divine Comedy, which talks about the journey through Inferno (Hell), Purgatorio (Purgatory), and Paradiso (Heaven).

Petrarch

One of the "Fathers of Humanism." He rediscovered Cicero's letters, which credits him as initiating the Renaissance.

Charles V

One of the Holy Roman Empires. He strongly opposed the Protestant Reformation.

Pope John XXII

One of the Popes during the Great Schism. He was the second Avignon Pope.

Charles IV

One of the creators of the Golden Bull.

Pascal

One of the first inventors of the mechanical calculator. He made important contributions to the study of fluids, and clarified the concepts of pressure and vacuum.

Margaret Cavendish

One of the first women to publish under her own name, Margaret Cavendish published a dozen original works, even challenging philosophers Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes, and Robert Boyle.

Rembrandt van Rijn

One of the greatest painters and printmakers in European art and the most important in Dutch history.

William Shakespeare

One of the most famous writers of all time, he was very popular during the Renaissance. His most famous works include Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet, and Hamlet.

Cardinal Granvelle

One of the most influential European politicians after the appearance of Protestantism in Europe.

Newton

One of the most influential scientists of all time. Author of Principia Mathematica. He made many contributions to the founding of modern day calculus.

Philip II

Organized the Spanish Armada against England, and had possessions on every continent of the world then-known to Europeans.

Dutch school of art

Painters in the Netherlands from the early Renaissance to the Baroque periods.

Clarendon Code

Penal laws that took their most drastic shape during the reign of Charles II.

Challenges to the Church

People felt the power to challenge the church's explanation of things. Ever since the Black Death, people saw that what the church said wasn't always the truth, and eventually people wanted to explain things themselves.

New approach to philosophy and science

People started to look for ways to explain things themselves, instead of saying, "God did it."

Lollards

People who practiced Lollardy. Their demands were for reform of Western Christianity.

Defeat of the Spanish Armada

Philip II ordered the Spanish Armada to launch an invasion on Protestant England, but due to poor planning, the venture was unsuccessful and the Spaniards were defeated by the Englishmen.

Sacking of Rome

Pope Julius II drove the Venetians out of Rome in 1509 and finally secured the Papal States.

Frederick William, the Great Elector

Popularly known as "the Great Elector" because of his military and political strength.

Pope Alexander VI

Probably the most corrupt pope to ever sit on the throne, allowing the French to return to Italy. He made agreements with the French so that he and his family could have greater control of Romagna and the area around it.

Charles II

Prohibited from inheriting the throne after his father's death by Oliver Cromwell, he assumed his throne after the death of Cromwell with the restoration of the English monarchy.

Raphael

Raphael is famous for his great fresco, The School of Athens, which is located in the Vatican.

Inductive Reasoning

Reasoning in which the premises seek to supply strong evidence for (not absolute proof of) the truth of a conclusion.

Robert Walpole

Regarded as the first Prime Minister of Great Britain, as well as the longest serving Prime Minister of Great Britain, Robert Walpole's beliefs were called Robinocracy. His unique blending of new monarchs with the rising strength of the Commons is what likely contributed to his liking.

Parlements

Regional government bodies in France.

Peter the Great in Russia

Ruled the Tsardom of Russia from 1682 until his death, and expanded the Tsardom into a much larger empire that became a European power.

Experimentation

Scientists were able to perform experiments, but they were still very limited. Only one autopsy could be performed every year in Austria.

Colbert

Served as Minister of Finances of France from 1665 to 1683 under the rule of King Louis XIV. He is known for bringing back France's economy from the brink of bankruptcy.

Mary, Queen of Scots

She acceded to the throne at six days old, and spent most of her childhood in France while Scotland was ruled by regents.

Newton

Sir Isaac Newton founded calculus the laws of gravitation. He was a major contributor to the Scientific Revolution and to the Enlightenment.

Slavery

Slavery started with the enslavement of Africans and their trip to the New World. They were kept under very brutal and harsh conditions on the boat, and upon arrival, were sold to plantation owners in need of laborers. Their labor allowed the quick and profitable production of cash crops such as tobacco and cotton, which is what allowed the New World to prosper and eventually become the United States of America.

Austria v. Prussia

The Austria-Prussia rivalry is believed to have begun after Frederick II's invasion of Silesia, which was a violation of the Pragmatic Sanction. This started the Silesian Wars against Maria Theresa, which in the end Maria Theresa was forced to cede the bulk of the Silesian lands to Prussia.

Politique

Someone in a position of power who put the success and well-being of their state above all else.

The War of Austria Succession

Started after the attempt of Maria Theresa to succeed her father to the Habsburg throne after his death. It involved most of the powers of Europe because even with the Pragmatic Sanction leaving the throne to Maria Theresa, Salic law precluded royal inheritance by a woman. It included King George's War in North America, the war of Jenkins' Ear, the First Carnatic War in India, and the First and Second Silesian Wars.

Bohemian Period

Started when an assembly of Protestants threw the two Catholic councilors and Philip Fabricus out of a palace window. The Bohemian Period marked the series of wars in Bohemia that were fought between Protestants and Catholics.

Borgia

The Borgia was the family of Pope Alexander VI. They held the city-state of Romagna, in north central Italy. A trade-off between the Borgia and the French allowed Romagna to gain political strength.

Counter-Reformation

The Counter-Reformation was the revival of Catholicism beginning with the Council of Trent in response to the Protestant Reformation. However, it ended at the close of the thirty year's war.

Danish Period

The Danish Period was a time when the Danish assisted the Lutheran rulers of Lower Saxony to lead an army against the Imperial Forces in 1625.

English Reformation

The English Reformation was much more political than theologian, and started when King Henry VIII asked for the annulment of his marriage. The major events were when England broke its ties with Rome, and when England became a Protestant realm.

Estates General

The Estates General functioned as an advisory body to the king.

Swedish-French Period

The French agreed to support the Swedes with 1,000,000 livres a year in exchange for a Swedish army to maintain an army in Germany against the Habsburgs. They held territories on France's eastern border, and the French grew concerned about their strength.

Philosophe

The French word for a member of the Society of Letters.

Neoclassicism

The name given to Western movements that are inspired from classical art and culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

Holy Roman Empire

The Holy Roman Empire was the most heavily hit nation-state throughout the religious wars, being home to both the 30 Years' War and the Schmalkaldic Wars. Lutheran radicals were also present during the wars, adding another aspect to the bloodiness of the religious wars in the Holy Roman Empire.

Netherlands

The Netherlands managed to escape the first wave of the religious reformation, but when the Protestant Reformation came along, the Anabaptists were a major problem for the Netherlands. Becoming very popular, their views created much chaos throughout the country, but even after their persecution from around the world, they managed to survive throughout the centuries.

New Monarchy

The New Monarchy widened the gap between the King/Queen and the next social class. This gave the King or Queen much more power over their kingdom.

Versailles

The Palace of Versailles was built by King Louis XIV for the French royal family to live, where it became the center of Political power in France in 1682, until the royal family was forced to return to Paris in 1789.

Pensees

The Pensées were a defense of the Christian religion by Blaise Pascal.

Spanish Bourbon Reforms

The Spanish Bourbon reforms were a set of economic and political legislation in Spain under Bourbon rule during the 1700's. They were intended to modernize Spain and re-establish Spanish supremacy over the Creole colonies.

Triangle of Trade

The Triangle of Trade operated from the late 1500's to the early 1800's, being called a triangle because its major trade routes formed a triangle. Ships would sail from Europe to West Africa, enslave Africans, sail from West Africa to the Thirteen Colonies, the slaves would make goods, and then the ships would sail from the Thirteen Colonies to Europe, exporting the goods.

War of Spanish Succession (1701-14)

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714), fought between European powers, including a divided Spain, was fought over who had the right to succeed Charles II as King of Spain.

"School of Europe"

The advancements in education by Italian city-states.

Nonconformists

The name given to a Protestant Christian that did not "conform" to the government of England.

Miguel de Cervantes

The author of Don Quixote.

Predestination

The belief in Calvinism that people are called to faith in due time by God as well as the idea that people are predestined to go to Heaven or hell.

"One king, one church, one law"

The belief in one king that determines the religion and law of the kingdom.

Mechanism

The belief that all things are composed of smaller things that lack any intrinsic relationship to one another.

Scholasticism

The belief that the Bible is truth.

Divine right of kings

The belief that the king is chosen by God and therefore has the right to rule his kingdom.

Pantheism

The belief that the universe is identical with divinity.

Roundheads

The name given to the supporters of the Parliament during the English Civil War. They fought against King Charles I and his son, Charles II, who believed in absolute power and the Divine Right of Kings.

Medici

The dynasty that ruled Florence from 1434-1737 (303 years). They were a banking family, until Cosimo de' Medici rose to power. They produced four popes of the Catholic Church and two French Queens. Their biggest accomplishments were in the realm of art and architecture, as most Florentine masterpieces were produced under their reign.

Geocentric

The earth is the orbital center of the universe.

"Here I stand!"

The exclamation by Martin Luther at the Diet of Worms when he was asked to recant.

Henry IV of Navarre

The first French monarch of the House of Bourbon. He barely escaped assassination during the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre.

Michael Romanov of Russia

The first tsar from the House of Romanov. His reign marked the end of the Time of Troubles.

Encomienda

The formal grant of the right to the labor of a specific number of Indians.

Philip V

The grandson of Louis XIV, Phillip V was a threat to the balance of power in Europe because of the danger of the unification of France and Spain, which was followed with the fourteen-year War of Spanish Succession.

Social Contract

The idea that people give up their freedom for protection. They then hold the power. Our Constitution is based upon Social Contract Theory.

Exploration

The investigation of unknown regions.

Vernacular

The language spoken by ordinary people in a particular country, in this case it is used to refer to the language that Martin Luther translated the Bible into (German).

Brahe

The last of the naked eye astronomers, Tycho Brahe is believed to have been "the first competent mind in modern astronomy to feel ardently the passion for exact empirical facts."

Acts of Supremacy

The legislation that enacted King Henry VIII as the Supreme Head of the Church of England.

Catherine the Great

The longest lasting female ruler of Russia, Catherine the Great's reign is often called "Russia's Golden Age." She transformed Russia into one of the great powers of Europe, which it exists as still to this day.

William of Orange

The main leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish which is believed to have set off the Eighty Years' War.

Erasmus

The most famous northern humanist. He illustrated the importance of the printing press, through his educational and religious works. He made clear that Catholics wanted reformation long before the Reformation made them a reality.

Impact of the printing press

The printing press allowed for the mass production of books and literature. Before the printing press, every book was copied by hand, which took a long time, so any books that were copied were sacred, and most were the Bible. The printing press eased production, allowing the introduction of entertaining and "how-to" novels.

Deductive Reasoning

The process of reasoning from one or more statements to reach a logically certain conclusion.

Cuius region, eius religio

The religion of the ruler dictated the religion of the ruled. Came about during the Diet of Augsburg in 1555. Essentially, it meant that the ruler of a land determined its religion/

Diplomatic Revolution

The reversal of alliances between the War if the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War. Britain, Austria vs France, Prussia to France, Austria vs Britain, Prussia.

Ferdinand and Isabella

The rulers of Castile and Aragon. They married, and created a very formidable power that both France and Portugal opposed. They were able to do things they couldn't have done alone, such as Christianizing the whole of Spain.

Scientific Revolution

The scientific revolution is often cited to have begun with the publication of Copernicus' "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" and is believed to have ended with Newton's 1687 publication of "Principia."

Stages of empire-building

The stages of empire-building are the stages in which a country flourishes. It is believed to be a cycle, with some trying to predict present-day America's future based on previous events.

Platonism

The study of the works of Plato. It distinguished between an state of being and the perishable world where humans actually live.

Mannerism

The style of painting that allowed the artist to paint in an "affected" way, without a parallel in contemporary music and literature.

Glorious Revolution (1688)

The successful overthrow of King James II of England by the Parlimentarians with the assistance of the Dutch stadtholder William III.

King Edward VI

The successor and son of King Henry VIII, King Edward VI was the first English king to be raised a Protestant. He was crowned at age nine, so the English realm was ruled by a Regency Council.

Heliocentric

The sun is the orbital center of the universe.

Puritan Republic; Interregnum

The time between King Charles I's execution in 1649 and his son's ascendance to the throne in 1660.

Intendants

The title for a holder of a public administrative office.

Streltsy

The unit of Russian guardsmen from the 16th-18th century. They were armed with firearms.

Rationalism

The view that says reason is the chief source and test of knowledge.

States gaining power: Great Britain, France, Austria/Hapsburg Empire, Prussia, Russia

These states gained power because of their religious tolerance. They allowed Protestants to come into their kingdom and practice freely.

States declining power: Spain, Netherlands, Sweden, Poland, Ottoman Empire

These states had no religious tolerance: they still believed that the ruler got to chose the religion of the land. These states were either strictly Catholic or Muslim.

Treaty of Westphalia

These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire and ended the Eighty Years' war between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain agreeing to formally recognize the independence of the Dutch Republic.

Justification by Faith alone

This is the belief that you will go to Heaven if you believe in God. It is a belief started by Martin Luther.

Geneva

This is where John Calvin lead his religious reform. He was expelled for his attempt to reform the church, but was invited back to lead its church.

Bossuet

Which one? Both lived during the same time period... Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (1627-1704), French bishop and theologian Louis Bossuet (1663-1742), French parliamentarian

Treaty of Utrecht

This treaty was a series of documents signed by the belligerents of the War of Spanish Succession which aided in ceasing the war. They were signed in the Dutch city of Utrecht.

Conquistadores

Translates to "the conquerors." They were primarily interested in gold, but they soon realized that silver was the chief source of wealth.

Frederick I King in Prussia

Was a Duke, but was then upgraded to king, becoming the first king of Prussia.

Peter Paul Rubens

Well-known for his Counter-Reformation works of art.

Swedish Period

When Gustavus Adolphus assisted the German Lutherans, he ended up flipping the table on the Catholics and successfully invaded the Holy Roman Empire.

William of Orange

When he invaded England during the Glorious Revolution, after his successful deposing of James II, he established himself as the king of all three thrones.

Challenges to "Divine Right" in England

With recent bad monarchs, people started to want more power over the monarch, so many started discarding the idea of "Divine Right."

95 Theses

Written by Martin Luther in 1517, the 95 Theses are regarded as the initial catalyst of the Protestant Reformation. They condemn clerical abuses, including the sale of indulgences.

Discourse on Method

Written by René Descartes, this philosophical treatise is one of the most important texts of modern philosophy. He analyzed the idea of skepticism, and started his reasoning by doubting everything, to be able to look at the world with a fresh perspective without any prior knowledge/discoveries.

Map of territories of each religion

http://i266.photobucket.com/albums/ii269/theogrit/symbols/ReformationMap1564.png